contemporary history

CL4 English Language CL4 English Language and Culture for Businessand Culture for Business

Module IV B1Module IV B1

Contemporary Italian HistoryContemporary Italian History

Dr. Peter CullenDr. Peter Cullen

www.cl4englishlistening.wordpress.comwww.cl4englishlistening.wordpress.com

Memory and History: Perception Memory and History: Perception and Methodologyand Methodology

What is history?What is history?

�� The study of the pastThe study of the past

�� Contextualisation of social structures, Contextualisation of social structures, systems and eventssystems and events

�� Access to cultural understandingAccess to cultural understanding

�� An internalisation of the concept of timeAn internalisation of the concept of time


Why do we want to know about history?Why do we want to know about history?

curiositycuriosity

explanation about the presentexplanation about the present

prediction about the futureprediction about the future

Common perceptions: Common perceptions: a) history repeats itselfa) history repeats itself

b) we can learn from historyb) we can learn from history

to avoid making mistakes to avoid making mistakes

made in the pastmade in the past

WRONG!!!


Historical knowledge must respect historical contexts.Historical knowledge must respect historical contexts.

Historical knowledge is also culturally informed.Historical knowledge is also culturally informed.

CONTEXT AND CULTURAL VALUE CHANGE OVER TIMECONTEXT AND CULTURAL VALUE CHANGE OVER TIME

(Remember Bourdieu!!!)(Remember Bourdieu!!!)

So, historical knowledge CAN help us understand So, historical knowledge CAN help us understand periods in the past and understand context and periods in the past and understand context and situations in the present, but CANNOT obviate situations in the present, but CANNOT obviate mistakes or predict the future.mistakes or predict the future.

How CAN we trust what we learn about history?How CAN we trust what we learn about history?


What is historical thought?What is historical thought?

David HacketDavid Hacket--Fischer, Fischer, HistorianHistorian’’s Fallacies: Toward a s Fallacies: Toward a

Logic of Historical Thought Logic of Historical Thought (New York, Harper & (New York, Harper &

Row, 1970)Row, 1970)

““History is a problemHistory is a problem--solving discipline. A historian solving discipline. A historian

is someone (anyone) who asks an openis someone (anyone) who asks an open--ended ended

question about past events and answers it with question about past events and answers it with

selected facts which are arranged in the form of an selected facts which are arranged in the form of an

explanatory paradigmexplanatory paradigm””. (p. xv). (p. xv)


How do we know about historical How do we know about historical ““factsfacts””??

It depends on the questions we ask, where we look to It depends on the questions we ask, where we look to

answer those questions and the logical criteria we answer those questions and the logical criteria we

apply to the information we find to create an apply to the information we find to create an

explanation.explanation.

What questions can we ask?What questions can we ask?

This depends on what we want/need to know and This depends on what we want/need to know and

the CATEGORIES we apply to our questions.the CATEGORIES we apply to our questions.

Categories of inquiry are based on culturally informed Categories of inquiry are based on culturally informed

concepts of time, place, and significance.concepts of time, place, and significance.


For example:For example:

North American students learn about:North American students learn about:

1)1) MesopotamiaMesopotamia

2)2) Ancient EgyptAncient Egypt

3)3) Ancient GreeceAncient Greece

4)4) The Roman EmpireThe Roman Empire

5)5) Medieval England, Germany, France and CrusadesMedieval England, Germany, France and Crusades

6)6) Renaissance ItalyRenaissance Italy

7)7) Enlightenment courtsEnlightenment courts

8)8) The British and French EmpiresThe British and French Empires

9)9) The French RevolutionThe French Revolution

10)10) IndustrialisationIndustrialisation

11)11) WWI WWI –– USA, UK, Germany, FranceUSA, UK, Germany, France

12)12) WWII WWII –– USA, UK, Germany, JapanUSA, UK, Germany, Japan

13)13) A bit about pre WWII Soviet Russia and then the Cold A bit about pre WWII Soviet Russia and then the Cold WarWar

Development

Development

of d

emocra

cy

of d

emocra

cy


What makes a good story?What makes a good story?

Authority of the story teller.Authority of the story teller.

Relevance of the story to the audience. Relevance of the story to the audience.

Significance of the events of the story.Significance of the events of the story.

Credibility of the story.Credibility of the story.

History and its telling are no different.History and its telling are no different.


Teaching history fills a need in the knowledge market.Teaching history fills a need in the knowledge market.

Who identifies the need?Who identifies the need?

Who do you trust for the information?Who do you trust for the information?

a) the professional historiana) the professional historian

b) journalists and celebritiesb) journalists and celebrities

c) politiciansc) politicians

d) mum, dad, granny and grandpad) mum, dad, granny and grandpa

Who tells you the story you want to hear?Who tells you the story you want to hear?

Why do you trust them?Why do you trust them?

common analytical frameworkcommon analytical framework

personal relationshipspersonal relationships

coercion and/or availabilitycoercion and/or availability

others?others?


How do you know which story you want to hear?How do you know which story you want to hear?

1)1) Depends on the person who tells it.Depends on the person who tells it.

2)2) Depends your personal interest and imagination.Depends your personal interest and imagination.

3)3) Depends on the utility of the story to your context.Depends on the utility of the story to your context.

Is there an obbligation to provide the audience with the best Is there an obbligation to provide the audience with the best possible story possible story –– therefore the best possible historical therefore the best possible historical account?account?

Social utility of history: understanding or manipulating, or Social utility of history: understanding or manipulating, or something else?something else?

Relevant to what? Propaganda, current affairs, cultural Relevant to what? Propaganda, current affairs, cultural understanding, family history, macro and micro economic understanding, family history, macro and micro economic history.history.

History helps explain the way agents in society have behaved History helps explain the way agents in society have behaved in the past.in the past.


Relevance, significance and memoryRelevance, significance and memory

Relevance Relevance –– utility to the audienceutility to the audience

Significance Significance –– importance of the story to any other importance of the story to any other given contextgiven context

Memory Memory –– mental record of events, contexts, historical mental record of events, contexts, historical situations that selects relevent and significant situations that selects relevent and significant historical information.historical information.

a) memory of historical informationa) memory of historical information

b) significance of memory of historical informationb) significance of memory of historical information

Memory is part of any learning process. What Memory is part of any learning process. What information from the information from the ““contemporarycontemporary”” period is period is important to keep in memory?important to keep in memory?


Whose memory?Whose memory?

Individual memoryIndividual memory

Collective memoryCollective memory

Public memoryPublic memory

Private MemoryPrivate Memory

Memory, as part of the learning process, is culturally Memory, as part of the learning process, is culturally informed. Culture is necessarily dynamic, so the informed. Culture is necessarily dynamic, so the ““knowledge marketknowledge market”” changes.changes.

i.e. i.e. –– Today English is a global language because of business;Today English is a global language because of business;

in the 18in the 18°° century, French was century, French was –– because of politics;because of politics;

in the medieval period, Latin was, because of the in the medieval period, Latin was, because of the Church.Church.


Do all generations have the same needs for memory?Do all generations have the same needs for memory?

Can we identify the relevance of memory from Can we identify the relevance of memory from generation to generation?generation to generation?

i.e. i.e. What are the memories of postWhat are the memories of post--war Italy?war Italy?

What are the memories of postWhat are the memories of post--war Britain?war Britain?

What about the United States?What about the United States?

Is there a change in the convergence of relevance and Is there a change in the convergence of relevance and significance in Italian collective memory today?significance in Italian collective memory today?

If so If so –– why?why?


Credibility Credibility –– a mixture of logic and authoritya mixture of logic and authority

How can historical fact be manipulated?How can historical fact be manipulated?

Inclusion, omission, moralising,imposition or cry to Inclusion, omission, moralising,imposition or cry to authority.authority.

How can historical fact be confirmed?How can historical fact be confirmed?

Transparent demonstration of the logic applied to the inquiry Transparent demonstration of the logic applied to the inquiry and presentation of the facts.and presentation of the facts.

i.e. Robert Boyle (1627i.e. Robert Boyle (1627--1691) proposed that the pressure of a 1691) proposed that the pressure of a gas varies inversely to its volume at constant temperature gas varies inversely to its volume at constant temperature –– known as Boyleknown as Boyle’’s law. This became accepted as he s law. This became accepted as he became socially accepted in the Royal Academy in England.became socially accepted in the Royal Academy in England.

i.e.2 Galileoi.e.2 Galileo


Where do we get information about the past?Where do we get information about the past?

Sources: Sources: Primary Primary –– produced during the period produced during the period

studiedstudied

Secondary Secondary –– produced after the period produced after the period

studied but about the period studied but about the period

studiedstudied

Written documentsWritten documents

Visual documentsVisual documents

ArchitechtureArchitechture

Geology and natural scienceGeology and natural science

Oral historyOral history


Why is historical knowledge important for business?Why is historical knowledge important for business?

Concepts of time: Concepts of time: shortshort--term, mediumterm, medium--term, longterm, long--termterm

were developed in western traditionwere developed in western tradition

in the field of economic historyin the field of economic history

(Kondratieff, (Kondratieff, ““The long waves The long waves of economic lifeof economic life””, 1935; Braudel, , 1935; Braudel,

The Mediterranean... 1947)The Mediterranean... 1947)

Economics (macro and micro) is a form of behaviour based on Economics (macro and micro) is a form of behaviour based on cultural learning cultural learning –– which has its own cycles, convergences, which has its own cycles, convergences, events and conjunctures over time.events and conjunctures over time.

Historical knowledge helps contextualise and explain this in a Historical knowledge helps contextualise and explain this in a way we can understand in the present.way we can understand in the present.


Why is this knowledge important for business?Why is this knowledge important for business?

�� Businesses are social structuresBusinesses are social structures

�� Business involves culturally informed behaviourBusiness involves culturally informed behaviour

�� Business involves change over timeBusiness involves change over time

�� Business may involve international/intercultural Business may involve international/intercultural exchangeexchange

what else?what else?

�� History IS NOT predictiveHistory IS NOT predictive

�� Historical knowledge informs our understanding of Historical knowledge informs our understanding of the present.the present.


Memory and history: Who, What, Where, When, Why? Memory and history: Who, What, Where, When, Why? How? and WATCH OUT!!!How? and WATCH OUT!!!

Being critical of the story you are hearing.Being critical of the story you are hearing.

Understand the author.Understand the author.

Understand the events, situations and contexts Understand the events, situations and contexts presented.presented.

Understand the relevance and significance of the story Understand the relevance and significance of the story to you, the audience (or consumer) and the author to you, the audience (or consumer) and the author (or producer).(or producer).

Understand the presentation logic of the story.Understand the presentation logic of the story.

The business of culture has its own logic and cycles.The business of culture has its own logic and cycles.

!!!Think critically!!!!!!Think critically!!!

AbuAbu--LughudLughud’’ss 1313°° CenturyCentury World World SystemSystem

SoilSoil CharacteristicsCharacteristics in in ItalyItaly

GrainGrain HarvestHarvest in the in the MarchesMarches(1940(1940’’ss))

ThreshingThreshing GrainGrain (1940(1940’’s)s)

Water Water PoweredPowered FlourFlour MillMill

BakingBaking EquipmentEquipment (1950(1950’’s)s)

The The CattleCattle Market (1939)Market (1939)

A A LandLand--ownerowner on on HisHis HorseHorse

WomensWomens’’ Work?Work?

MensMens’’ Work? (Work? (transhumancetranshumance))

FieldField AccomodationsAccomodations forfor MigrantMigrantLabourersLabourers in in NorthernNorthern LazioLazio

ItalyItaly ComparedCompared toto World World Manufacturing OutputManufacturing Output

EuropeanEuropean InfrastructureInfrastructure and and DemographyDemography 18701870

ItalyItaly at at UnificationUnification, 1866, 1866--18701870

ColonialColonial EmpiresEmpires 18501850--19451945

UrbanUrban LandscapeLandscape in 1900: in 1900: SaltSalt and and Tabacco Tabacco MonopoliesMonopolies, The Bar, The Bar

ItalyItaly in WWIin WWI

�� EnteredEntered in 1915 after in 1915 after pressurepressure fromfrom UK and UK and FranceFrance

�� Motive Motive –– toto capturecapture or or receivereceive Trento, Trieste, and Trento, Trieste, and

Istria, Istria, DalmatiaDalmatia, and some , and some territoriesterritories in in TurkeyTurkey

((promisedpromised byby UK and UK and FranceFrance))

�� TheyThey foughtfought againstagainst the the AustroAustro--HungariansHungarians in the in the

AlpsAlps

ConsequencesConsequences::

�� 600,000 600,000 killedkilled

�� PostPost--warwar economiceconomic collapsecollapse withwith high high inflationinflation and and

unemploymentunemployment

�� ItalyItaly onlyonly receivedreceived Trento, Trieste, and Istria Trento, Trieste, and Istria ––

consideredconsidered a a ““mutilatedmutilated victoryvictory””

The The ItalianItalian CampaignCampaign –– FightingFighting in in the the AlpsAlps

�� AltitudeAltitude

�� TemperatureTemperature

�� TerrainTerrain

�� SemiSemi--PermanentPermanent winterwinter warwar

�� Little Little movementmovement –– intenseintense

labourlabour

The The ItalianItalian CampaignCampaign in the in the NorthNorth1915 1915 -- 19171917

The The ItalianItalian CampaignCampaign at the End of at the End of the War the War -- 19181918

ImperialImperial InterestsInterests in in NorthNorth Africa Africa -- WWIWWI

FascismFascism�� 1921, 1921, BourgeoisBourgeois socialistsocialist movementmovement

withoutwithout tiesties toto industryindustry or or agricultureagriculture

prone prone toto violentviolent conflictconflict withwith radicalradical socialistssocialists

�� 1921 1921 –– MussoliniMussolini’’s s attemptattempt toto makemake

a a pactpact withwith the the socialistssocialists failsfails ((internallyinternally))

The The MarchMarch on on RomeRome 2626--30/10/1922 30/10/1922 –– FascistsFascists under under MussoliniMussolini take controltake control

promptedprompted byby weakweak centralcentral governmentgovernment under Luigi under Luigi FactaFacta and a and a generalgeneral strike strike calledcalled byby the the socialistssocialists ––MussoliniMussolini seizesseizes the moment the moment forfor FascistFascist squadssquads totobreak the strikebreak the strike

Vittorio Emmanuele Vittorio Emmanuele ““invitesinvites”” the the FascistsFascists toto RomeRome bybyrefusingrefusing toto signsign a a decreedecree supressingsupressing theirtheir ““marchmarch”” bybyforce force

((thisthis receivesreceives supportsupport fromfrom EnglandEngland and the US and the US asas anan antianti--communistcommunist solutionsolution. The New York . The New York TimesTimes calledcalled MussoliniMussolini““Garibaldi in a Black Garibaldi in a Black ShirtShirt””))

FacsismFacsism and the and the EconomyEconomy 19221922--19431943

�� MonetaryMonetary policypolicy isis orthodoxorthodox –– basedbased on gold standard and on gold standard and tendingtendingtoto increaseincrease liquidityliquidity = = createscreates inflationinflation

�� Fiscal Fiscal policypolicy 11°° emphasisesemphasises balancedbalanced budget budget thenthen increasesincreases public public spendingspending asas centralcentral authorityauthority increasesincreases

�� The The FascistFascist govtgovt. . MustMust repayrepay war war debtdebt toto US and UK and US and UK and reachedreached a a repaymentrepayment accordaccord in 1925 of in 1925 of nominalnominal favourfavour butbut relative relative severityseverity((untiluntil whichwhich no FDI)no FDI)

�� AprilApril, 1926 , 1926 –– the the LiraLira tankstanks butbut MussoliniMussolini isis ableable toto scale back scale back pricesprices and and wageswages –– withoutwithout greatgreat difficultydifficulty. . BenefitsBenefits of of dictatorshipdictatorship

�� 19271927--28 = relative 28 = relative currencycurrency stabilitystability butbut industryindustry isis fragmentedfragmentedand and artisanalartisanal::

and the 1929 Stock Market Crashand the 1929 Stock Market Crash

�� HitsHits gold standard gold standard economieseconomies hardhard

�� MussoliniMussolini –– likelike the US etc. the US etc. ManagesManages toto savesave the the economyeconomy through through public public spendingspending (war in (war in EthiopiaEthiopia) and ) and economiceconomic developmentdevelopmentprojectsprojects

�� More money More money printedprinted = = inflationinflation = 10/1936 = 10/1936 ItalyItaly abandonsabandons the gold the gold standardstandard

�� Price and Price and wagewage discipline discipline keepskeeps the the economyeconomy afloatafloat internallyinternally

�� WWII WWII allowsallows massivemassive public public spendingspending ((alsoalso on on industrialindustrial goodsgoods))

WagesWages in the in the FascistFascist PeriodPeriodWAGESWAGES ((indexindex 1913 = 100 at 1913 = 100 at constantconstant prices)prices)

totaltotalprivateprivateconsumptionconsumption IVIV catcat . XII . XII catcat..perper capitacapita dayday labourlabour factoriesfactories railrail state state empemp. state . state emp.emp.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

19231923 115115 129129 133 145 67 133 145 67 9494

1925 1925 116116 113113 126 135 75 126 135 75 8080

1927 1927 118118 123123 125 140 75 125 140 75 7878

1929 1929 122122 130130 110 155 85 110 155 85 8080

1931 1931 114114 132132 110110 162 109 95162 109 95

1934 1934 115115 135135 119 160 114 119 160 114 106106

1936 1936 112112 125125 105 158 103 105 158 103 9999

1938 1938 120120 120120 106 153 100 106 153 100 9595

19411941 111111 ndnd ndnd ndnd 8686 95 95

FascismFascism and and ForeignForeign AffairsAffairs�� FascismFascism hadhad significantsignificant supportsupport in the UK and the US in the UK and the US asas a a

way of way of bringingbringing orderorder toto fragmentedfragmented postpost--WWIWWI ItalianItalianpoliticspolitics and and economyeconomy

((untiluntil 1929)1929)

�� MussoliniMussolini wantedwanted GermanGerman guaranteeguarantee of Italianof Italian borderborder withwithAustria and Austria and signedsigned the the KellogKellog--BriandBriand PactPact (1928) of (1928) of nonnon--agressionagression in in EuropeEurope –– hintedhinted at war at war withwith FranceFrance over over bordersborders asas long long asas Austria Austria remainedremained a buffer a buffer withwith GermanyGermany

�� MussoliniMussolini heldheld UK in high UK in high regardregard, , initiallyinitially. . ChurchillChurchill calledcalledhimhim ““the the greatestgreatest legislatorlegislator alivealive”” after a after a visitvisit in 1927.in 1927.

�� ItalyItaly’’s s foreignforeign policypolicy waswas toto bebe ““the the weightweight thatthat tipstips the the balancebalance”” ((ForeignForeign MinisterMinister Grandi Grandi –– 1931)1931)

�� 1935 war 1935 war withwith EthiopiaEthiopia waswas a way a way toto leaveleave the the ““gold blockgold block””and and excerciseexcercise direct direct govtgovt. control over . control over tradetrade through through ministerialministerial licenceslicences

FascismFascism and and ForeignForeign AffairsAffairs –– BuildBuildup up toto WarWar

�� 1932 1932 –– MussoliniMussolini assumesassumes personal control over the personal control over the MinistryMinistry of of ForeignForeign AffairsAffairs

�� 1933 1933 –– hehe pushespushes forfor a a ““PactPact of of FourFour”” betweenbetween UK, UK, FranceFrance, , ItalyItaly and and GermanyGermany –– takingtaking forfor grantedgranted GrandiGrandi’’ss ““weightweightthatthat tipstips......”” policypolicy withoutwithout havinghaving the the realreal economiceconomic or or militarymilitary weightweight neededneeded. . OnlyOnly UK UK signssigns

�� 1934 1934 –– after a after a NaziNazi coup coup attemptattempt in Vienna in Vienna –– MussoliniMussolinimobilisedmobilised 4 4 divisionsdivisions on the on the northnorth--easteast borderborder toto thwartthwartGermanGerman expansionexpansion

�� 5/10/1935 5/10/1935 –– ItalianItalian troopstroops enterenter EthiopiaEthiopia –– upsettingupsettingAfricanAfrican colonialcolonial powerspowers. UK . UK sendssends the the fleetfleet and and MussoliniMussolinisendssends 3 3 divisionsdivisions toto the the borderborder withwith EgyptEgypt. . DiplomaticallyDiplomaticallyresolvedresolved –– ItalyItaly isis allowedallowed useuse of the Suez of the Suez –– butbut economiceconomicsanctionssanctions are are imposedimposed byby the the LeagueLeague of of NationsNations on on exportsexportsand oil/and oil/weaponsweapons importsimports

�� 1936 1936 –– MussoliniMussolini sendssends 60,000 60,000 troopstroops toto SpainSpain toto supportsupportFrancoFranco

FascismFascism and the and the BuildBuild--upup toto War War ––Relations Relations withwith GermanyGermany

�� 1936 1936 –– MussoliniMussolini cedescedes the the ForeignForeign MinistryMinistry toto Galeazzo CianoGaleazzo Ciano

�� The The SpanishSpanish CivilCivil War War isis a meeting a meeting pointpoint forfor HitlerHitler and and MussoliniMussolini

�� 2424°° OctOct. 1936 . 1936 –– Ciano and Ciano and hishis counterpartcounterpart NeurathNeurath formform the the RomeRome--BerlinBerlin axisaxis toto countercounter bolshevismbolshevism –– invitinginviting allall EuropeanEuropean countriescountriestoto participateparticipate –– thisthis indicatesindicates a return a return toto GermanGerman influenceinfluence in the in the EastEast

�� 1938 1938 –– AnschlussAnschluss withwith Austria Austria mustmust bebe acceptedaccepted

HitlerHitler guaranteesguarantees ItalianItalian influenceinfluence in the in the MedMed..

toto cover the cover the southernsouthern theatretheatre in case of war in case of war withwith

UK and UK and FranceFrance

�� GermanGerman ministersministers courtcourt ItalyItaly in 1937in 1937--38 38

�� 1937 1937 status quostatus quo in in MedMed = = GentlemenGentlemen’’ss agreementagreement

withwith the UKthe UK

�� 29/09/1938 29/09/1938 MunichMunich meeting meeting –– HitlerHitler statesstates hishis confidenceconfidence thatthatItalyItaly willwill stay stay byby GermanyGermany in in anyany eventualityeventuality –– MussoliniMussolini attemptsattemptsneutralityneutrality on on SudetenlandSudetenland

�� 22/05/1939 22/05/1939 –– ItalyItaly and and GermanyGermany signsign the the PactPact of Steelof Steel, , bindingbindingmilitarymilitary alliancealliance –– Vittorio Emanuele III Vittorio Emanuele III isis notnot consultedconsulted

ItalyItaly in the in the MediterraneanMediterranean: WWII: WWII�� 09/1939 09/1939 –– Ciano Ciano forwardsforwards toto HitlerHitler logisticallogistical reasonsreasons

ItalyItaly cannotcannot enterenter the warthe war

�� The The MediterraneanMediterranean securessecures logisticslogistics forfor land war in land war in the the surroundingsurrounding theatrestheatres. . ItalyItaly’’s s primaryprimary objectiveobjectivewaswas toto resolveresolve borderborder disputesdisputes withwith FranceFrance

�� 1940 1940 –– ItalyItaly entersenters the war on the war on JuneJune 10 1940 10 1940 ––sendingsending troopstroops toto FranceFrance

((guaranteeingguaranteeing a a placeplace at at peacepeace talkstalks and and assuagingassuagingGermanGerman reprisalreprisal forfor nonnon--interventionintervention))

�� JuneJune 11 11 ItalyItaly layslays navalnaval siegesiege toto the the portport of Malta of Malta (under (under BritishBritish Control) Control) thisthis waswas a a navalnaval and air and air battlebattle

�� ToTo supportsupport the the ItalianItalian Air Air efforteffort, and , and GermanGerman advanceadvancein in NorthNorth Africa Africa –– the the LuftwaffeLuftwaffe sentsent a bomber a bomber wingwing totoSicilySicily

�� UK UK reinforcesreinforces byby aircraftaircraft carriercarrier and and byby 1942 1942 defendeddefended the the islandisland withwith modernmodern SpitfireSpitfire aircraftaircraft ––GibraltarGibraltar and Suez are in and Suez are in BritishBritish handshands

�� Malta Malta laterlater offeredoffered air cover air cover forfor shippingshipping and the and the amphibiousamphibious invasioninvasion of of SicilySicily

ItalyItaly in the in the MediterraneanMediterranean: : InvasionInvasion�� JulyJuly 9 1943 9 1943 ––USUS 77°° armyarmy and and BritishBritish 88°° armyarmy invade invade SicilySicily

�� Idea Idea waswas toto take take SicilySicily forfor strategicstrategic bombingbombing and and pressurepressureMussoliniMussolini’’s s holdhold on the countryon the country

�� SicilySicily wouldwould actact asas a a stagingstaging groundground forfor land land invasioninvasion of the of the peninsulapeninsula –– butbut thisthis waswas plannedplanned onlyonly after the after the invasioninvasion of of SicilySicily. (9/9/1943 . (9/9/1943 –– Salerno; 22/01/1944 Salerno; 22/01/1944 –– Anzio)Anzio)

�� 2424--25 25 JulyJuly, , ’’43 43 –– The The GeneralGeneral CouncilCouncil ((withwith Grandi and Grandi and Ciano) vote Ciano) vote toto limitlimit MussoliniMussolini’’s power s power –– 25/07 Vittorio 25/07 Vittorio Emanuele Emanuele nominatesnominates Pietro Badoglio Pietro Badoglio asas PresidentPresident of the of the CouncilCouncil –– VE VE takestakes commandcommand of the of the ArmyArmy and and hashas the the Carabinieri Carabinieri arrestarrest MussoliniMussolini –– 8/09/1943 8/09/1943 –– Badoglio Badoglio signedsignedanan armisticearmistice withwith the the alliesallies AFTER VE AFTER VE hadhad promisedpromised HitlerHitlerthatthat ItalyItaly wouldwould notnot abandonabandon the the AxisAxis –– HitlerHitler turnsturns hishistroopstroops againstagainst the the ItalianItalian armyarmy and and occupiesoccupies the the peninsulapeninsulaasas far far southsouth asas NaplesNaples

�� The The ItalianItalian campaigncampaign waswas primarilyprimarily foughtfought betweenbetweenGermansGermans and and AlliesAllies, , withwith ItalyItaly decendingdecending intointo civilcivil war war ––Stalin Stalin offersoffers supportsupport toto ItalianItalian communistcommunist partisanspartisans butbutforbidsforbids ““revolutionrevolution”” so so asas notnot toto upsetupset hishis alliesallies –– ratherrather, , hehe supportssupports ““ a long slow a long slow marchmarch towardstowards the the institutionsinstitutions””

The The GeographyGeography of the of the AlliedAllied AdvanceAdvancein WWIIin WWII

The The GothicGothic Line 1944Line 1944

The Bretton Woods AgreementThe Bretton Woods AgreementJuly 1944. This was the first fully negotiated monetary order July 1944. This was the first fully negotiated monetary order

intended to govern monetary relations among independent intended to govern monetary relations among independent nationnation--states.states.

Obligation for each country to adopt a monetary policy that Obligation for each country to adopt a monetary policy that maintained its currency exchange value at +maintained its currency exchange value at +-- 1% of the 1% of the value of gold.value of gold.

Fixes the US dollar as a reserve currency Fixes the US dollar as a reserve currency ––””peggedpegged”” to gold. to gold. This is an adaptation of the preThis is an adaptation of the pre--WWI gold standardWWI gold standard

Effectively tranfers global financial power to the USEffectively tranfers global financial power to the US

Set up the International Bank for Reconstruction and Set up the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (now part of the World Bank System)Development (now part of the World Bank System)

and the International Monetary Fund (operational after 1946)and the International Monetary Fund (operational after 1946)

The IMF would cover temporary imbalancesThe IMF would cover temporary imbalances

Bretton WoodsBretton WoodsThe system had its origins among people who thought that The system had its origins among people who thought that

economic discrimination and trade warfare were primarily economic discrimination and trade warfare were primarily responsible for WWIIresponsible for WWII

i.e. The trade and exchange controls systems of Nazi Germany i.e. The trade and exchange controls systems of Nazi Germany ANDAND

British Imperial preferential treatment in trade.British Imperial preferential treatment in trade.

This is probably true.This is probably true.

Keynesian economics asserts the need for government Keynesian economics asserts the need for government intervention in the economy = putting a leash on the old intervention in the economy = putting a leash on the old economic oligarchies.economic oligarchies.

This creates a system of exchangeable currencies that This creates a system of exchangeable currencies that promotes free trade = with substantial positive results for promotes free trade = with substantial positive results for the US economy, politics and belief systemthe US economy, politics and belief system

Export Export GrowthGrowth 18201820--19921992

16021602

17,78417,784

23502350

612612

38533853

20902090

10711071

494494

19921992

128128

210210

225225

9797

126126

149149

3535

100100

19501950

100100

100100

100100

100100

100100

100100

100100

100100

19131913

2424

33

1313

--

3939

3131

1818

3131

18701870

33

--

11

--

77

44

44

33

18201820

Export Volume IndexExport Volume Index

(1913 = 100)(1913 = 100)

WorldWorld

JapanJapan

USAUSA

RussiaRussia

ItalyItaly

FranceFrance

GermanyGermany

UKUK

TerritoryTerritory

Average Annual GrowthAverage Annual Growth

18201820--18701870 18701870--19131913 19131913--19501950 19501950--19921992

UK 4.6 2.7 0.0 3.8

Germany 3.0 3.8 -1.3 8.1

France 3.9 2.7 1.1 6.3

ItalyItaly 3.43.4 2.12.1 0.60.6 8.18.1

Russia - - -0.1 4.3

USA 5.1 4.7 2.2 5.6

Japan - 8.1 2.0 10.6

World 4.2 3.3 0.7 6.0

PricePrice--Production Index 1440Production Index 1440--19901990

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

1440

1570

1740

1861

1891

1911

1938

1951

1960

1990

P-P index

Per Capital Production 1440Per Capital Production 1440--19901990

9.76 11.2 8.62 6.92 9.09 15.5935.31 47.63

71.11

255.83

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

1440157017401861189119111938195119601990

Prod/Capita

PostPost--War Italy: Reconstruction War Italy: Reconstruction �� The Referendum on the Republic (June 2 1946)The Referendum on the Republic (June 2 1946)

total votes: total votes: propro--republicrepublic propro--monarchymonarchy

12,700,000 (54%) 12,700,000 (54%) 10,700,000 (46%)10,700,000 (46%)

Regional votes (%):Regional votes (%):VeniceVenice--tridentinatridentina 8585 1515 Cities and towns: R MCities and towns: R M

EmiliaEmilia 7777 2323 TurinTurin 6060 4040

UmbriaUmbria 71.971.9 28.128.1 Rome 46Rome 46 5454

TuscanyTuscany 71.671.6 28.428.4 RavennaRavenna 91.2 8.891.2 8.8

MarcheMarche 70.170.1 29.929.9 CesenaCesena 91.3 8.791.3 8.7

LiguriaLiguria 6969 3131 CarraraCarrara 88.1 11.988.1 11.9

LombardyLombardy 64.164.1 35.9 Livorno35.9 Livorno 80.5 19.580.5 19.5

Val DVal D’’AostaAosta 63.563.5 36.536.5 Messina 14.6 85.4Messina 14.6 85.4

VenetoVeneto 59.359.3 40.740.7 Palermo 15.8 84.2Palermo 15.8 84.2

PiedmontPiedmont 57.157.1 42.9 Catania42.9 Catania 18.2 81.418.2 81.4

LazioLazio 48.648.6 51.451.4 NaplesNaples 20.1 79.920.1 79.9

AbruzziAbruzzi 43.143.1 56.956.9 BariBari 25.2 56.225.2 56.2

LucaniaLucania 40.640.6 59.459.4

CalabriaCalabria 39.739.7 60.360.3

SardiniaSardinia 39.139.1 60.960.9

SicilySicily 35.335.3 64.764.7

ApuliaApulia 32.732.7 67.367.3

CampaniaCampania 23.523.5 76.576.5

ERPERP

�� Developed by Sec. of StateDeveloped by Sec. of State

George MarshallGeorge Marshall

�� Active July 1947 Active July 1947 –– July 1951July 1951

�� 13 billion USD in economic and13 billion USD in economic and

technical assitance to countriestechnical assitance to countries

joining the EECojoining the EECo--op groupop group

�� Offered to Soviets Offered to Soviets –– rejectedrejected

as Dollar Imperialismas Dollar Imperialism

�� Proposed by Joint Chiefs of Staff to contain Proposed by Joint Chiefs of Staff to contain

communismcommunism

Agricultural Production 1861Agricultural Production 1861--19501950

�� The South: Latifundia The South: Latifundia –– agricultural production based on agricultural production based on large, extensive land ownership worked by day labourers large, extensive land ownership worked by day labourers and employees/bondsmen who owed loyalty to the and employees/bondsmen who owed loyalty to the landowner. Labourers lived in agrolandowner. Labourers lived in agro--towns. towns. Clientage Clientage relationships dominate.relationships dominate.

�� Latifundia Reform 1882Latifundia Reform 1882--1890 1890 parcel out land to parcel out land to small holders/day labourerssmall holders/day labourers

�� PrePre--mechanical grain economy = mechanical grain economy = low productivitylow productivity

high birth rateshigh birth rates

complemented by sheepcomplemented by sheep

seasonal productivityseasonal productivity

�� 18611861--1907: labourer salaries reduced due to presence of 1907: labourer salaries reduced due to presence of grain threshersgrain threshers

�� 18821882--1890 reforms failed because large landowners were 1890 reforms failed because large landowners were too influential in government: 1.5 million Sicilians too influential in government: 1.5 million Sicilians emigrated to US, Canada, S. America between 1876 and emigrated to US, Canada, S. America between 1876 and 1925.1925.

Agricultural Production 1861Agricultural Production 1861--19501950

�� The Centre and North: Largely seftThe Centre and North: Largely seft--sufficient markets sufficient markets based on based on mixed cultivationmixed cultivation produced in the produced in the mezzadriamezzadriasystem system –– peasant family leases the peasant family leases the poderepodere from the from the landlord (1 year renewable) and pays rent in kind at a rate landlord (1 year renewable) and pays rent in kind at a rate of 50% of harvests. of 50% of harvests.

SmallSmall--medium farmsmedium farms

family operatedfamily operated

55--6 people per family6 people per family

�� Mixed agriculture = intense labour and high yield/hectareMixed agriculture = intense labour and high yield/hectare

�� Centre and North have access to oxen = smaller units can Centre and North have access to oxen = smaller units can work more land.work more land.

�� North/South divide North/South divide –– in Southern Europe raising 1 ox in Southern Europe raising 1 ox requires +requires +-- 1010--12 hectares. In northern Europe only 212 hectares. In northern Europe only 2--3 3 hectares needed.hectares needed.

Population of Italy 1771Population of Italy 1771--1991 1991 (x1000)(x1000)

05000100001500020000250003000035000400004500050000550006000065000

17711781179118011811182118311841185118611871188118911901191119211931195119611971198119912001

pop.x100

The 1950 Land ReformThe 1950 Land Reform

�� 700,000 hectares taken from 700,000 hectares taken from

2805 large landowners 2805 large landowners

andand assigned to assigned to

109,000 families109,000 families

(of small landholders(of small landholders

and landless peasants)and landless peasants)

19501950--1975 = % drop in:1975 = % drop in:

PoderiPoderi 22.422.4

QuoteQuote 14.314.3

LottiLotti 25.625.6

Internal Migration: 1950Internal Migration: 1950--19701970

= 15,000 = 15,000

inhabitants inhabitants

Population Resident by Class of Population Resident by Class of Demographic ConcentrationDemographic Concentration

Demographic classDemographic class

(urban concentration in %) (urban concentration in %)

1931 1936 1951 1961 1971 1981 19911931 1936 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991

< 20,000< 20,000 64.3 63.0 58.7 53.0 47.6 46.6 47.464.3 63.0 58.7 53.0 47.6 46.6 47.4

20,00020,000--

250,000 250,000 23.5 23.8 25.0 27.7 31.7 33.9 35.323.5 23.8 25.0 27.7 31.7 33.9 35.3

>250,000 >250,000 12.2 13.2 16.3 19.3 20.7 19.5 17.312.2 13.2 16.3 19.3 20.7 19.5 17.3

TotalTotal 100 100 100 100 100 100 100100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Poor but BeautifulPoor but Beautiful

Sofia Loren teaches Italian working class women to be Sofia Loren teaches Italian working class women to be

beautiful.beautiful.

Sofia Villani Scicolone (Rome: 1934)Sofia Villani Scicolone (Rome: 1934)

((““LL’’oro di Napolioro di Napoli”” –– 1954 by De Sica)1954 by De Sica)

�� little makelittle make--upup

�� authenticauthentic

�� accessibleaccessible

= ?= ?

ExpansionExpansion of of TurinTurin -- RomanRoman PeriodPeriod toto19711971

The Economic Miracle 1950The Economic Miracle 1950--19751975

�� Transportation revolution: the FIAT 500 Transportation revolution: the FIAT 500

allowed commuting in rural/provincial areasallowed commuting in rural/provincial areas

�� inexpensiveinexpensive

�� reliablereliable

�� efficientefficient

�� Transportation revolution: the Piaggio VespaTransportation revolution: the Piaggio Vespa

individual transportindividual transport

An urban solutionAn urban solution

DistributionDistribution of of LabourLabour 19611961--19811981

PopulationPopulation of of ItalyItaly 19721972

RegionalRegional IndustrialIndustrial Production 1972Production 1972

GlobalGlobal DistributionDistribution of of MicroMicro, , SmallSmall, and , and Medium Medium EnterprisesEnterprises per 1000 Peopleper 1000 People

World World TransnationalTransnational ParentParent Company Company PresencePresence 19931993--20052005

Scale of Scale of MultinationalMultinational CorporationsCorporationsa a --1990 1990 -- 2005, b 2005, b --Q3 2006Q3 2006

a b

The Convertability CrisisThe Convertability Crisis

The period 1958The period 1958--1968 put increasing strains on US 1968 put increasing strains on US

balance of payments as Europe recovered and war in balance of payments as Europe recovered and war in

asia asia ““heated upheated up””

By 1969 By 1969 –– the Cold War and the war in Vietnam created the Cold War and the war in Vietnam created

incredible financial pressure on the USincredible financial pressure on the US

1971 1971 –– Richard Nixon took the US dollar off the Bretton Richard Nixon took the US dollar off the Bretton

Woods convertablity plan, pegging the US dollar to Woods convertablity plan, pegging the US dollar to

GDP growth.GDP growth.

This is solidifies modern dynamics of politics based on This is solidifies modern dynamics of politics based on

energy policy.energy policy.

19681968--2007 The From Industry to 2007 The From Industry to ServicesServices

The The ““Anni di PiomboAnni di Piombo”” –– political parties must manage a political parties must manage a politicised youth.politicised youth.

Italy: the population, like in the UK, US, France and Italy: the population, like in the UK, US, France and Germany Germany –– is young and becoming university is young and becoming university educated.educated.

There is much tension between extreme right and There is much tension between extreme right and extreme left groups.extreme left groups.

Economic growth is fast Economic growth is fast –– prompting youth to push for prompting youth to push for faster social changefaster social change

Violence was used by both Left and Right wing groups Violence was used by both Left and Right wing groups ––with corrupt government officials tending to support with corrupt government officials tending to support the Rightthe Right

Extremism 1968Extremism 1968--19871987

�� 19601960’’s the Italian Socialist Party is formally recognised in s the Italian Socialist Party is formally recognised in Parliament and immediately contrasts the traditional Parliament and immediately contrasts the traditional Democratic Christian Party (DC)Democratic Christian Party (DC)

�� Feb. 1968 Feb. 1968 –– the Tet offensive spurs radical communism the Tet offensive spurs radical communism among youthamong youth

translating into a vehement political need for improving translating into a vehement political need for improving the standards of factory workers in Europe and Italy.the standards of factory workers in Europe and Italy.

PCI influenced groups radicalise (mainly youth) and form PCI influenced groups radicalise (mainly youth) and form splinter splinter extraextra--parlimentaryparlimentary groups: Lotta Continua, Potere groups: Lotta Continua, Potere operaio, Avanguardia operaia operaio, Avanguardia operaia –– workers rights become the workers rights become the cause of the student generationcause of the student generation

By 1970 the By 1970 the istituzione delle regioniistituzione delle regioni confer political power to confer political power to new regional governmentsnew regional governments

AUTUNNO CALDO AUTUNNO CALDO –– Fall 1969 Fall 1969 ““New LeftNew Left”” members occupy the members occupy the FIAT factory in MilanFIAT factory in Milan

Extremism 1968Extremism 1968--19871987

�� December 1969 December 1969 –– 4 bombs struck the 4 bombs struck the Altare della Altare della PatriaPatria and the and the Banca Nazionale del LavoroBanca Nazionale del Lavoro in Rome, in Rome, and the and the Banca CommercialeBanca Commerciale and and Banca Nazionale Banca Nazionale delldell’’AgricolaAgricola in Milan.in Milan.

�� The police arrested 4000 left wing extremists and The police arrested 4000 left wing extremists and party associates party associates –– causing hot protest among causing hot protest among studentsstudents

�� One of the young people arrested One of the young people arrested –– anarchist anarchist Giuseppe Pinelli Giuseppe Pinelli ““fellfell”” out of a window while in out of a window while in prison and died. prison and died. Lotta ContinuaLotta Continua accused police officer accused police officer Luigi Calabresi of murdering him.Luigi Calabresi of murdering him.

�� Lotta ContinuaLotta Continua accused extreme right wing groups of accused extreme right wing groups of the bombings and using support within the police the bombings and using support within the police forces to blame the Left forces to blame the Left –– court procedings in the court procedings in the 19801980’’s proved them right.s proved them right.

�� December 1970 December 1970 –– Junio Valerio Borghese ex Colonel Junio Valerio Borghese ex Colonel of the Xof the X°°MAS led (as a figurehead) a fascist coup plot MAS led (as a figurehead) a fascist coup plot –– which was diffused at the beginning of 1971which was diffused at the beginning of 1971

Extremism 1968 Extremism 1968 -- 19871987

�� Summer 1971 Summer 1971 –– Richard Nixon suspends the Richard Nixon suspends the ““convertabilityconvertability”” of the US $ into gold of the US $ into gold –– removing the removing the $ from the gold exchange standard. (managing US $ from the gold exchange standard. (managing US debt was a form of managing the balance of debt was a form of managing the balance of payments in most of the nonpayments in most of the non--Soviet world)Soviet world)

�� May 17, 1972 May 17, 1972 –– Calabresi is assassinated in Milan Calabresi is assassinated in Milan ––the Carabinieri attempt to blame the Carabinieri attempt to blame Lotta Continua Lotta Continua but but in 1974 in 1974 –– two neotwo neo--fascist activists are indicted. This fascist activists are indicted. This is the 1is the 1°° political assassination of the 1970political assassination of the 1970’’ss

�� 1972 1972 –– Peteano Peteano –– 3 Carabinieri killed in a bomb 3 Carabinieri killed in a bomb attack. attack. Lotta ContinuaLotta Continua is blamed and some of its is blamed and some of its members are arrested. In the 1980s it was members are arrested. In the 1980s it was discovered that the bomb was made with military Cdiscovered that the bomb was made with military C--4 4 explosive, and neoexplosive, and neo--fascist Vincenzo Vinciguerra fascist Vincenzo Vinciguerra confessed.confessed.

�� 1972 1972 –– 1974 sees a series of these right wing de1974 sees a series of these right wing de--stabilising bombings. stabilising bombings.


�� July 1974 July 1974 –– another attempt at Neoanother attempt at Neo--Fascist coupFascist coup

Protagonist Count Edgardo Sogno wrote in his memoirs Protagonist Count Edgardo Sogno wrote in his memoirs "the United States would have supported any initiative tending t"the United States would have supported any initiative tending to o keep the communists out of government."keep the communists out of government." The CIA and Italian The CIA and Italian secret service supported this.secret service supported this.

�� 19741974--1976 1976 Potere operaio, Lotta Continua, and the Brigate Potere operaio, Lotta Continua, and the Brigate Rosse Rosse disband or split apart after the 1974 arrest of the disband or split apart after the 1974 arrest of the Red Brigade leaders Renato Curcio and Alberto Red Brigade leaders Renato Curcio and Alberto Franceschini.Franceschini.

�� 1973 Enrico Berlinguer, secretary of the PCI pushed 1973 Enrico Berlinguer, secretary of the PCI pushed through the through the Compromesso Storico Compromesso Storico –– partially uniting and partially uniting and pacifying differences between the PCI, the socialists, and pacifying differences between the PCI, the socialists, and the DC the DC –– and afferming the nonand afferming the non--Soviet characteristics of Soviet characteristics of the PCI (condemned the invasion of Czech in 68).the PCI (condemned the invasion of Czech in 68).

�� The CentreThe Centre--Left splintered by 76, allowing the PCI to take Left splintered by 76, allowing the PCI to take Italian politics further to the left.Italian politics further to the left.


�� The governments of this time were not able to discipline the forThe governments of this time were not able to discipline the forces ces of order to combat either left or right wing terrorism.of order to combat either left or right wing terrorism.

�� It is a period in which the Italian economy suffered the high prIt is a period in which the Italian economy suffered the high prices ices of oil brought about by the political affermation of OPEC.of oil brought about by the political affermation of OPEC.

�� Unemployment was high, particularly among young people.Unemployment was high, particularly among young people.

�� In 1975, the govt. introduced the In 1975, the govt. introduced the scala mobilescala mobile –– or moving scale or moving scale ––to equate wages with the cost of living.to equate wages with the cost of living.

�� 1977 1977 –– Autonomia operaiaAutonomia operaia launches a series of bomb attacks and launches a series of bomb attacks and assassination attempts, primarily against PCI targets =assassination attempts, primarily against PCI targets =

Dissaffection with Labour Leadership!!!Dissaffection with Labour Leadership!!!


�� 6 March, 1978 6 March, 1978 –– president of the DC , Aldo Moro, was president of the DC , Aldo Moro, was kidnapped by the kidnapped by the Brigate RosseBrigate Rosse and after 55 days, and after 55 days, assassinated on May 9.assassinated on May 9.

�� 1978 1978 –– Inflation dropped to 13.6% Inflation dropped to 13.6% -- the lowest since 1974 the lowest since 1974 –– and the govt. attempted to rationalise the tax structure.and the govt. attempted to rationalise the tax structure.

�� Consensus govt. applying Keynesian economics. High Consensus govt. applying Keynesian economics. High degree of fiscal intervention. Italy joins the European degree of fiscal intervention. Italy joins the European Monetary SystemMonetary System

�� In industry In industry –– 19621962--72 saw the beginning of privatisation of 72 saw the beginning of privatisation of state industries state industries –– particularly in chemicals.particularly in chemicals.

1962 1962 –– Enrico Mattei stipulates and accord between ENI Enrico Mattei stipulates and accord between ENI and the and the ““Seven SistersSeven Sisters”” (the largest oil companies). He (the largest oil companies). He then dies.then dies.

�� 1972 1972 –– EniEni’’s director Cefis becomes head of the Montedison s director Cefis becomes head of the Montedison company company –– afferming the importance of the managerial afferming the importance of the managerial class while public companies were in the redclass while public companies were in the red

Italy at the Crossroads: Challenges Italy at the Crossroads: Challenges in the 21in the 21°° CenturyCentury

Italy at the Crossroads: Climate Italy at the Crossroads: Climate ChangeChange

�� ItalyItaly’’s s ““third paththird path”” creates some difficulties in creates some difficulties in

adapting to climate change realities in terms of:adapting to climate change realities in terms of:

�� The economyThe economy

�� PoliticsPolitics

�� SocietySociety

GlobalGlobal CO2 CO2 IncreaseIncrease 19501950--19991999

NOAA

ContributorsContributors toto GlobalGlobal WarmingWarming 19001900--19991999

Europe adds 27.7% to overall global warmingEurope adds 27.7% to overall global warming


The Economic Impact of Climate Change in Italy:The Economic Impact of Climate Change in Italy:

Assumptions:Assumptions:

Option 1 = no reaction: The Stern Report (2006) Option 1 = no reaction: The Stern Report (2006) estimated this would costestimated this would cost

20% of global GDP20% of global GDP

Option 2 = diversified reaction: Stern stated that this Option 2 = diversified reaction: Stern stated that this should cost 1% of global GDPshould cost 1% of global GDP

Fragmented data for Italy.Fragmented data for Italy.

Estimates for:Estimates for:

weather impactsweather impacts

seasea--level riselevel rise


Weather impacts of climate change in Italy:Weather impacts of climate change in Italy:

Sectors affected are: agriculture, forests, water, Sectors affected are: agriculture, forests, water,

tourism and healthtourism and health

Study compared projected impact in Sicily and Study compared projected impact in Sicily and

Lombardy:Lombardy:

Adaptive behaviour:Adaptive behaviour:

The south: hot summers = The south: hot summers = more time at beach and more time at beach and

poolpool

The North: hot summers =The North: hot summers = less use of transport less use of transport

and private carsand private cars


Economic effects:Economic effects:

Cost of mitigation vs. BenefitsCost of mitigation vs. Benefits

Dangers: Dangers: increase average 328 forest fires increase average 328 forest fires

per regionper region

coastal floodingcoastal flooding

droughtdrought

tourisimtourisim

agricultureagriculture

Intensive Intensive CropCrop AgricultureAgriculture 19991999

Per Capita Water Use (2000 Per Capita Water Use (2000 –– cubic cubic metres/year)metres/year)

The The ExEx--GranaryGranary of Urbino 2007of Urbino 2007

Urbino: Urbino: PopulationPopulation ExpansionExpansion toto the the SuburbsSuburbs 19851985--20072007

Urbino: Urbino: ProblemsProblems of of IndustryIndustry in the in the AppennineAppennine FoothillsFoothills

Urbino: Urbino: ProblemsProblems of of UrbanUrbanInfrastructureInfrastructure

Urbino: Urbino: MixedMixed SuburbanSuburban and and IndustrualIndustrualAreasAreas –– The The ValleysValleys

Urbino: Urbino: ProblemsProblems of of UrbanUrban InfrastructureInfrastructure ––WalledWalled TownsTowns and Parkingand Parking