Constructing “al-Qaeda:”

The Coding, Weighting, and Narrating of an Enemy

William JawdeDepartment of Sociology, University of Florida

Constructing “al-Qaeda”

1. “Al-Qaeda,” as popularly conceived, is taken for granted and appears inevitable.

2. “Al-Qaeda” is not determined by the nature of things, and needs not exist.

A Cultural-Sociological Theory of Trauma Takes a constructionist perspective: Events,

in and of themselves, do not create collective trauma.

Trauma is a socially mediated attribution Occurs when patterned meanings and

identity of the collectivity are dislodged

A Cultural-Sociological Theory of Trauma Gap between event and representation:

“Trauma Process” Agents, rather than collectivities, make

trauma claims Representation of trauma depends on

constructing a compelling framework: The nature of the pain The nature of the victim Relation of the victims to a wider audience Attribution of responsibility

Constructing Trauma: How did “al-Qaeda” come about? Coding: Event becoming evil, coded as such

Evil as an arbitrary construction; necessary for defining “good” in our time

Weighting: How evil is it? Degrees of evil

Narrating What were the evil acts in question? Who was responsible? Who were the victims? What are the immediate and long-term effects?

Constructing Trauma

Uniqueness A trauma can not function as a metaphor of

archetypal tragedy unless it is regarded as radically different from any other evil act in our times

Meaning-making, representing a cultural idea

Symbolizing 9/11: Coding

Coding Evil after 9/11 President Bush:

“This is a monumental Struggle of good versus evil. But good will prevail.” 9/12/01

“The people who did this act on America, and who may be planning further acts, are evil people.  They don't represent an ideology, they don't represent a legitimate political group of people. They're flat evil.  That's all they can think about, is evil.” 9/25/01

Symbolizing 9/11: Weighting

Degree of evil and uniqueness of events President Bush:

“The American people need to know that we’re facing a different enemy than we’ve ever faced…” 9/12/01

“On September the 11th, enemies of freedom committed an act of war against our country.  Americans have known wars -- but for the past 136 years, they have been wars on foreign soil… All of this was brought upon us in a single day -- and night fell on a different world, a world where freedom itself is under attack.” 9/20/01

Symbolizing 9/11: Narrating

Framing the events President Bush:

“The deliberate and deadly attacks…against our country were more than acts of terror. They were acts of war….Freedom and democracy are under attack.” 9/12/01

“Al Qaeda is to terror what the mafia is to crime.  But its goal is not making money; its goal is remaking the world -- and imposing its radical beliefs on people everywhere.” 9/20/01

What is “al-Qaeda?”

A name given by U.S. investigators to a group believed to be headed by bin Laden

First used in 1998, after the bombings of the US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania

Used to define an organization in order to be able to prosecute under anti-mafia laws

Prior to 9/11, the term “al-Qaeda” was used in 20 congressional testimonies

Since 9/11, the term has been cited in hundreds of testimonies

What is “al-Qaeda?”

1979 Abdullah Azzam, Peshawar 1979-1989: Mujahadeen 1989 Azzam assassinated, Mujahadeen

fragments The 1991 Gulf War led to bin Laden and

others to publicly denounce Saudi Arabian alliance with US

What is “al-Qaeda?”

Bin Laden and associates: Sunni extremists who want to reestablish the caliphate

“International Front for Jihad against the Jews and Crusaders:” Group formed by bin Laden and al-Zawahiri

1998 fatwa: “to kill Americans and their allies, civilians, and military is an individual duty of every Muslim who is able.”

What is “al-Qaeda?”

nobody really knows what “al-Qaeda” is. Experts continue to disagree

Bin Laden, 2002: “I am a part of what you call al-Qaeda”

How elaborate is al-Qaeda?

General Shelton: “…the al Qaeda organization, which operates out of 55 different countries or more…” 5/3/01 Congressional Testimony

Jessica Stern (terror analyst): “U.S. government officials estimate that bin Laden's organization, al Qaeda, has thousands of operatives who are active, or suspected to be active, in 34 countries, including in the United States.” 9/20/01 Congressional Testimony

Bush: “There are thousands of these terrorists in more than 60 countries.” 9/20/01 Speech

How organized is al Qaeda? “By early 1999, al-Qaeda was already a potent

adversary of the United States…Within [the] structure, al-Qaeda’s worldwide terrorist operations relied heavily on the ideas and work of…strong-willed field commanders.” 9/11 Commission Report

“The al Qaeda organization, and others like it that I've studied, have wings that handle finance, documents, public-relations and intelligence. They run businesses. They conduct surveillance of enemy targets. They cultivate journalists to ensure favorable coverage in the press. They have sophisticated websites for both fund-raising and recruiting.” Jessica Stern , Testimony for Congress, 9/20/01

Bush: “First, what we've seen is these terrorists are very sophisticated, and so are their communications.” 9/25/01

How organized is al Qaeda?

Al-Qaeda is widely believed, by most terror experts, to be a bottom-up collection of loosely affiliated rogue groups rather than a top down organization (pre and post 9/11)

Evan Kohlmann, counter-terrorism expert: “If I had a nickel for every No. 2 and No. 3 they’ve arrested or killed…I’d be a millionaire.” 9/25/05

Al-Qaeda: the Creation interacts with the Creators Retroactive attribution: (Congressional Testimony, October 3, 2001)

Somalia 1992 WTC 1993 Planned attacks against multiple targets in NY 1993 Planned assassination of Pope John Paul II in Philippines 1994 Planned assassination of President Clinton in Philippines 1994 Planned bombings of 11-13 American Airliners over Pacific Ocean 1995 Car bombing of U.S. military mission in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 1995 Truck bombing of U.S. Air Force housing area Khubar Towers, Dhahran,

Saudi Arabia 1996 Truck Bombing U.S. Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania 1998 Plot to bomb Los Angeles International Airport, Y2K, New Year 2000 Plot to bomb East Coast target, Y2K, New Year, 2000 Plot to attack U.S. Naval Ship in Yemen, January 2000 Suicide boat attack on USS Cole, Yemen October 2000

Al-Qaeda: the Creation interacts with the Creators Post 9/11 Plots, in the US, according to Mueller, FBI Director,

2/11/03: In Portland, where six have been charged with providing material

support to terrorists. In Buffalo, where we arrested seven al-Qaeda associates and

sympathizers indicted in September 2002 for providing material support to terrorism.

In Seattle, where Earnest James Ujaama (also known as Bilal Ahmed) has been charged with conspiracy to provide material support to terrorists and suspected of establishing a terrorist training facility in Bly, Oregon.

In Detroit, where four have been charged with document fraud and providing material support to terrorists.

In Chicago, where Global Relief Foundation Director Enaam Arnaout has been charged with funneling money to al-Qaeda

Al-Qaeda: the Creation interacts with the Creators Other attributions:

Rumors of meetings between 9/11 pilot Mohammed Atta and Iraqi Intelligence agents

Richard Reid (Shoe Bomber) Spain 3/11 train bombings Iraq Insurgency Bali nightclub bombings Casablanca bombings London subway and bus bombings (2005)

Al-Qaeda: the Creation interacts with the Creators False Alarms:

Anthrax attacks of 2001 Beltway snipers in Washington, DC area, 2002 2003 Northeastern Blackout

Conclusions

Al-Qaeda is now an arbitrary label, being used by many disenfranchised and disconnected extremists, as well as those who pursue them

The classification of al-Qaeda, and the generous attribution of crimes thereto, has created and perpetuated this ideology or movement, where bin Laden now has unprecedented fame and influence