CONSONANTS

CONSONANTS What makes one consonant different from another?

VOCAL TRACT What are articulators ?Articulators are the parts of the oral tract that are used in producing speech sounds. They are often grouped into two kinds, active & passive.Active Articulators Active articulators are ones that move: the tongue tip is an activearticulator in sounds like [s t n], since it moves up to behind the teeth.Passive Articulators Passive articulators are articulators that cannot move, but are the target for active articulators. In the case of sounds like [s t n], the passive articulator is the bony ridge behind the upper teeth, known as the alveolar ridge.Most places of articulation are described by reference to the passive articulator. We start our description of them with the lips, working our way down the vocal tract.Landmarks in the Vocal TractThe vocal tract contains some discrete physical landmarks which areused primarily in producing and describing consonants. In describingthe place of articulation, we are describing where in the vocal tract asound is made.What is constriction ?Producing a consonant involves making the vocal tract narrower at some location than it usually is. We call this narrowing a constriction.

Pronouncing consonants Which consonant you're pronouncing depends on where in the vocal tract the constriction is and how narrow it is. It also depends on a few other things, such as whether the vocal folds are vibrating and whether air is flowing through the nose. Consonant sounds make up 62% of our speechClassifying Consonants We classify consonants along three major dimensions: place of articulation manner of articulation voicing or degree of Voicing

The Place of Articulation - IThis dimension specifies where in the vocal tract the constriction is. The place of articulation simply means the involvement of active and passive articulators in the production of a particular consonant. A few are:Bilabial : Bi- means two, and labialis an adjective based on the Latin word for lips. In English, the sounds[p b m] are bilabial. 5/26/201510Labio-dental: Labiodental sounds are made with the upper teeth (dental) against the lower lip (labio). In English the labiodental sounds [f v] occur.Dental: Dental sounds involve an articulation made against the back of the upper teeth. [ ] in English (as in the initial sounds of think and then) are often dental; they can also be interdental, that is, produced with the tongue between (inter in Latin) the teeth, especially in North America. Dental forms of [l] and [n] are used in words like health and tenth,where they are followed by a dental; and dental forms of [t] and [d] are regularly used in many varieties of English (e.g. some forms of Irish or New York English, and in Nigeria) as forms of [ d].

Alveolar:Alveolar sounds are made at the alveolar ridge. This is a bony ridge behind the upper teeth. If you rest your tongue on the upper teeth then gradually move it backwards, you will feel a change in texture from the smooth enamel to the bumpier gum. Just behind the teeth you should be able to feel the alveolar ridge. This sticks out a bit just behind the teeth. Peoples alveolar ridges are very variable: some are very prominent, others hardly noticeable. Alternatively, try isolating the consonant sounds in the word dent, and you should feel that the tongue tip is making contact with the alveolar ridge. Sounds with an alveolar place of articulation in most varieties of English are [t d n l r s z]. The tip or blade of the tongue is the active articulator and the teeth-ridge is the passive articulator. PostalveolarPostalveolar sounds are made just behind (post) the alveolar ridge. The tip of the tongue is the active articulator and the back of the teeth-ridge is the passive articulator. There are four of these in English, [] and [], the sounds spelt in ship, [ip], and in invasion, /nve()n/, and the sounds [t d] as in church and judge. RetroflexRetroflex: the tip of the tongue is the active articulator, and it is curled back. The back of the teeth-ridge or the hard palate is the passive articulator. So, retroflex sounds are made with the tongue curled (flex) back (retro) to the hard palate. (This is one case where the place of articulation refers to the active articulator.) 5/26/201514Retroflex symbols

The symbols for retroflex sounds areeasy to remember: they all have a rightward-facing hook on the bottom:Retroflex are frequently used in Indian varieties of English instead of alveolars for the sounds [t d n].Encyclopedia Britannica retroflex, in phonetics, a consonant sound produced with the tip of the tongue curled back toward the hard palate. In Russian the sounds sh, zh (like the English s sound in pleasure), and shch are retroflex; there are also many retroflex consonants in the languages of India. Role of tip of the tongue On the IPA chart, sounds are described according to where in the mouth they are made; but it is equally important to think about which part of the tongue is used to make them. Dental, alveolar, postalveolar and retroflex sounds are all made with the front part of the tongue, the tip (the very frontmost part of the tongue) or the blade (the part just behindthe tip).

Coronal There is a lot of variability among English speakers as to whichpart of the tongue they use to articulate dental, alveolar and postalveolarsounds, so usually this factor is ignored, since it seems to play nolinguistic role for English. In the phonology literature, sounds made withthe front part of the tongue are often called coronal, a term which doesnot appear on the IPA chart. (The Latin word corona means crown;this is the term used to refer to the front part of the tongue.)PalatalPalatal sounds are made with the tongue body, the massive part of the middle of the tongue, raised up to the hard palate, or the roof of the mouth. Palatal sounds arent common in English, except for the sound[j], which is usually spelt , as in yes, yacht, yawn; or as part of the sequence [ju] represented by the letter in words like usual, computer.VelarVelar sounds are made with the tongue back (or dorsum) raised towards the soft palate. The soft palate is at the back of the roof of the mouth, and is also known as the velum. The sounds [k ] are velars, as is the sound [], represented by in words like king, wrong, hang, but there are in fact many variations in the precise place of articulation in English.The velum also acts as a kind of valve, because it can be raised and lowered. When it is lowered, air can pass into the nasal cavities and escape through the nose. When it is raised, the nasal cavities are sealedoff, and air can only escape through the mouth.Uvula

UvularUvular sounds are made with the uvula (which is Latin for little egg, the shape of the uvula). The uvula is the little fleshy appendage that hangsdown in the middle of your mouth at the back. If you gargle, the uvula vibrates. French, German, Dutch and Danish all use uvular articulationsfor orthographic ; and in fact, one variety of English (around the north east of England) has, in its more archaic forms, a uvular sound tooin this position.PharyngealThe pharynx is the cavity behind the tongue root and just above the larynx. Pharyngeal sounds are made by constricting the muscles of the neck and contracting the pharynx; this kind of articulation occurs rarely in English.

Relaxed Pharynx The pharyngeal constrictor muscles are relaxed during low-pitch phonation. Notice the open pyriform sinuses.

Constricted Pharynx

During high-pitch phonation, the pharyngeal constrictor muscles contract (in direction of green arrows) to obscure the pyriform sinuses; the midline is now evident (blue arrow).

GlottalGlottal sounds are made at the glottis, the space between the vocal folds, which are located at the larynx. English uses a number of such sounds: [h] as in head and its voiced equivalent between two vowels, as in ahead.

PLACE OF ARTICULATIONBilabialUsing closing movement of both lips, e.g. /p/ - /b/Labio-dentalUsing the lower lip and the upper teeth, e.g. /f/- /v/DentalThe tongue tip is used either between the teeth or close to the upper teeth, e.g. ///AlveolarThe blade of the tongue is used close to the alveolar ridge, e.g. /t/- /s/.Palato-alveolarThe blade ( or tip) of the tongue is used just behind the alveolar ridge, e.g. //-//PalatalThe front of the tongue is raised close to the palate, e.g. /j/VelarThe back of the tongue is used against the soft palate, e.g. /k/- //GlottalThe gap between the vocal cords is used to make audible friction, e.g. /h/Guess place of articulation Bilabial/p/, /b/, /m/

Labiodental/f/, /v/

Dental. /t/, /d/

Alveolar

Postalveolar

Retroflex

Velar[k ] & []

Glottal /h/

Manner of articulationAs well as knowing where a sound is made, we need to know how it ismade. Consonants involve at least two articulators. When the articu -lators are brought closer together, the flow of air between them changes:for instance, it can be stopped or made turbulent. The channels betweenany two articulators govern the pressure and flow of air through thevocal tract, and in turn this affects the kinds of sound that come out. Theway a sound is made (rather than where it is made) is called manner ofarticulation. Most manners of articulation are combinable with mostplaces of articulation.Manner of articulation is the type of closure made by the articulators and the degree of the obstruction of the airstream by those articulators or how narrow the constriction is. Plosives Plosives are made with a complete closure in the oral tract, and with the velum raised, which prevents air escaping through the nose. English plosives include the sounds [p t k b d ]. Plosives are maintainable stopsbecause they can be held for a long time, and the closure portion arises from a deliberate articulation. The term plosive relates to the way the stop is released with what is sometimes called an explosion. It is worth pointingout that many phoneticians use the word stop to mean plosive. In the production of a plosive, there is a simultaneous oral and nasal closure. The air behind the oral closure is compressed and when the active articulator is removed suddenly from contact with the passive one, the air escapes with an explosion. NasalNasals are made with a complete closure in the oral tract, but with the velum lowered so that air escapes through the nose. For English there are three main nasal sounds, [m n ], bilabial, alveolar and velar respectively.Nasals are usually voiced in English. The other kinds of stopped articulations are trills and taps. In these sounds, a closure is made only for a very short time, and the closurearises because of aerodynamics or the movement of articulators from one position to another.

5/26/201540Taps or Flaps Taps on the other hand are quite common in English. These consistof just one short percussive movement of the tongue tip against the alveolar ridge. They occur in many varieties of English, but are especially well known as kinds of [t] or [d] sound in many North American varieties in words like bu[]er, wri[]er, a[]om. The flap is very common in American English. American FlapsSome people say that words with t in tin between 2 vowel letters, the sound seems to turn from t to d in American English.For example, the words Better and Water in American English seem to sound like : Bedder and Wadder unlike British English.

The Manner of Articulation - IIITrill (rolled consonant) The active articulator taps several times against the passive articulator (i.e., stricture of intermittent closure). E.g., [r] in horse.Flap: For a flap the active articulator strikes against the passive articulator once only. E.g., [r] in very.Lateral : A lateral consonant is produced by a stricture of closure in the centre of the vocal tract , but the air has a free passage on the sides. E.g., /l/.5/26/201543The Manner of Articulation - IVFricative: In the production of a fricative consonant the articulator is one of close approximation. The active articulator is brought so close to the passive articulator that the passage between them is very narrow and the air passes through it with audible friction. E.g., /f/, /v/Frictionless continuant: [r] in redSemi-vowel: /j/, /w/5/26/2015445/26/201545A plosive is formed by the complete obstruction of the vocal tract by the articulators. This obstruction is then released, allowing the air to "explode" out of the mouth.When the air is blocked by the articulator, it begins to raise in pressure. Then, when the air is released, the high pressure air rushes out into the lower pressure area beyond the blockage. This results in a burst of air, signifying a plosive. In the following diagram, the dots represent the pressure of the air. The higher pressure area have more dots per area, while the lower pressure areas have fewer dots per area.

Plosives Consonants5/26/201546

Plosives ConsonantsExamples of plosives in English are /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/Bilabial (made with two lips)2. Labiodental (made with lower lips and upper teeth)3. Dental (made with tongue tip or blade and upper front teeth).

Retroflex (tongue tip and the back of alveolar ridge).7. Palatal (front of the tongue and hard palate).

8. Velar (back of the tongue and hard palate).9.Uvular10. Pharyngeal11. glottal

4. Alveolar (made with tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge) 5. Palato-alveolar (tongue blade and the back of the alveolar ridge).

TABLE OF ENGLISH CONSONANTSBilabialLabio-dentalDentalAlveolarPalato-alveolarPalatalVelarGlotalPlosive b d gAffricative Fricative v z Nasal m n Lateral lApproximant(w) r j wPlace of ArticulationFront BackManner of ArticulationfpskhtUnvoiced phonemes are on shaded background. Voiced phonemes are normalClassification of Consonants by Manner of ArticulationManner of articulation refers to the degree of constriction as the consonants begin or end a syllableStops are defined by complete closure of the lips and subsequent release (p, b)Fricatives use an incomplete closure of the lips to create turbulent noise (f, s, sh)Nasals resonate through the nasal cavity (m, n)Hint: try making these nasal sounds with your nostrils plugged Glides and Liquids are produced when the tongue approaches a point of articulation within the mouth but does not come close enough to obstruct or constrict the flow of air enough to create turbulence (l, r, w)

The manner of articulationIt refers to the interaction between the various articulators and the air stream; i.e. The air is temporally trapped and then released.The manners of articulation are:

PLOSIVEAFFRICATIVEFRICATIVENASALLATERALAPPROXIMANTVoiced vs. Voiceless ConsonantsVoiced consonants are produced with the vocal cords vibrating Voiceless consonants are produced with the vocal cords open

ExampleThe sounds /f/ and /v/ are both labiodental fricatives; however, /f/ is voiceless and /v/ is voicedMANNER OF ARTICULATIONPLOSIVEA complete closure is made in the vocal tract and the soft palate is also raised. Air pressure increases behind the closure and is then released explosively, e.g. /p/ and /b/AFFRICATIVEA complete closure is made in the mouth and the soft palate is raised. Air pressure increases behind the closure, and is released more slowly than the plosive, e.g. /t/- //FRICATIVEWhen two vocal organs come close enough together for the movement of air between them to be heard, e.g. /f/- /v/NASALA closure is made by the lips, or by the tongue against the palate, the soft palate is lowered, and air escapes through the nose, e.g. /m/- /n/ LATERALA partial closure is made by the blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge. Air is able to flow around the sides of the tongue, e.g. /l/APPROXIMANTVocal organs come near to each other, but no so close as to cause audible friction , e.g. /r/- /w/Consonants can be voiced or unvoiced (voiceless) i.e. a sound is voiced when the vocal cords are open and unvoiced when the vocal cords are close and the air which passes makes them vibrate.

FORCE OF ARTICULATIONFortis or strong: it is related to unvoiced sounds, which require a more forcefully expelled airstream.Lenis or weak: it is related to be voiced sounds.

The force of articulation is very difficult to define and measureResonance the quality of a sound that stays loud, clear, and deep for a long timeDependent upon the size and shape of the:Vocal TractOral CavityNasal Cavity

The resonant frequency of each of our voices will differ depending on the size and shape of the structures above, much like how the resonance of a cello or bass differs from a guitar . 5/26/201561The voicing parameter specifies whether the vocal folds are vibrating. All the sounds produced in the English are either voiced or voiceless. Voiced sounds occur when the vocal cords vibrate when the sound is produced. There is no vocal cord vibration when producing voiceless sounds. To test this, place your finger tips hand on your throat as you say the sounds. When saying the voiced sounds, you should be able to feel a vibration. When saying the voiceless sounds you sound not be able to feel a vibration.Voiced and Voiceless Sounds5/26/201562Voiced Voiceless b p d t g k v f z s th th sz sh j ch l h m n ng r w - y Voiced and Voiceless SoundsTips To distinguish between voiced & unvoiced sounds:1. Put your hands over your ears & say the sounds - you'll hear the voiced sounds.2. Put your hand on your throat while saying the sounds - you'll feel a vibration for the voiced sounds.3. Put a piece of paper in front of your mouth when saying the sounds - the paper will move when saying the unvoiced sounds.

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