Consumer Behaviour models for tourism

The purpose of consumer behaviour models is to attempt togive a simplified version of the relationship of the variousfactors that influence consumer behaviour. Various modelshave been developed to describe consumer behaviour withthe intention of trying to control the behaviour patterns. Themodels, however, fall short of these objectives and at bestgive the reader an appreciation of interactive factors that influencebehaviour patterns. It is only possible to review someof the general consumer behaviour models here. One of theearliest models of consumer behaviour was proposed byAndreason (1965). This model is shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1

Andreason model of consumer behaviour

The model recognizes the importance of information in theconsumer decision-making process. It also emphasizes theimportance of consumer attitudes although it fails to considerattitudes in relation to repeat purchase behaviour.A second model, which concentrates on the buying decision for anew product was proposed by Nicosia (1966). This model is shown in

Figure 3.2. The model concentrates on the organization’s attempts tocommunicate with the consumer, and the consumers’ predisposition toact in a certain way. These two features are referred to as Field One. Thesecond stage involves the consumer in a search evaluation processwhich is influenced by attitudes. This stage is referred to as Field Two.The actual purchase process is referred to as Field Three, and the postpurchasefeedback process is referred to as Field Four. This model wascriticized by commentators because it was not empirically tested(Zaltman, Pinson and Angelman, 1973), and because many of the variableswere not defined (Lunn, 1974).

Figure 3.2

A summary description of the Nicosia model

The most frequently quoted of all consumer behaviour models is theHoward–Sheth model of buyer behaviour which was developed in1969. This model is shown in Figure 3.3. This model is important becauseit highlights the importance of inputs to the consumer buyingprocess and suggests ways in which the consumer orders these inputsbefore making a final decision.

Figure 3.3

The Howard–Sheth Model of buyer behaviour

The Howard–Sheth model does have limitations, and does not explainall buyer behaviour. However, it was a comprehensive theory ofbuyer behaviour that was developed as a result of empirical research(Horton, 1984).

More recent research on consumer behaviour has concentrated onthe exchange processes and has attempted to look at the marketer’sperspective on the process. One example of such an approach is shownin Figure 3.4. This model was developed by Solomon (1996). He alsosuggested that consumer behaviour involves many different actors.The purchaser and user of a product might not be the same person.People may also act as influences on the buying processes.Organizations can also be involved in the buying process. One exampleof an organization which may make purchase decisions is thefamily.

Figure 3.4

Some issues that arise during stages in the consumption process

The models considered so far are useful in academic research. Foxalland Goldsmith (1994) suggested that these models mean little in theabsence of a general understanding of how consumers act. They suggestthat consumer behaviour is a sequence of problem-solving stages,as follows:

* the development and perception of a want or need

* pre-purchase planning and decision-making

* the purchase act itself

* post-purchase behaviour, which may lead to repeat buying, repeatsales and disposition of the product after consumption.Much of marketing activity, they suggested, concentrates on adaptingproduct offerings to particular circumstances of target segment needsand wants. It is also common to stimulate an already existing wantthrough advertising and sales promotion, rather than creating wants.The definitions and models which have been presented so far havebeen from general marketing theory. Tourism is, by its very nature, a servicerather than a product which may have a considerable effect on consumerbehaviour. Services have been defined by Kotler and Armstrong(2004) as: ‘Any activity or benefit that one party can offer to another thatis essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of anything.Its production may or may not be tied to a physical product’.

The intangible nature of the service offering has a considerable effecton the consumer during the decision-making process involved withpurchase. This, coupled with the high-spend aspect of tourism, meansthat tourism for the consumer is a high-risk decision-making process.Therefore the consumer will be highly interested and involved in thepurchase decision. This was recognized by Seaton (1994):They involve committing large sums of money to somethingwhich cannot be seen or evaluated before purchase. The opportunitycost of a failed holiday is irreversible. If a holidaygoes wrong that is it for another year. Most people do nothave the additional vacation time or money to make good theholiday that went wrong.

There is a philosophical question as to whether service marketing issubstantially different to product marketing (Horner and Swarbrooke,1996). It is clear, however, that tourism products have many distinctivefeatures which mean that consumer behaviour will be fundamentallydifferent. To cope with these differences, academics have developeddefinitions and models of consumer behaviour, specifically fortourism. These range from the more general definitions to more detailedmodels. Middleton and Clark (2001) presented an adapted model of consumerbehaviour for tourism which was termed the stimulus – response modelof buyer behaviour. The model is shown in Figure 3.5 and is based on fourinteractive components, with the central component identified as ‘buyercharacteristics and decision process’.

Figure 3.5 - A stimulus-response model of buyer behaviour

The model separates out motivators and determinants in the consumerbuying behaviour and also emphasises the important effectsthat an organization can have on the consumer buying process by theuse of communication channels.

Other models which attempt to explain consumer buying behaviourin tourism have been advanced. Wahab, Crampton and Rothfield(1976) suggested a linear model of the decision-making process intourism. This is shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6

A ‘linear model of the tourism decision-making process

Mathieson and Wall (1982) suggested a linear five-stage model oftravel buying behaviour, which is shown in Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7

Travel-buying behaviour

Gilbert (1991) suggested a model for consumer decision-making intourism, which is shown in Figure 3.8. This model suggests that thereare two levels of factors which have an effect on the consumer.

Figure 3.8

Consumer decision-making framework

The first level of influences is close to the person and include psychologicalinfluences such as perception and learning. The second levelof influences includes those which have been developed during the socialization process and include reference groups and family influences.

All these models that have been adapted for tourism offer some insightsinto the consumer behaviour process involved during the purchaseand post-purchase decision stages. The problem with the modelsis that little empirical research has been conducted to test them againstactual consumer behaviour. This is an area which requires further detailedresearch. We will return to this discussion later in the article, whenwe consider models of consumer behaviour in tourism in more depth.

ConclusionsMost consumer behaviour models in tourism seem to be linearand rather simplistic when compared to general consumer behaviourmodels. Yet, as Figure 3.9 illustrates, the diverse characteristics oftourism mean that consumer behaviour in tourism will inevitably bevery complex. The inadequacy of models of tourist behaviour is a subjectwe will return to in next article.

Figure 3.9

Characteristics of tourism