conserving and managing trees and woodlands in scotland's designed landscapes ·...
TRANSCRIPT
Conserving and managing trees and woodlands in Scotland’s designed landscapes
Practice Guide
Practice Guide
Conserving and managing trees and woodlands in Scotland’s designed
landscapes
Peter McGowan with Christopher Dingwall
Forestry Commission Scotland: Edinburgh
© CrownCopyright2011
Applicationsforreproductionofanypartofthispublicationshouldbeaddressedtothe:OfficeofPublicSectorInformation,LicensingDivision,StClementsHouse,2–16Colegate,NorwichNR31BQ.
Firstpublishedin2011bytheForestryCommissionScotland 231CorstorphineRoad,EdinburghEH127AT.
ISBN978-0-85538-846-1
McGOwAN,P.withDINGwALL,C.(2011). ConservingandmanagingtreesandwoodlandsinScotland’sdesignedlandscapes. ForestryCommissionScotlandPracticeGuide. ForestryCommission,Edinburgh.i–iv+1–56pp.
Keywords:designedlandscapes,woodlands.
PrintedintheUnitedKingdom
FCPG102/FCS(AC)/JT-1K/DEC11
Enquiriesrelatingtothispublicationshouldbeaddressedto:
ForestryCommissionScotland 231CorstorphineRoad Edinburgh EH127AT
T:01313340303 F:01313164344 E:[email protected]
If you need this publication in an alternative format, for example in large printor in another language, please contact The Diversity Team at the above address.Telephone: 0131 314 6575 or Email: [email protected].
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Acknowledgements
ThetextwaswrittenbyPeterMcGowanofPeterMcGowanAssociates,landscapearchitects,withChristopherDingwall.TheprojectwasinitiatedandfinancedbyForestryCommissionScotlandandcarriedoutunderthedirectionofaSteeringGroupmadeupofHistoricScotland,woodlandTrust,AssociaitonofLocalGovernmentArchaeologicalOfficers,GardenHistorySociety,NationalTrustforScotland,ArchaeologyScotlandandScottishBordersCouncil.
AllphotographsbyPeterMcGowanunlessotherwisestated.HistoricimagessuppliedbyChristopherDingwall.Box1sketchdesignedbyPeterMcGowanandillustratedbyClareHewitt.
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ContentsIntroduction 1PurposeandcoverageofthisPracticeGuide 1
Legislation, policies and guidelines 3Legislation,planningpoliciesandplanningguidance 3UKForestryStandardandGuidelines 6TheScottishForestryStrategy 7
Trees and woodlands in designed landscapes 8Componentsofdesignedlandscapes 8Valuesandusesofdesignedlandscapes 9Landscapedesignstylesandhistoricperiods 10Conservationdocuments,surveysandmanagementplans 18
Guidance section 20Conservationandmanagementoftreesindesignedlandscapes 20woodlandmanagementandsilviculturalsystems 30Generalmanagementissues 35Accessandinterpretation 40Invasivespecies,pestsanddiseases 41Climatechangeandeffectsonwoodsandtrees 44
Appendices 48Researchsources,mapsandwebsitesinsiteassessment 48Sourcesoffunding 50Organisationsforfurtherinformationandadvice 53Generalreading 53Glossaryandacronyms 54
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IntroductionPurposeandcoverageofthisPracticeGuide
Designedlandscapesandtheirwoodlands,parklandandtreesmakeamajorcontributiontothesceneryofmanypartsofScotland.ThisguidancehasbeenpreparedtoassistownersandmanagersincaringforallthetreecomponentsinthefineheritageofdesignedlandscapesthroughoutScotland.Theguidancesetsoutto:
• aidunderstandingofwhatcomprisesanhistoricdesignedlandscape • outlinethecomponentsofdesignedlandscapes,inparticulartheirtreefeatures,theirdesign
principlesandcommonmanagementissues • helpplanarestoration,replantingormanagementproject • assistownersindecidingwhatactionsmaybenecessarywhenseekingfundingfor
conservationmanagement • providebackgroundinformationandlinkstofurthersourcesofinformation.
whatisadesignedlandscape?
Designed landscapeisatermdescribingtheornamentalgroundsofcountryhousesandinstitutions,publicparksandsimilarsites.Thisincludesgardensandpoliciesi.e.‘theenclosed,plantedandpartlyembellishedparkordemesnelandlyingaroundacountryhouse’–whatinEnglandwouldbetermedthepark.Thefollowingdefinitionofdesignedlandscapesisusedhere:
Grounds deliberately enclosed and laid out for aesthetic effect by any combination of landforming, building, water management and planting, and incorporating the natural landscape, for pleasure, agriculture and forestry purposes.
Designedlandscapesinthe21stcentury
Mostdesignedlandscapesintheformtheyexisttodayaretheproductofthe19thcenturyandearlierperiods.Theproblemsadaptingtothehugeeconomicandsocialchangesofthe20thcentury–reducedestateincomes,lossofmanpower,costsofmaintenanceanddevelopmentpressures–affectallpropertiestoagreaterorlesserdegree.Mostsiteshavebeenthroughprocessesofchangeperiodically.Furtheradaptationandchange,includingnewusesanddevelopment,mayhavetobepartofthefutureofmanysites.Thiscanbepossiblewithoutdetrimentifdoneinasensitiveandplannedway,basedonafullunderstandingofthevaluesoftheplace.Anaimofthisguidanceistoassistinachievingthistypeofchange.
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Figure 1Dawyck,ScottishBorders.
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Legislation,policiesandguidelinesLegislation,planningpoliciesandplanningguidance
IncontrastwithmostotherfacetsofScotland’snaturalandculturalheritage,thelistingandprotectionofdesignedlandscapesandtheirtreesandwoodlandsthroughlegislationandScotland’stownandcountryplanningsystemisacomparativelyrecentdevelopment.
Treesandwoodland
Town and Country Planning Act 1947givespowerstolocalauthoritiestodesignateTreePreservationOrderstoprotectindividualtreesandsmallareasofwoodland,usuallyinurbanandsuburbanareas,wheretheseareconsideredtohavehighamenityvalue.SimilarprotectionisaffordedtotreesinConservationAreasthroughthePlanning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas)(Scotland) Act 1997,thoughitseffect,too,islargelyconfinedtourbanareas.OutwithurbanareastheprincipalcontroloverthemanagementofwoodlandisthroughtheissuingofaFellingLicences,firstintroducedundertheForestry Act 1967,whichrequiresthelandownertoconsultwiththeForestryCommissionScotlandonproposalstofellexisting woodland,althoughtherearesignificantexemptionsfortreesinprivategardens,orchardsandchurchyards.
Manylocalauthoritiesemployofficerswhoareabletoofferadviceonmatterstodowithtreesandwoodland.Theseofficersarebackedupinmanyareasbyvoluntarytreewardens,whooperateundertheaegisoftheTreeCouncil.
ScheduledmonumentsandListedbuildings
Archaeologicalorarchitecturalfeatureswithinaparkordesignedlandscapemaybeeitherscheduled(asmonumentsofnationalimportance)orlisted.AlthoughtheaforementionedPlanningAct1997doesnotgiveexplicitrecognitionofgardensanddesignedlandscapesitincludesprovisionsthatareintendedtoprotectthesettingoflistedbuildings.GovernmentpolicyandguidanceonthissubjectisalsostatedinScottish Planning Policy 23: Planning and the Historic Environment.AtthetimeofwritingHistoricScotlandisintheprocessofdevelopinganewadvicenoteundertheheadlineManaging Change in the Historic Environment: Setting.
Figure 2
TheAntoninewallditchinCallendarPark,Falkirk.ScheduledancientmonumentandworldHeritageSite.
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Inventoryofgardensanddesignedlandscapes
TheInventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland wasoriginallypublishedin1987,covering282sites,withadditionalsitesbeingaddedfrom2001onwardsfollowingregionalresurveys.Thelastpublishedlist(2007)included386sites.In2008acomprehensivearea-basedInventoryresurveyprogrammewasbegun,designedtoprovideamoreup-to-dateresource.ThisprojectentailsafullrevisionofallexistingInventorysites,theselectionofnewcandidatesandtheidentificationandremovalofsiteswhichnolongermeetthecriteriaforinclusion.
AlthoughInventorystatusisnotastatutorydesignation(andthereforedifferentfromtheschedulingofmonumentsandlistingofbuildings)ithasbeenamaterialconsiderationintheScottishplanningsystemsince1992.ThetermsoftheTown and Country Planning (Development Management Procedure) (Scotland) Regulations 2008,(formerlytheGeneral Development Procedure Order)requirelocalauthoritiestoconsultHistoricScotlandondevelopmentproposalsaffectingInventorysites.ItshouldbenotedthatHistoricScotland’slocusisrestrictedtodevelopmentwhichrequiresplanningpermission.Theydonothaveaformalroleintheday-to-daymanagementormaintenanceofInventorysites.
TheInventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in ScotlandwithadescriptionandevaluationofeachsiteisavailableonHistoricScotland’swebsite(www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/heritage/gardens).
Inaddition,theHistoricLand-useAssessmentontheHLAmapwebsiteoftheRoyalCommissionontheAncientandHistoricalMonumentsofScotlandshowsthelocationofthecoreareaofmanydesignedlandscapes(hla.rcahms.gov.uk).
Non-Inventorygardensanddesignedlandscapesandplanningpolicies
ScottishMinistersencouragelocalauthoritiestoformulatepoliciesfortheidentificationandmanagementofnon-Inventorysiteswhichneverthelessmakeapositivecontributiontothelocalorregionalhistoricenvironment.
Figure 3
Inventorydesignedlandscape.Monteviot,ScottishBorders.
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Itisforlocalauthoritiestoidentifysuchsitesanddeveloppolicieswithindevelopmentplansfortheirprotectionandfuturemanagement.LocalauthoritiesareencouragedtoformulatepoliciesforbothInventoryandnon-Inventorysites.AlllocalauthoritydevelopmentplansnowcontainpoliciesinrespectofInventorysites,butonlyafewcurrentlycovernon-Inventorysites.Somelocalauthoritieshaveundertakensystematicsurveysofnon-Inventorysiteswithaviewtoincludingthemunderplanningpolicies.
Ancientwoodland
DesignedlandscapesmayincludelanddesignatedasaSiteofSpecialScientificInterest,orevenasaNationalNatureReserve,butmanymoreincludeareasidentifiedbyScottishNaturalHeritage(SNH)asAncientwoodland,orlong-establishedsemi-naturalorplantationwoodland.DesignatedareasareincludedintheAncientwoodlandInventorymaintainedbySNHandaredefinedonmapsontheForestryCommission’sGLADELandInformationSearchwebsite.woodlandoperationswithindesignatedsitesaregenerallymadethesubjectofmanagementagreementsbetweentheagencyandthelandowner,wheregrantaidisinvolved.TheoverallobjectivesofSNHinrespectoftreesandwoodlandaresetoutinitspolicystatementNatural Heritage Futures, Forests and Woodlands (2002)(www.snh.org.uk).
Fellinglicences
PermissionfromtheForestryCommissionScotlandisnormallyneededtofellgrowingtrees.ForestryCommissionScotlandgivethiswithafellinglicenceorwithapprovalunderaDedicationScheme.Incertaincircumstancesyoumayalsoneedspecialpermissionfromanotherorganisationforanyproposedfelling.
Everyoneinvolvedinthefellingoftrees,whetherdoingtheworkorbyengagingothers,e.g.theowner,agent,timbermerchantorcontractor,mustensurethatafellinglicenceorapprovalunderaDedicationSchemehasbeenissuedbeforeanyfellingiscarriedoutorthatoneoftheexemptionsapply.TheymustalsoensurethattheworkiscarriedoutinaccordancewiththetermsofaForestryCommissionpermission.Ifthereisnolicenceorothervalidpermission,orifthewrongtreesarefelled,anyoneinvolvedcanbeprosecuted.Anyfellingcarriedoutwithouteitheralicenceorotherpermissionisanoffence,unlessitiscoveredbyanexemption.Inanycalendarquarter,youmayfellupto5m3onyourpropertywithoutalicenceaslongasnomorethan2m3aresold.
Figure 4Non-Inventorydesignedlandscape.Cawder,EastDumbartonshire.
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Certaintypesoffellingdonotneedpermission.ForestryCommissionpublicationTree Felling, getting permission(www.forestry.gov.uk/publications)explainstherequirementsandexceptionsfurther.TheForestryAct1967,asamended,andrelatedregulationsgivetheexceptionsinfull.
BritishStandards
whencarryingoutworktotreesthefollowingBritishStandardsshouldbeadheredto:BS3998:2100 RecommendationsforTreeworkBS5837:2005 TreesinRelationtoConstruction
ScotlandRuralDevelopmentProgrammeandSingleFarmPayment
TheseruralandagriculturalsupportschemeshaveconditionsthatmayaffecthistoriclandscapesandareconsideredunderFundingintheAppendices.
UKForestryStandardandGuidelines
Inachievingsustainableforestmanagement(SFM),theconservationofheritagefeaturesandachievementoflandscapequalityarepromotedintheUK Forestry Standard(1998).TheirrespectiveSFMrequirementsarefor:
• importantheritagefeaturesareprotected. • dueaccountistakenofcultural,historicordesignedlandscapes. • landscapequalityisenhanced.
TheForestryCommission Forestry Practice Advice Note 3 – Woodlands in Designed Landscapes (1995,outofprint)providedbasicinformationforwoodlandmanagersonthehistory,identification,valueandcareofthetreeandwoodlandcomponentsofadesignedlandscape.ThepresentguidancereplacesthatearliernationalguidancewithparticularreferencetoScotlandandrelatesittocurrentgrantandotherfundingopportunities.
Asuiteofdesignguidelines–Forest Landscape Design,Lowland Landscape DesignandCommunity Woodland Design–allcontainadviceontheprinciplesandprocessesofdesigningandmanaging
Figure 5ArangeofhistoricsitesfromtheRomanperiodonwardsandseveraldesignedlandscapesintheTweedvalleybelowtheEildonHills.Scott’sView,Bemersyde,ScottishBorders.
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forestsandwoodlandsintheUKlandscape.Muchofthisadviceisrelevanttotherestoration,rejuvenationandsustainablemanagementofdesignedlandscapes.
BoththeUK Forestry Standard(UKFS)andassociatedsuiteofGuidelinesaretobesupersededbynewpublicationsavailablelate2011.BesidesthenewUKFS,ofrelevancetothisguidancearethenewForests and the Landscape Guidelines andForests and the Historic Environment Guidelines.
TheScottishForestryStrategy
The Scottish Forestry Strategy(2006)acknowledgesthecontributionmadebytreesandwoodlandtolandscapecharacterandquality,placingahighpriorityonincreasingstructuralandspeciesdiversity,andontheprovisionofwelldesignedandwellmanagedwoods.Recognitionisaffordedtodesignedlandscapesthatcontainnon-nativetreesandshrubs.ThestrategyencouragesthesympatheticmanagementoftreesandwoodlandsinsiteslistedintheInventory,aswellasvaluedindividualancientandheritagetrees.
Scotland’swoodlandsandtheHistoricEnvironment
TheForestyCommissionScotlandpolicystatementScotland’s Woodlands and the Historic Environment(2008)wasdevelopedforallthosewithaninterestinScotland’strees,woodlandsandforestsandbringstogetherScottish Historic Environment Policy(SHEP;HistoricScotland,2009)andtheScottish Forestry Strategyto:
• Communicatetheforestrysector’ssharedunderstandingofhowforestsandwoodlandscontributetowardsScotland’shistoricenvironment.
• PromotetheappreciationofthehistoryofScotland’sforestsandwoodlands,andtheircontributiontowardsourculturalheritage.
• ConfirmhowtheforestrysectorwillendeavourtodelivertherequiredoutcomesofScottishMinisters’strategicpoliciesforthehistoricenvironment.
• Outlinewhatpracticalmeasurestheforestrysectorcantaketoensurethatallouractivitiesenhancethestewardshipofthehistoricenvironment.
TheForestyCommissionScotlandPolicyStatementcanbefoundat:www.forestry.gov.uk/histenvpolicy
Figure 6Anoutstandingnon-Inventorysitewithmanytypicalfeatures.StobsCastle,ScottishBorders.
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TreesandwoodlandsindesignedlandscapesComponentsofdesignedlandscapes
Designedlandscapeswerelaidoutovergroundwithnaturallandform,watercoursesandvegetation,sometimesalreadyimprovedforagriculturaluse.Thenaturallandscapeusuallystillplaysamajorroleinthedesigntogetherwiththefollowingman-madefeatures–bothconstructedandplanted.
• Buildings–mansionhouse,stables,estatecottagesandlodges–areessentialcomponents,togetherwithgardenbuildings–folliesandeye-catchers,dovecots,ice-housesandwalledgardenswithglasshouses,conservatoriesandbothies.
• Enclosures–hahas,terracewallsandbalustrades,estatefences,fieldboundaries,estatewalls. • Landform–terracebanks,ground-moulding,causeways,rockwork. • Circulation–drives,estateroads,rides,walks,footpaths,stepsandbridges. • Water features–maybeadaptednaturalwatercourses–rills,cascades,glens–orformalelements
fedbythem–canals,lakes,artificialrivers,ponds,pools,fountains. • Views and visual structure–whilethesecomponentsarenotphysicaltheyareasmuch
partofthedesignastheotherfeaturesandincludevistas(narrowaxialviews),broaderviewsandpanoramas,andthecontainedandlinkedspacesformedbyplantingandwalls.Externalviews,whetherexpansiveordirectedatspecificfeatures,areoftenalsoimportant.
• Planted features–parklandwithclumps,groupsandindividualtrees,avenues;boundarytreebelts,shelterbelts,roadsideandboundarytreesandhedges;shrubberies,ornamentalwoodland,andarboretums;policywoodland,forestryplantationsandareasofsemi-naturalwoodland;kitchengardensandothergardensinalltheirvariety.
Eachofthesecomponentgroupsneedsregularmanagement,maintenanceandrepairfortheirsurvival,andmayentailsubstantialinvestmenttorestoreneglectedfeatures.Eachisaspecialistareathatmayrequireprofessionalinputsandskilledcraftsmen.whilerecognisingallthecomponentsthatcompriseadesignedlandscape,thisguidancedealsindetailonlywiththeplantedcomponentsandthevisualstructurethattheycreate.
Figure 7Themansionhouse,focusofthelandscape,DumfriesHouse.
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Howcandesignedlandscapesbeidentified?
InmanypartsofScotland,fromaroundourtownsandcitiestomoreremoteareas,designedlandscapesaccountformuchofthelandweviewascountryside.Manypeopledonotrecognisethattheseparticularlyfineareasoflandscapehavebeendeliberatelydesignedbecausetheyhavebecomeanessentialpartofthelandscapeswetravelthroughandenjoy.Fromtheroadside,estatewalls,boundarytreebeltsandformalgatewaysandlodgesareindicators.Plantingfeatureswillincludeavenuesofmaturetrees,parklandgrazingwithlargetreesandtreeclumps,andavarietyofwoodlandtypes.Nearthemainhousemaybeterracedgardens,shrubberies,wildgardensandcollectionsoffinetrees.withinthesitewillalsobefoundawalledorkitchengarden,stablesblock,estatecottages,dovecot,ice-houseand,possibly,ornamentalbuildingsandfollies.Intheouterpartsofthesitepastureandarablefarmlandandlarge-scalecommercialforestryplantationsmayplayapart.
Theformsthatdesignedlandscapestakecanbeidentifiedonmapsandontheground,althoughtheirvariabilityanddegreeofdesigncansometimesmakethisdifficult.Also,thedesignedlandscapesmaydisplayfeaturesfromdifferentdesignperiodswhichcanmakeunderstandingthechronologicaldevelopmentofthelandscapeachallenge.
Valuesandusesofdesignedlandscapes
PerhapsthemainvalueofdesignedlandscapeandthetreecomponentsintermsoftheireverydayimpactonourlivesistheircontributiontoScottishscenerywhetherinthevicinityoftownsorruralareasoftheLowlands,Highlandsandislands.Thelandscapesweseeaswetravelthroughlandscapes,eitheronadailybasisorasanoccasionalvisitor,oftendependfortheirqualitytoalargedegreeonthedeliberateplantingoftreesovermanycenturiesandatdifferentscalesbyestateowners.Butthisimportantpartofourheritageandhasmanyvaluesincluding:
• Artistic valuefortheirdesignthatcombinesnaturallandscapeandman-madebuiltandplantedfeatures
• Historical valueonaccountoffamilyhistory,roleinnationalorlocalhistory,associationwithfamouspeopleincludingdesignersandplantcollectors
• Horticultural valueduetoexcellenceofgardenorplantcollections,orarboriculturalvalueforitsvarietyoftrees
Figure 8Ornamentalcanal,Newliston. Figure 9Axialride,Dawyck.
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• Architectural value asthesettingforlistedbuildingsandworksbyrenownedarchitects • Scenic valueforcontributiontothelocallandscape,eitherindividuallyorinagrouporsequence • Nature conservation valueonaccountofthehabitatsanddiversityofspeciesofnative
floraandfauna • Archaeological valueforphysicalremainsfromanyperiodincludingevidenceofgardens
fromearlierperiods • Recreational valueforpublicand/orprivateuseandformanyactivities • Educational valuewhetherthroughinterpretationormoreformaltypesofteachingand
fieldstudyatprimary,secondaryandtertiarylevel,coveringanyoftheabovetopics • Climatic value–treesandforestscontributetowardsmitigationandadaptationofclimate
changeinmanydifferentways.
Intermsofuse,allsiteshaveacombinationofpleasureandproductiveland-uses,including:
• Recreationalusesbothbyowners,payingorfreeaccessbyvisitorsorbythelocalcommunity • Agricultureandforestry • Sportinguse(gamebirds,deerstalking,fishing) • Directandindirectcontributiontolocaltourism.
Landscapedesignstylesandhistoricperiods
Thissectiongivesasummaryofthestylesofdesignedlandscapeandtheirhistoricdevelopment.Asitemayshowoneparticulardesignperiodorstyleclearly,oftenbecausesubstantialre-designhastakenplaceatonetimeandsurvived,inwhichcasemuchofthetreeplantingmaybeofafairlyuniformage.Alternatively,thesurvivinglandscapemaybeaseriesoflayers,representingadditionsandchangesthroughsuccessiveperiods,wheretreesmightbeofawideagerange.
Naturalandsemi-naturalwoodland
ScatteredremnantsofScotland’snativewoodlandaretobefoundwithinmanydesignedlandscapesthroughoutScotland.InthemorecultivatedpartsoftheLowlands,woodlandofthissortgenerallyoccursininaccessiblelocationssuchascliffs,gorgesandsteepsideddens,where
Figure 10Hillsideparklandwithhighaestheticandscenicvalue.LenyHouse,Callander,Stirlingshire.
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itcannoteasilybeexploitedforitstimberorreachedbygrazinganimals.Inmanydesignedlandscapes,however,thenativewoodlandhasgenerallybecomedepletedthroughpastexploitation,hasbeeninvadedbyself-seedednon-nativespeciestreessuchassycamore,orhasbeendeliberatelyinterplantedwithornamentalspeciestoaddvisualinterestortimbervalue.withintheHighlandsremnantsofnativewoodlandtendtosurviveonlyonthesteepestslopes,intheremotestglens,oronislandsinlochs,wheretheyhaveescapedthecombinedpressuresofburningandgrazing.Evenheretheremaybeevidenceofpastexploitation,sometimesbyextractingtimberbyfloatingonlochsandrivers.Somenativewoodlandhasalsosurvivedintheformofwoodpasture,whereabalanceismaintainedbetweengrazingandnaturalregeneration,creatingapatchworkofwoodlandandopengrassland.Suchlandscapesareoftenrichinbiodiversity.Althoughwoodpasturederivedfromnaturalwoodlandisdifferentincharacterfromparklanddeliberatelyplantedwithclumpsandindividualtrees,bothcanmakeanimportantcontributiontolandscapecharacter.
Earlyforestmanagement
ThesystematicmanagementandexploitationofScotland’sforestsbeganinmedievaltimes.withthegradualexpansionofagriculture,itbecamenecessarytoimposesomecontrolsoverforestclearanceandgrazing.ThesecontrolsweremostlyexerciseddirectlybytheCrownorthroughgrantsoflandtoreligioushousesandfeudalbarons,withpenaltiestobeimposedonthosewhodisobeyedthelaw.Somereligiousorders,notablytheCistercians,areknowntohaveemployedforesterstomanagetheirwoods,whilefavouredbaronswereabletoenjoyspecialrightsandprivilegesoverthelandandforestwhichwasplacedundertheirjurisdiction.
whilesomewoodsandforestsweremanagedandexploitedfortheirtimber,otherswereprotectedandmaintainedashuntingreserves.IntheLowlandsandmoresettledpartsofthecountrythisofteninvolvedthecreationofwoodedparks,usuallyboundedbyfencesandditches,someofwhicharedepictedonearlymapsofScotlandsuchasthoseofTimothyPontandJohanBlaeu.Tracesofthesemedievalhuntingreservesstillsurviveinsomeplacesasearthworks,oftenfoundincloseproximitytoroyalpalacesandhighstatushousesofthemedievalperiod.Theirformerexistencemayalsoberevealedbyplace-nameswhichincludewordssuchas‘forest’,‘park’,‘hart’and‘hind’.Thoughprimarilyintendedfortheraisingofdeer,theseparkssometimesincludedotherfeaturessuchasfishpondsandrabbitwarrensor‘cunningars.’
Figure 11
StirlingCastleandKingsParkfromTimothyPontmapc.1595.
Figure 12
ThecastleandnewparkofCumbernauldfromJohanBlaeumap,1654.
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Geometricalplanting
Afondnessfororderandproportioninthelandscape,asinthearchitecturetowhichitwasoftenrelated,wasevidentintheplantationssurroundingScottishhousesfromanearlydate.Scotland’searliestgardeningbookThe Scots Gard’nerbyJohnReid,firstpublishedin1683,encouragedlandownersto “ … make all the buildings and plantings lie so about the house as that the house may be the centre … whatever you have on the one hand, make as much, and of the same form and in the same place, on the other.”Althoughthenaturaltopographyoftenmadeitdifficulttoachieveabsolutesymmetry,manylandscapesofthelate17thcenturyandearly18thcenturyexhibitedthissortofregularity,frequentlycentredonanaxiallinerunningthroughthehouse,withacross-axissetatrightanglestoit.wherethesurroundingplantationsformedpartofthepleasuregrounds,theywerefrequentlycutthroughwithintersectingwalksandrides,orwithnarrowvistasradiatingfromasinglepoint.Untilthemid18thcenturyformalplantationsofthissortweregenerallyreferredtoaswildernesses.
Figure 13
PlanfromTheScotsGard’nerbyJohnReid,1683.
Figure 15Vistainwilderness.Newliston,CityofEdinburgh.
Figure 14
Typicalplanc.1700.
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Theavenuesandvistasthatwereafeatureoftheselandscapesservedinsomecasesasthemainapproachtothehouse,orinothercasesasedgestoframeviewstoandfromthehouse.Theywerenormallyintheformofrowsofregularlyspacedstandardtrees,ornarrowparallelbeltsofplanting.wheretheystretchedoutintothesurroundinglandscapetheycouldbeseenassymbolicofalandowner’spowerandinfluenceoverhissurroundings–asJohnReidobserved“… being like the sun sending forth his beams”.Onecharacteristicofmanyoftheselandscapeswasthealignmentofthemainaxisonadistantfeaturesuchasacastleorprominenthill-top.whereaplantationwascutintoastarshapeorrond-point,eachoftheradiatingvistasmightbealignedonadifferentlandscapefeature.EarlytouristssuchasDanielDefoec.1710andJohnMackyc.1723describedmanysuchlandscapesintheirjournals.
Theformalityofthepoliciessurroundingthemansionhousewasfrequentlyextendedintothesurroundinglandscapeintheformofrectangularenclosuresorparks,boundedbyhedgesorwalls,alongwhichstandardtreeswereplantedatregularintervals.Inmoreexposedsituationstheselinesoftreescouldbethickenedintonarrowtree-belts,toserveaswind-breaks.Althoughchangingfashioninthelate-18thcenturysawmanyofthesegeometricallandscapesaltered,withancientavenuesuprootedorlefttodecline,therewasarevivalofinterestinformalityinVictorianandEdwardiantimes,resultingintherenewalofoldavenuesortheplantingofnewones,sometimeswithexoticconiferssuchasgiantsequoiaormonkeypuzzle.
Naturalisticorparklandlandscapes
Theaimofcreatinganidealisedclassicallandscape,influencedbythepaintingsoftheClaudeLorrainandSalvatorRosaandthesightsofthegrandtour,broughtaboutachangeinfashioninlandscapeimprovementinthemid-18thcentury.Thenewstylereflectedagrowingappreciationofthenaturalcharacterofasite.Addedtotheseconsiderationswasthecostofmaintainingwildernessplantations,wheretheformalwalksandridesrequiredfrequentpruningandmowing.Thenewstyle,whichcametobeknownasthe‘English’landscapegardenornaturalstyle,paidmoreattentiontonaturaltopographyandsoughttoexploitthescenicopportunitieswhichitoffered.AlthoughthestyleiscloselyassociatedwiththreeEnglishlandscapedesigners–williamKent,LancelotCapabilityBrownandHumphryRepton–theydidnotpractisenorthoftheBorder(apartforonesiteinFifebyRepton),soitsapplicationinScotlandisattributabletoothers.
Figure 16
Parklandplanting.BlairAdam,Kinross.
Figure 17
ParklandplantingstylesbywilliamGilpin.
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Inplaceoftheformalavenuesandregularplantationsofearliertimestheredevelopednewparklandlandscapesboundedbyplantationswithsinuousedges,embracingbroadareasofgrassland,ornamentedwithirregularclumps,groupsorscatteredindividualtrees.Oftenthenaturaltopographyhelpedtodeterminethepatternofplanting–inthewordsofonecontemporarywriter“I just plant what winna pleugh, and nature does the rest.” Sweepingdrivesallowedmuchgreatervarietyinformingtheapproachestoahouse,addinginterestbyexploitingthefavourite18thcenturydeviceofconcealmentandsurprise.Carefullyplacedtreesandplantationsservedtoframedistantviews,andinotherstohidepublicroads,servicedrivesandunsightlyfeaturesfromview.
Fromthemid-18thcenturymanyparklandlandscapeswereplantedwithindividualparklandtreesandclumps,carefullychosenfortheirformandvisualinterest.whetherobservedfromafixedpointsuchasahouse,orseenfromthewindowsofamovingcarriage,thepatternofplantingwasdesignedtoaddvarietyanddepthtotheforegroundandmiddlegroundofviews.Parklandwasalmostinvariablymaintainedaspermanentpastureorhay-meadow,withgrazinganimalsaddingtoitspastoralcharacter.Inmanylandscapesthesunkenfenceorha-hawasintroduced,tomaintainopenviewswhilekeepingstockoutoftheareasclosesttothehouse.Insuchlandscapesfarmbuildingsandstableblocksmightbepositionedatsomedistancefromthehouse,eitherhiddenorwithfeaturestoserveaseye-catchers.Onmoredistanthilltops,othereye-catchersintheformofartificialruins,obelisksormonumentswouldbeplaced.walledkitchengardensweregenerallyatsomedistancefromthehouse,shelteredbytreeplantingwhichcouldbeunderplantedwithshade-bearingherbaceousplantssuchasbluebellsanddaffodils,orwithornamentalshrubssuchasrhododendronsandazaleas,tocreateattractivewoodlandwalks.Elsewhere,especiallywherelandscapeswerebeingmanagedfortheirsportingvalue,underwoodwasplantedwithparticularshrubspeciestoprovidecoverforgamebirds.
Picturesqueandsublimelandscapes
Thewilderaspectsofnature,shunnedbyearliergenerations,begantoattractattentionfromthemid-18thcenturyonwards.Asonecontemporarywriterwasmovedtocommentinverseinthe1720s “Still other harsh and frightful objects be / Which not a little grace a country seat / If only brought within the bounds of sight.”ManyScottishlandownersbegantoseekoutwildglensinthevicinityoftheirhouses,andtoincorporatethemintotheirdesignsbywithnewpaths,drives,
Figure 18
Typicalplanc.1800.
Figure 19
Parkland,Ballochcastle,LochLomond.
15
bridgesandplanting.Theseledvisitorstoviewpointsoverlookingdramaticlandscapefeaturessuchascliffs,cragsandwaterfalls.whilemanysuchlandscapeswerealreadypartiallywoodedbynature,othersbenefitedfromnewplantingputintoaddvisualinterest,ortoframeviews.Suchscenes,eagerlysoughtoutbytouristsfromthemid18thcenturyonwards,remainpopularwithvisitorstoScotlandtwoandahalfcenturieson.
Asintamerlandscapes,thedeviceofconcealmentandsurprisewasfrequentlyemployedtoaddtothedrama,withpathsleadingthroughwoodlandtoviewpointsofferingcarefullycontrivedglimpsesorviews,oftendescribedaspicturesqueorsublime.AlthoughpicturesqueandsublimelandscapesweretobefoundintheLowlands,mostlycentredonrivergorgesandwaterfalls,itwasamongstthehillsandmountainsthatsomeofthemostdramaticscenesofnatureweretobefound.Thepurposeoftheselandscapeswastothrilltheobserverwithoutputtingthemindangerandwerecarefullylaidoutandplantedtomaximisetheireffect.
Figure 20
Typicalplanc.1890.
Figure 21
PicturesqueviewatBarskimming.
Figure 22
SublimelandscapeatFallsofBruar.
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Exotictrees,arboretumsandAmericangardens
withtheexplorationoftheworldleadingtoarapidexpansionintherangeoftreesavailabletoplantersfromlate18thcentury,newandexcitingopportunitieswereopeneduptoplanters,gainingmomentumthroughthe19thcentury.Exoticconifers,inparticular,attractedtheattentionofforestersandlandowners,whetherfortheirpotentialastimbertrees,orfortheirbeautyandrarity.Theirvariedformsandevergreenfoliagewereabletoprovidewintercolourinwoodedlandscapes.Landownersandnurserymen,whowereprominentamongstthemembershipoforganisationssuchastheOregonBotanicalAssociation,soughttooutdoeachotherinthecreationofexperimentalplantationsandarboreta,designedtoshowoffthesenewintroductionstobesteffect.ReferredtoinitiallyasAmerican gardens,theseexotictreecollectionssoonbecameanestablishedfeatureofmanyScottishestates.
ThosetreespecieswhichwerefoundtobetolerantoftheexposedconditionsandpoorsoilsoftheHighlandsandonthewestCoastallowedlandownerstoexpandtheirlandscapeimprovementthroughextensivehillplanting,entailingtheforestationoflandscapeslongstrippedoftheirnaturalwoodlandcover.Sitkaspruceandlodgepolepinesoonestablishedthemselvesasthemostfavouredspeciesforsuchhillplanting,alongsideearlierbutlesshardyintroductionssuchasNorwegianspruceandlarch,andthenativeScotspine.AfterBritain’slackofatimberreservewashighlightedintheFirstworldwar,governmentinthe20thcenturyinvestedheavilyinnewplantingofthesefastgrowingtreesthroughtheestablishmentoftheForestryCommission,offeringgenerousgrantstolandowners.Asaresult,manyestatepolicywoodlandswhichhadbeenfelledduringthetwowarswerereplantedwithcommercialconifers.Somesuchplantingshavebeencriticisedfortheirestablishmentwithoutdueregardforotherinterestsandsensitivities,includinganadverseeffectonlandscapecharacter.
Today,mostofScotland’stallesttreesareexoticconifers,locatedwithindesignedlandscapeswheretheyhavebeenallowedtogrowtomaturity.Consequently,itisoftenpossibletoidentifysuchlandscapeswiththehelpofthesesignaturetrees.Exoticbroadleavedtrees,too,havefoundaplaceinthesewoodlands,thoughthesearelessprominentinthelandscapebecauseoftheirresemblancetonativespecies.whilerecentyearshaveseenamarkedtrend,encouragedbyalteredgovernmentgrants,towardsthereplantingofwoodlandswithnativespecies,exotictreesdeliberatelyplantedinprominentpositionscontinuetoaddvariety,provideautumncolourandmakelandmarks,amongothereffects,indesignedlandscapes.
Figure 23
Exotictreegroups,Ballochcastle,LochLomond.
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Designedagriculturallandscapes
whilenotpartofthepoliciessurroundingcountryhouses,plantinginthesurroundingcountrysideoftenshowsclearevidenceofdeliberatedesign.Frommonastictimesonwardstree-plantinghasalwaysbeenseenasanimportantpartofagriculturalimprovement,whetherforamenityorforshelter.Thisismostoftenseeninroadsideandfieldboundaryplanting,withtreesspacedatregularintervalsalongfielddykesandhedgerows,especiallyalongtheapproachandboundaryroadstoahouseorestate.Insomeareas,thehedgerowsthemselvesbecomeacharacteristicfeatureoftherurallandscape.Thoughessentiallypracticalintheirpurpose,windbreaks,too,areoftenplantedwithvisualamenityinmind.Insomeinstances,wherethereisnobighousetoactasafocus,thepatternoffieldsandplantationscanbeseenasadesignedlandscapeinitsownright.
GiventhatthestructureofmuchofScotland’sagriculturallandscapewasestablishedinthelate-18thand19thcenturies,manyofthetreeswhichweresocarefullychosenandplantedbyourforebearsarenowmatureorover-mature.withtheenlargementoffieldsandthemechanisationofagriculture,fieldboundaryandparklandtreeshavecometoberegardedbysomelandownersasaninconvenience,leadingtotheirlossordeliberateremoval,withaconsequentimpactonlandscapecharacter.
Regionalvariations
ThereisconsiderableregionalvariationinthestylesandtypesofdesignedlandscapesfoundaroundScotland.Distinctivetypesincludewestcoastwildandrhododendrongardens,oftenwithtreecollections;Highlandhuntinglodges;northernislesdesignedlandscapeswithfewtreesandgrassterraces;coastalandlochsidelandscapesgenerally.
UnderSNH’sNaturalHeritageZones(NHZ)Programmein1999theregionalcharacteristicsinrespectofdesignedlandscapesofeachofthetwenty-oneNHZswasassessedintermsof:
• Abundanceanddistribution • Characteristicsofsitesinzone • Overallstatuswithinnationalresource • Sitesofspecialsignificance • Pressuresandthreats • Objectivesandfunding
Figure 24
Designedagriculturallandscape.
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Conservationdocuments,surveysandmanagementplans
ConservationManagementPlans
Allmajordecisionsinthemanagementofdesignedlandscape,includingdealingwithmanyoftheissuesinthefollowingsections,shouldbemadeinthecontextofaConservationManagementPlan.Suchplanshavetheadvantageofdealingwithallthefactorsrelevanttomanagingalandscapeinacomprehensivewaytoreachbalancedpolicesandcoursesofaction.AConservationManagementPlanisoftenrequiredbyfundingbodiesandmayitselfbegrantaided.Onemayberequiredalsobyaplanningauthoritywherenewdevelopmentorlarge-scalechangeisproposedinadesignedlandscaperecognisedinitsplanningpolicies.
AConservationManagementPlanisadocumentproducedbyanexperiencedprofessionalorsitemanagerthat:
• givesadetailedunderstandingofthesiteanditsfeaturesthroughresearch,consultationsandsurveys
• providesastatementofculturalsignificanceofthewholesiteanditsmajorcomponents • assessesthethreatstoitsheritageandothermanagementissues • setsoutconservationpoliciesasthebasisforfuturemanagement,conservationworksand
newdevelopmentsorchanges • laysdownmanagementpoliciesandproposals.
Thedetailedunderstandingwillinvolvehistoricalresearchandsitesurveysinsufficientdetailtoproduceaninformedstatementofsignificanceanddevelopdetailedpoliciesandproposals,anddealwiththemitigationoftheeffectsofanydevelopmentthatmaybeproposed.
Historicalresearchmayinvolvestudyofprimarysources(unpublisheddocumentssuchasestatearchivesandmanuscriptmapsandplans)andsecondarysources(publishedbooks,mapsetc.).Repositoriesfortheseincludelocallibraries,estateoffices,councilanduniversityarchives,andnationalrepositoriessuchastheNationalArchivesofScotland,GeneralRegisterOfficeforScotland(thesetwosoontobemerged),RoyalCommissionontheAncientandHistoricalMonumentsofScotlandandtheNationalLibraryofScotland,allinEdinburgh,ortheBritishLibraryinLondon.Increasinglyallkindsofdocumentsareavailableonlineatthewebsitesoftheseandmanyotherorganisations.
Historicmapsandplans,andrecordsofexistinglandclassificationsanddesignationsareusuallythemostusefulstartingpointingatheringinformationaboutasite.Ashortguidetoresearchsources,mapsandwebsitesinsiteassessmentisgivenasanAppendixinSection15.
AsamplebriefforaDesignedLandscapeConservationManagementPlancanbefoundat:www.hlf.org.uk/howtoapply
Balancingpriorities
ThevalueoftheConservationManagementPlanprocessisthatbyratingthesignificanceofthedifferentaspectsofthelandscape,prioritiescanbeestablishedandbalanceachievedbetweendifferentobjectives,forexamplebetween:
• conservingthesurvivingtreesofthehistoriclandscape • restoringtheplantedandbuiltfeaturesofthedesignedlandscape • preservingvisualamenityandthescenicvalueofthesite • ensuringtheviabilityofagricultureandforestry
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• conservinghabitatsandencouragingspeciesdiversity • providingfortherequirementsforfieldsportsandprivateuses • providingpublicaccessandvisitorattractions • achievingthebestuseofavailableresources.
Treeandwoodlandsurveys
Acomprehensiverecordoftheexistingresourceisavaluabletoolforunderstandingindetailthecharacteristicsandmanagementrequirementsoftheindividualtreesandtreegroupingsofasite.Treesmayrequiresurveyingeitherasindividuals–asinthecaseofparkland,smallgroups,avenue,specimenandveterantrees–orasareas,inthecaseofclumps,belts,woodsandmoreextensiveplantations.Treesinsomesituationsarelikelytorequiretreeworktomaintaintheirhealthandvigourandforpublicsafety,ortorequirereplacementwithyoungtrees.Surveysforthebasisfororganisingtreework,bothinitiallyandperiodicallythereafter,andformonitoringthetreestockinthelongerterm.
TreesurveysshouldgenerallybeundertakentoBS5837:2005,butmaybetailoredtotherequirementsofaparticularsiteandthespecialneedsoftheproject.Treesurveysshouldbeundertakenbyaqualifiedandexperiencedarboriculturalist,preferablyanArboriculturalAssociationregisteredTreeConsultant(www.trees.org.uk),oramemberoftheRoyalScottishForestrySociety(www.rsfs.org)orRoyalInstituteofCharteredForesters(www.charteredforesters.org).
ForestPlans
AForestPlanaimstodeliverlong-termenvironmentalbenefitsthroughsustainableforestmanagementandconsistsofastrategicplandescribingthemajorforestoperationsovera20yearperiod.AForestPlanmaybeastand-alonedocumentforadesignedlandscape,orincorporatedinaConservationManagementPlan.
ForestryCommissionScotlandcanprovidesupporttohelpprepareaForestPlan,throughthewoodlandImprovementGrant(wIG)forlong-termforestplanning.AnapprovedForestPlanwillgivea10yearapprovalforfelling,thinningandthemeansofaccessinggrantsforrestructuringfellingandregeneration.ItwillalsoprovideaccesstoothergrantsupportthroughRuralDevelopmentContracts–RuralPriorities(seeSourcesofFunding).
InformationonwoodlandImprovementGrantsincludinglong-termforestplanningcanbefoundat:www.forestry.gov.uk/glscotland
TheformatoftheForestPlanhasbeendesignedforuseinanywoodland.ThePlanwillnotnecessarilyneedtobecomplexbutthedetailincludedinthePlanshouldbeinlinewiththescale,complexityandsensitivityofthewoodland.ForestryCommissionScotlandhavepreparedanumberofForestPlanexamplestogiveanindicationofwhatisexpectedinarangeofdifferentsituations.Theseareavailablefromwww.forestry.gov.uk/wighelpasfollows:
• LargeUplandMixedConiferForest • SmallCommunitywoodland • Nativewoodland
Planningarestorationorrestockingproject
Planningaplantingprojectwillrequireanexperiencedlandmanagerorprofessionaladvisorsuchasaforesterorlandscapearchitect.Thesizeandtypesoftrees,groundpreparation,plantingtechniqueandprotectionwillvarydependingonsitecharacteristics,includingsoiltypeandmicroclimate.Theinformationincludedinthefollowingsectionsgivesoutlineguidanceonly.
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GuidancesectionThissectionprovidesthemainbodyoftheguidanceandconsidersthedifferenttreefeaturesofdesignedlandscapes,specificmanagementissuesrelatingtothemthathavebeenidentifiedandmoregeneralmanagementissuesthatcommonlyoccur.
Conservationandmanagementoftreesindesignedlandscapes
Parklandtrees–individualtrees,groups,roundelsandclumps
GrazedparklandisperhapsthemostcommondesignfeaturederivedfromtheEnglishlandscapegardentradition,seeninconfinedtoextensiveareasinpracticallyalldesignedlandscapes.Treecomponentsinparklandcanincludeindividualorstandardtrees,smallgroups,roundels,clumpsandsmallirregularly-shapedplantations.Thesetreefeaturesareoftenarrangedtocreateasenseofdepthintheprincipalviewsfromhouseanddrives,bytheiroverlappingformstodisguiseboundaries,tochannelviews,andtocreateacharacterofopenwoodlandthatcanbevisuallysimilartowoodpasture.Oftenparklandplantingappearsquiterandomandunrefined,whilestillcreatingadistinctcharacter,andinotherplacescanbesubtlyplannedtocreateparticularvisualeffects.
Ifnodetailedestatesurveysareavailableanditisconsideredbothdesirableandappropriatetorecreatetheoriginallayout,thebestbasisforrestoringthepatternofplantingisthe1:25001steditionOrdnanceSurvey,generallysurveyedintheperiod1850–1870,whichisavailableformuchofScotland(availablefromtheNationalLibraryofScotlandMapLibrary).Ideallytheoriginaltreespeciesshouldbeusedanditisessentialtoprotectagainstlivestock,horses,deerandrabbits.Mostofthefeatureswouldhavebeenprotectedwhenfirstplantedbyafenceorbyhedgeplantedonamound,evidenceforwhichcanoftenbeseen.
• Parkland tree species in Scotland–commonlybeech,lime,oakandsycamore;frequentlyash,horsechestnut,sweetchestnut;occasionaluseofconifersincludingcedars,larch,Scotspine,wellingtoniaandothers.
• Restocking parkland trees–2.75–3.00mhighstandardtreesorlighter/heavierforindividualparklandtreesandsmallgroupsorroundels–stakedandtiedforthefirstyearortwo,withrabbitprotectionandstock-proofguardsorfences.Largerclumpsmaybemoresuitedtoplantingwithforestrytransplants,withtree-sheltersorrabbitandstockfences.
Figure 25
Planningofparklandplanting,williamKemp(1890?).
Figure 26
Scotspineandwellingtoniaasparklandtrees.
Figure 27
ParklandtreesrestockedbyBordersForestTrust.
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• Nurse trees–fastergrowingspecieswereoftenplantedwiththetreesthatwereintendedasmaturetreesingroups,clumpsandroundels,aswellasinbeltsandsmallwoods.TypicallyScotspineorlarchwouldbeplantedwith,forexample,beechoroak,toprovideshelter,withtheintentionthattheywouldberemovedaftertheyhadservedtheirpurpose.Frequentlynursetreescanbeseenremaininginthematuretreefeatures.Useofnursetreesinrestockingthesefeaturesisanoption.
Parklandcultivationanduse
Oftenareasthatwereoriginallyparklandgrazingwithpermanentpastureandindividualtreesandtreegroupsarenowmanagedmoreintensively,withregularlyresowngrasspastureorarablecropsinvolvingfrequentuseofheavyagriculturalmachinery,pesticidesandfertilizers.Issueshereinclude:
• cultivation(especiallyploughing)closetotrees,damagingrootsandalteringsoillevelsleadingtotreedeaths
• soilcompactionfromagriculturalmachinery • fertilizerregimesaffectthenaturalbalanceoftreenutrientsandtheiruptake,whichcan
affectthemycorrhizalfungalassociationsandmakethemmorevulnerabletopathogens • increasedstocknumberswith‘poaching’ofthegroundcausingcompactionand
waterloggingfromanimals’feetandexcessivedungingthatcandamagetreeroots • gradualreductionofthenumberoftreesingroupsduetolackofboundaryprotection,
leadingtoeventuallossofthewholefeature.
whentreeswereoriginallyestablishedunderlessintensiveagriculturalpracticesitwouldhavebeenintendedthatparklandpasturewouldbegrazedbycattle,sheepordeer.Mosttreesandtreegroupswouldhavehadprotectivefences,hedgesorhedgesbanksaroundthemintheirearlyyears.Inmanycasesthisprotectionhasbeenlostorbrokendown,leadingtoanimalsusingthetreesforshelterorcultivationclosertoorovertreeroots.
Estatescommonlyholdeventsinparklandandwoodlandareas,includingcross-countryriding,motorshowsandmusicfestivals,thatcanallhavepotentialimpactsonthetreesintermsofcompactionanddirectphysicaldamage,thatcanbeexacerbatedinwetweather.Animpactassessmentduringtheplanningforeventsneedstobeundertakentoidentifypotentialproblemsandnecessarymitigationmeasuresputinplace.
Figure 28
Parklandintraditionalpastureuse,withdecliningtrees.
Figure 29
Reducedtreegroupendangeredbycloseploughing.
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Parkland–losstowoodland
Parklandandotherfieldswithindesignedlandscapestypicallyhaveirregularboundarieswithadjoiningwoodland,ortheboundaryisdisguisedfromthemainviewpointsbytheplacingoftreegroups.Thetemptationformanagersistosimplifyboundariesintostraightfencelinesandtoplantupawkwardcornersleadingtoalossofessentialcharacterandvisualdiversity.Insomecaseswholeareasoflessproductiveparklandgrazinglocatedawayfromthemainhousehavebeentargetedforplanting.Parklandhasbeenlostinthiswaythroughthe20thcenturyandiscurrentlyunderpressureduetothepromotionofnativewoodlandcreationunderSRDP.
Confusioncanbecausedbylandindesignedlandscapesbeingoftenshownas‘Potentialcorewoodland’inGLADE,theForestryCommission’sLandInformationSearchtool(www.forestry.gov.uk/lis).Ownersareencouragedtoundertakemoredetailedassessmentofsitevaluesanddesignbeforecommittingtowoodlandplantinginparklandareas.
ParklandthatisimportanttothedesignandcharacterofalandscapeandshouldbeidentifiedinaConservationManagementPlan.Newplantingshouldbelimitedtoareaswhereeffectsontheintegrityofthedesignareoflowconsequenceandwhereitcanmakeapositivecontributiontoothervaluessuchasbiodiversity.
woodpasture
Ancientwoodpasturesareareasofgrazedpasture,heathoropenhillwithascatteringofopen-grownveterantrees.OnceacommonfeatureoftheScottishlandscape,theyprovidedshelter,pastureandfodderforlivestock,aswellaswoodproductsforlocalpeople.Sometreesmayhavebeenpollarded(cutbacktoahighstumpoutofreachofgrazinganimals),regeneratingwithmultiplestemstoprovidepoles,orbrowseforlivestockinharshtimes.Thegrazingpreventedcompetitionbyyoungertrees,allowingsomeindividualtreestosurvivetoagreatage.
Inmanyplacesthewoodpasturestructurehasbeenerasedbymodernland-uses,butsitesremainwherethecombinationofoldtreesandpasturegivesusaglimpseofanearliermanagedlandscapeandthecultureandtraditionsthatcreatedit.Thetreesthemselvesareinspiring;somearemanycenturiesoldandmayhavealineageonthatsitestretchingbacktoprehistory.
Figure 30
Plantingparklandtosimplifyboundariesresultinginlossofcharacter.
Figure 31
Conifersinfillinpolicywoodland.
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Aswellasbeinghistoriclandscapesofculturalimportance,ancientwoodpasturesnowprovideaprecioushabitatforsomerareandspecialisedwildlifethatdependontheoldtrees.Conservingthesespeciesrequiresprotectionofthehabitatbymanagingthegrazingandensuringtherewillbeacontinuingsupplyofoldtreesintothefuture.
woodPastureandParklandisapriorityhabitatoftheUKBiodiversityActionPlanwithtargetsforitsconservation,restorationandexpansion.PreviouslylistedasLowlandwoodPastureandParklandthescopeoftheplanwasextendedin2008toincludeuplandsites.
GrantfundingisavailablethroughtheScotlandRuralDevelopmentProgrammetosupportthemanagementofancientwoodpastures.
ForestryCommissionScotland Guidance on management of ancient wood pasture(www.forestry.gov.uk/publications)providesanintroductiontotherestorationandmanagementofancientwoodpastureandincludesreferencesandonlinelinkstoawiderangeofotherrelevantpublicationsonthesubjectbySNH,EnglishNature,ThewoodlandTrustandothers.
Picturesqueglens
ThefashionforpicturesqueorsublimelandscapesthatdevelopedfromthenaturalstyleoflandscapegardeningtookforminScotlandintheimprovementofnaturalglenswheretheyoccurredonestates.Manydesignedlandscapeshaveapicturesquesteep-sidedglenlocatedintheouterpartofthelandscapebeyondtheparklandandpolicywoods.Theglenwillhavebeenimprovedbypaths,bridgesovertherushingburnorriver,viewpointsofwaterfalls,folliessuchasahermitage,andplantingofwoodlandandfeaturetrees.Sometimestheseglensarequiteseparatefromthemainpolicies,e.g.FallsofBruar(BlairCastle)andFallsofAcharn(Taymouth)andvarygreatlyinscaledependingonthenaturalassetsofthesite–fromthemagnificentFallsofClyde(partofadjoiningBonningtonandCorehouseestates)tounnamedglensofsmallerestates.woodlandplantingintheselandscapesis,bydefault,ofnativespecies,althoughconifernursespecieswereoftenusedandnewlyintroducedexoticsaddedeitherasspecimensorforlargershelterplantations.Subtleclumpsoftreesperchedongorgeedgesareoftenseen,severaloaksplantedtogethertocreateamulti-stemmedeffectortwinnedwithScotspine,forallappearancesanaturaloccurrence.
PicturesqueglensrequireparticularlysensitivemanagementtoconservetheirspecialqualitiesandareeasilydamagedbyintrusiveactionssoarebesttackledbyaConservationManagementPlan.
Figure 32
Oaksinwoodpasture.
Figure 33
Veteranandyoungeroaksinwoodpasture,Dalkeith,Midlothian.
Cou
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Cou
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AlmostinevitablynaturalheritagevaluesareprominentandmayneedtobegivenprecedenceoverdesignissuesifthesitehasprotectedstatussuchasaSiteofSpecialScientificInterest.
Avenues
Avenuesoflime,beech,sycamoreoroakmaysurvivefromtheformallandscapesof17thand18thcenturyormaybeoflaterorigin(usingnewlyintroducedconifersinsomecases)eitheraccompanyingprincipaldrivesorformingmainvistas.Avenuesmaybesingleordoublerows,orevennarrowbelts.Thedifficultyishowtorestocktheavenuewhiletheretainingthevaluableoriginal,usuallyveteran,trees–whethertothintheoldtreesandinterplantintherow,toreplacewithaparallelrow–or,asalastresort,tofellwholesaleandplantacompletenewavenue.Thesolutionwillvarydependingofthecharacteristicsoftheeachavenue,theoriginalspacingofthetrees,thetreessurvivingintherowsandtheirvigour,theirvalueasveterantrees,thewidthbetweenrowsandtheadjoiningspaceavailable.Here,aselsewherewhendealingwithveterantrees,theemphasisshouldbeonconservingtheoldtreeswhereverpossibleandforaslongaspossible.
Revitalisingtreesbyhardpruningisamanagementoptioninsomecases,e.g.limeavenuesofacertainageandcondition,althoughthisapproachneedstobebasedongoodarboriculturaladvice.
Figure 34BonningtonLinn,FallsofClyde,Lanarkshire.
Figure 35
Avenuerestockingbyinterplanting.
Figure 36
Avenuereplantingbyparallelinterplanting.
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• Avenues tree species in Scotland–commonlybeech,lime,oakandsycamore;sometimesash,elmandsweetchestnut;occasionaluseofDouglasfir,Scotspineandwellingtonia.
• Restocking avenue trees–2.75–3.00mhighstandardtreesorlighter/heavier–stakedandtiedforthefirstyearortwo,withrabbitprotectionandstock-proofguardsorfences.
Overgrownhedges
Overgrownhedgesareafrequentsightindesignedlandscapesbothwherethesitehassufferedlong-termneglectandwherehedgeshavebeenunmanagedatacriticalperiodintheirgrowth.Mostcommonlybeechhedgeswheretheindividualplantshavegrownintomaturetreesareseen,sometimetoimpressiveeffect.Thereisnoeasyanswertothecorrectprocedureandmuchwilldependonthesizetowhichthetreeshavegrown,whethertoacceptthetreesasafeatureofhistoricinterestortocutthembackandregrowthehedge.
Boundarybeltsandstrips
Treebeltsofmixedbroadleaves,oftenwithsomeScotspineorlarch,arethetraditionalformofenclosureforestateboundariesandparkswithinthedesignedlandscape.Oftenthepresenceofpineandlarchistheresultofuseasanursecropthathasnotbeenremovedduringmanagementwhentheprimarytreespecieshavebecomeestablished.Beltsmaybegeometric
Figure 37
Avenuereplanting.
Figure 38
Overgrownbeechhedgeandavenuetrees.
26
andofregularwidthorofmorenaturalisticshapesrelatedtothelandform.Frequentlybeltsandotherpolicywoodswerefelledintheww2periodandoftenhavesincebeenlefttoregeneratenaturallywithnoregularmanagement.Themostcommonproblemisgapsorsectionsplantedwithcommercialconiferspecies,particularlySitkaspruce,inthe1960sand1970s,reducingthecharacterofthebeltsandthespacestheyform.Fellingtheseareasandrestockingwithbroadleaves,plusScotspinewhereappropriate,isthepreferredsolution.
• Boundary belts tree species in Scotland–typicallyash,beech,lime,oak,sycamore,Scotspine,larch.
• Restocking boundary belts–forestrytransplants45–60cmhigh–withtree-sheltersorrabbitandstockfences.
Roadsidetreesandhedges
HedgesplantedwithdistinctivespeciesorsimplequickthornhedgesareafeatureofestatelandscapesinmanypartsofScotland,forexample,beechhedgeswithsidesshapedtoabatterarecharacteristicofsomeareasoftheBorders,inmostcasesplantedbythelocalestate,sometimeswithmaturetreesintheadjoiningverge.wheretreesoccurinthehedgelineitself,itisusuallysetbackfromtheroadedge.Roadsidetreesaresometimesseenasahazard,althoughfewaccidents
Figure 39
Broadleavedboundaryandinternaltreebelts.
Figure 40
Neglectedtreebelt.
Figure 41
Estateplantingofroadsidetrees.
Figure 42
Ageing,potentiallydangerousroadsidetrees.
27
occurandtimeousreplacementwithyoungtreescanavoidtheproblem.Hedgesgenerallysurviveremarkablywell,althoughoftengapsneedtobereplanted,butdependoncontinuedregularmaintenance.OverScotland,theroadsidetreestockisgenerallyagedorover-matureandrequiresaprogrammeofreplacementplantingtopreservethelocalcharacteroftheseroads.Althoughprimarilyconcernedherewithplantedfeatures,conservationofestatewalls,marchdykesandfieldboundarydykesshouldalsobepartoftheprogrammeoflandscapeconservation.
• Field roadsides tree species in Scotland–typicallyash,beech,oak,sycamore. • Restocking roadside trees–2.75–3.00mhighstandardtreesorlighter/heavier–stakedand
tiedforthefirstyearortwo,withrabbitprotectionandstock-proofguards.
Fieldboundarytrees
InsomepartsoftheScotland,fieldboundarytreesandhedgesareanessentialpartoftheouteragriculturalareasofestatelandscapes.Aswithroadsidetrees,theyareinvariablyageingandgraduallydisappearing.Again,replacementplantingisneededtoperpetuatethecharacteroftheseareas.
• Field boundary tree species in Scotland–ash,beech,oak,sycamore. • Restocking boundaries trees–2.75–3.00mhighstandardtreesorlighter/heavier–staked
andtiedforthefirstyearortwo,withrabbitprotectionandstock-proofguards.
Ornamentalplantingandcollections
Closetothemainhouseandprincipalapproachesuseofexoticbroadleavesandconiferswithfloweringandevergreenshrubsisthenorm.Suchplantingformsboththesettingforthebuildingandroutesandprovidesvisualdelightandnaturalbeauty.Oftentallspecimenconifersintheseareaspinpointthecoreofthelandscapewhenseenoverthetree-topsfromadistance.Attheirmostambitioussuchtreeplantingisorganisedintoarboretumsorpinetumsthathavescientificaswellasornamentalvalue.
Manysiteshavearboretumsandpinetumsthatcanbeveryvaluableasarboriculturalandscientificresources.Atpresentthereisnonationalinventoryofsuchplacesorsystematiccataloguingofthespeciesandprovenanceofthetreesgrownthere.
Figure 43Tallconiferspinpointasmalldesignedlandscapeinitswidersetting.
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Treesfromlostfeatures
Theprogressivedevelopmentofmanydesignedlandscapesthroughsuccessivestylisticperiodsresultsinoldtreessurvivingfromoneperiodtothenextinadifferentsetting.Mostcommonlytreesfromtheavenues,alléesandplantedvistasintheformallayoutsofthe17thandearlier18thcenturiessurviveasisolatedtreesorintermittentrowsamongthenaturalisticallyscatteredparklandtreesofthelate18thand19thcenturies.Theeffectcanbeseenclearlyonmany19thcenturyOrdnanceSurveymapsat6”or25”scale,wherebrokenrowsoftreescanstillbediscernedamongotherwiseirregularplanting.Inmanycasestheserowscanstillbeseentoday,althoughthetreenumbersmaybereduced.
Thevalueofconservingtreesfromlostfeaturesisself-evident,beingalivingrecordofthedevelopmentofthelandscape,aswellashavingalltheothervaluesofveterantrees(seebelow).whetherthelostfeatureshouldbeperpetuatedbyreplacementplantingisamoredifficultquestion.SuchanissuecanonlybeexploredandresolvedifconsideredwithalltheotherfactorsinaConservationManagementPlan.
Individualnotabletrees
Sitessometimepossessindividualtreesthatarenotableonaccountofthesize,age,speciesortheirhistory.ExamplesincludetheCaponTree(nearJedburgh,ScottishBorders),theDunkeldlarch(Perthshire)andtheCamperdownelm(Dundee).Suchtreeswillbeofspecialpublicinterestandmaybevisitorattractionsintheirownright.Localauthoritiesorvoluntarygroupsometime
Figure 44
Fieldboundarytrees.
Figure 45
Ornamentalandexotictreesingardenarea.
Figure 46
CaponTree,nearJedburgh,ScottishBorders.
Figure 47
Championvariegatedsycamore.
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publishlistsofsuchtreesintheirareasandmanyoccurwithindesignedlandscapes.Heritage Trees of ScotlandbyRodger,Stokes&Ogilvie(TheTreeCouncil,2003)isagoodnationalguide.
Inevitablythepreservationandcareofsuchtreesisaissueformanagement.Actionsmayincludefencingtoprotectthetreeandforpublicsafetyfromdangerouslimbs,treeworksuchasproppingandbracing,interpretation,andreplacementplantinginordertohaveayoungtreeinitsplacewheniteventuallyfailsandtopreservethegeneticstockofthetree.
Veteranandancienttrees
Veteranorancienttreeshaveimmensehistorical,aestheticandbiodiversityvalueswithindesignedlandscapes,particularlyinparklandbutpotentiallyinanytreecomponentofasite.Matureandageingtreesbringproblemsofsafetyandappearance,aswellastheissueofplantingreplacements.whereoldtreesareneardrives,footpathsorotherpublicareas,ownershavearesponsibilitytokeeptheminasafecondition.Elsewheretherearestrongaestheticandnatureconservationreasonstoretainoldandancient(over200years)trees,particularlywheretheyhavenotimbervalue.
Long-establishedwoodland,parklandorwoodpasturemayalsoincludeareasofremnantcoppicewoodlandorindividualancientcoppicedtrees.Thesehavetheadditionalinterestofevidenceofformermanagementsystemsandagainthepriorityshouldbetheirconservation.
NaturalEnglandhandbookVeteran Trees: A Guide to Good Management(naturalengland.etraderstores.com/NaturalEnglandShop)isacomprehensiveguidetothesubject.Otherusefulsourcesinclude:
• AncientTreeForum,Ancient Trees guide series(frontpage.woodland-trust.org.uk/ancient-tree-forum)
• ForestryCommission,Estimating the Age of Large and Veteran Trees in Britain (www.forestry.gov.uk/publications)
Orchards
Manydesignedlandscapeshavesmallorchards,oftenassociatedwiththewalledgarden–eitherwithinorimmediatelyoutsideitswalls–andincludingwall-trainedfruittrees.Thebenefitsoforchardscanbemany,includingpreservationofoldfruitvarieties,growinglocallygrownandsustainablyproducedfruit,encouraginghealthyeatingandothers.Theconservationandcultivationoforchardsshouldbeencouragedwhereverpossible.
Figure 48
VeteranCadzowoaks,HamiltonHighParks,Lanarkshire.
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Thereisgrowinginterestinorchardswithanumberoflocalinitiatives.Scottish OrchardsisaneworganisationforanyoneinterestedinpromotinganddevelopingorchardsinScotland.
Useofwalledgardens
Veryfewwalledgardenssurviveintraditionaluseasproductivekitchengardensforvegetables,fruitandflowers.Theirexcellentgrowingconditionsresultingfromtheirdesignandbuild-upoffertilesoilsuggestsapreferenceforhorticulturalusesratherthanusessuchassingleormultiplehouseplots.SuccessfulexamplesexistaroundScotlandof:
• continueduseasflowerandproducegardenonareducedscale • hotelvegetableandornamentalgarden • retailplantnurseryorgardencentre •marketgardening/organicvegetablegrowing • communalallotments • commercialtreenursery
woodlandmanagementandsilviculturalsystems
Policywoodlandsandplantationedges
Policiesaretheornamentalgroundsofalargecountryhouse–whatinEnglandiscalledthepark.Policywoodlandsareanywoodswithinthisarea,althoughmoretypicallythetermexcludesthemostornamentalfeaturessuchaswoodlandgardens,arboretumsandsuchlike.Thesizeandtypeofwoodsinadesignedlandscapewillgradefromsmallerbeltsandclumpsnearthecentretoextensiveforestryplantationsontheouterhillland,withtheprimaryfunctiongradingfromornamentaloramenitytocommercialforestry.Policywoodlandstypicallyshouldhavesomeofbothfunctionsandwillhavehadgoodtimbertreesremovedforsaleperiodically.Manywoodstodaysufferfromaprevalenceofintroducedconifersandrequirerestructuringtomixedbroadleaves,plusScotspineand/orlarchwhereappropriate.
Thedesignofpolicywoodlandsdependsonthestyleofthelandscapeandmaybegeometricblocksororganically-shapedareas.Variousdegreesofirregularityrelatetothecharacterofindividualdesigns.Oftenthecomplexityofalayoutanditswoodlandedgeshasbeenlostinthedesiretosaveonthecostofboundarydykesandfences,ortoinfillpartsorentiregrazedparks.Thereinstatementofwoodlandboundariesandthereformingoforiginalspacesisanessentialiteminrestoringadesignedlandscape.
Figure 49
walledgardenretainedintraditionalusebyahotel.
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• Policy woodland and boundary belts tree species in Scotland–typicallyash,beech,lime,oak,sycamore,Scotspine,larch.
• Restocking policy woodlands–forestrytransplants45–60cmhigh–withtree-sheltersorrabbit,deerandstockfences.
Silviculturalsystems
Amongtypicalmanagementissuesfacedinpolicywoodlandsare:
• olderwoodsthatmayhavebeenneglectedanddevelopedauniformityofstructurewithlittlenaturalregeneration
• woodsfelledduringwwIIoratsometimesinceandnotreplanted,dominatedbydensenaturalregenerationofsycamoreandash,andwithauniformityofage
• olderwoodswheregapshavebeenplantedupwithconifersasashorttermmeasure • smallwoodsandbeltsinvisuallyprominentpositionsthathavebeenreplacedwholesale
withconiferstothedetrimentofthelandscape.
Allthesesituationsrequirethewoodlandcovertobemodifiedtoachievebettertreespeciesandagediversityovertimeinlinewithcurrentmanagementobjectives.Thegeneralmovementawayfromclear-fellingwithreplantingandtowardscontinuouscoversilviculturalsystemsinforestandwoodlandmanagementisparticularlyappropriateforthewoodsofdesignedlandscapeswherepleasureuseandvisualamenityaremajorconsiderations.Itisalsothetypeofsystemthathasbeenusedhistorically.
Figure 50
Long-establishedpolicywoodlands.
Figure 51
Conifersdominatinganestateentranceintheplaceofavenuetrees,mixedtreebeltsorparklandplanting.
Figure 52
Treefeaturesreplantedwithconifers.
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Managementsystemswithalowerimpactthanclear-fellingarealsolikelytoproveaneffectivewaytoincreasetheresilienceofforestswithrespecttoclimatechange.Insemi-naturalwoodland,lowerimpactsystemsarerecommendedinaccordancewiththerelevantForestPracticeGuide.
Asilviculturalsystemistheprocessoftending,harvestingandregeneratingaforestorwoodland.Systemsadoptedforwoodlandmanagementshouldbedrivenbymanagementobjectivesdefinedintermsofthebroaderobjectivesforthemanagementofthewholedesignedlandscape.IdeallythiswillbesetoutinaConservationManagementPlan.Typicalobjectivesforpolicywoodlandswillinclude:
• generalvisualamenity • preservingthefunctioninthelandscapedesign • enhancingnatureconservationvalues • recreationaluses • provisionforsportinguseandgamecover • growingtimberofcommercialvalue
Therearemanydifferenttypesofsilviculturalsystemsandabroadclassificationcanbemadebasedonthepatternofregenerationandhowthetreecanopyisreducedorremoved.Generallywoodsorforestsmanagedusingclearfellingandshelterwoodsystemstendtobeeven-aged(onlypossessoneortwocanopystrata)andthosemanagedusingselectionsystemsareuneven-aged(havethreeormorecanopystrata).
Silviculturalsystemswillbedeterminedmostbythecharacteristicsofthewoodlandatthestartofthemanagementprogrammeintermsofspeciescomposition,ageclasses,densityanddistributionofspeciesandclasses,theirgeneralconditionandthesoil,themicro-climateandassociatedfungi,floraandfauna.
Undercontinuouscoversystemsappliedtopolicywoodlands,thevariablestobeconsideredwillbe:
• Method of thinning or felling–treestoberemovede.g.weakest,mostmature,besttimber,undesirablespecies;patternofremovale.g.individuals,groups,smallcoupes.
• Re-stocking method and woodland type–naturalregeneration;plantingsemi-naturalwoodlandspecies;plantingbasedonhistoriccomposition;plantingforotherobjectivesincludingcommercialtimberspecies.
• Details of planting method–cultivation/groundpreparation,drainage,plantsize,notchplanting,methodofprotectionagainstrabbit,deeretc.
Asaguideline,insemi-naturalwoodland,limitfellingto10%oftheareainany5-yearperiod,unlessthereareoverridingbiodiversityorsocialadvantagestofellingagreaterpercentagearea.
Principlesofthecontinuouscoverapproach
• Adapt the wood to the site–Continuouscoverforestry(CCF)seekstoworkwiththesiteandtorespectecologicalprocessesandinherentvariationratherthanimposeartificialuniformity.Inpractice,thisleadstoapresumptiontowardstheuseofnaturalregenerationandthedevelopmentofmixedspeciesandmixed-agestands.
• Adopt a holistic approach to forest management –CCFregardsthewholewoodlandecosystemasthe‘productioncapital’.Thisincludesthesoil,theforestmicro-climate,associatedfungi,floraandfauna,aswellasthetreesthemselves.Managementfortimberproductionisdirectedtowardsthecreation,maintenanceandenhancementofafunctioningecosystemratherthantheperiodiccreationandremovalofindividualcropsoftrees.
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• Maintain forest conditions without clearfelling–CCFregardsthemaintenanceofforestconditionsasanessentialtoolinachievingitsaims.Theuseoftheoverstoreytoinfluencetheamountoflightreachingtheforestfloor,tolimitgroundvegetation,triggerregeneration,andthencontrolitsdevelopmentiscrucial.Ifclearfellingtakesplace,forestconditionsarelost,thebenefitsofshelterreducedandregenerationbecomesmoredifficult.
• The growing stock–UnderCCFmanagement,standimprovementisconcentratedonthedevelopmentofpreferredindividualsratherthanthecreationofablockofstemswithuniformspacingandaveragestemcharacteristics.Acharacteristicofpermanently-irregularstandsisthatyieldcontrolisbasedonmeasurementsofstem-diameterandincrementratherthanageandarea.
Fellingandrestockinglargerwoods
Many20thcenturywoodlandswereplantedorfelledandre-plantedoverashorttimewithlittlediversity.Otherolderwoodsmayhavebeenneglectedanddevelopedauniformityofstructure.Atfellingandrestocking,opportunitiesarepresentedtorestructureageclassestodevelopforestdiversity.Inevenagedwoodlands,thismayinvolveadvancingfellinginsomeareasanddelayingfellingandrestockinginothers.Followingrestructuring,furtherage-classdiversitycanbeintroducedinsubsequentrotations.Thedesignoffuturefellingcoupescanalsobeaddressedatrestockingbydevelopingalong-termforeststructurewithfuturefellingcoupesdefinedbyopenground,watercoursesandsemi-naturalhabitatsGeneralguidelinesinclude:
• Inforestswherethereislittleage-classdiversity,retainstandsadjoiningfelledareasuntiltherestockingofthefirstcoupehasreachedanaverageheightof2m:forplanningpurposesthisislikelytobebetween5–15yearsdependingonestablishmentsuccessandgrowthrates.
• Developalong-termforeststructurebymakinguseofpermanentfeaturessuchaswatercoursesandopenspace;inuplandforestsidentifyfuturefellingboundariesandmanagecropedgestoincreasestability.
• Identifysitesforlong-termforestcoverandthinthemearly.
Commercialconifersandforestryplantations
PlantationsofcommercialconifershavebeenpartoftheScottishlandscapeforcenturies,withScotspine,Europeansilverfir,NorwayspruceandEuropeanlarchinuseduringthe18thcenturyandwithagreatlyexpandedchoiceofspeciesfromNorthAmericaaddedinthe19thcentury.Atdifferentscales,conifershavebothornamentalandcommercialrolesindesignedlandscapes.However,onmanyestatessuchplantingshavebecomethedominantwoodlandtype,replacingbroadleavedwoodlandtothedetrimentofvisualandecologicaldiversity.
Figure 53
Estatebroadleavedwoodlandmanagedforhardwood.
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Duringthelatterpartofthe20thcenturythestrategictimberresourceimperativethatdrovemanycommercialconiferplantingswasgraduallysupplantedbytheappreciationthatallwoodlandshadthepotentialtoprovidemultiplebenefits.Morerecentpoliciesandassociatedgrantprogrammeshaveencouragedawiderangeofwoodlandtypes,promotingnativebroadleavesandamenityplantingrelatedtopublicaccessinmanysituations.Overtime,thisshouldpromotefurtherchangeandtherestorationofpreviouswoodlandfeatures
OrnamentalplantingclosetothemainhouseoftenfeatureslargenorthAmericanandotherconifers–cedars,Douglasfir,grandfir,noblefir,monkeypuzzle,yew,westernhemlock,wellingtonia–whileforestryontheouterhilllandmaybealmostexclusivelyconiferous.Therearelocationsindesignedlandscapesfortheseplantingtypesbuttheirsitingrequirescarefulplanning,preferablywithinthecontextofaConservationManagementPlan.
ForestryplantingonthewiderscaleiscoveredbytheForestryCommission’ssuiteofguidelines,withtheprinciplesandprocessofrestructuringconiferplantationsdescribedintheForestryCommissionPracticeGuideForest design planning: a guide to good practice(1998)(www.forestry.gov.uk/publications).
Figure 54 ExtensiveafforestationinTweedvalleyenclosingdesignedlandscapes.
Figure 55 woodlandreplantingignoringoriginalpatternofclumpsandboundaries.
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Generalmanagementissues
Clearancetorestoreviews,spacesandroutes
Oncethehistoriclayoutandthedesignofasiteareunderstoodandbeforeanyneworreplacementplantingisundertaken,afirststepmaybetoclearvegetationthatisinthewrongplace.Itmaybepossibletosignificantlyimproveandrestorethelandscapebyremovalofundergrowthandnaturalregenerationtore-openintendedviewsorvistas,clearovergrownspacesandmakelostpathsanddrivesaccessibleagain.Dependingonhowalteredorovergrownthelandscapehasbecome,itmaybepossiblebyclearanceoflateradditionsandundergrowthtorecreatelostspacesandreformfieldboundarylines.
Removalofvegetationshouldbeshouldbecarefullyconsideredandbeabalanceddecisionbasedonafullappreciationofitscurrentvalue(landscape,culturalheritageandbiodiversity),preferablydeterminedthoughaConservationManagementPlan.Also,ifthevegetationinquestionconstituteswoodlandorforestthenthemanagershouldbeawareoftheScottishGovernmentPolicyonControlofwoodlandRemoval(www.forestry.gov.ukpublications).
Figure 56
Abandoneddrive.
Figure 57
Overgrownlimeavenue.
Figure 58
Reopeningaviewtoaneye-catcher.
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Selectionofspecies
Thestartingpointforallplantingindesignedlandscapesisthehistoricprecedent–inmostcasesownersandmanagersinthe17thto19thcenturieshadgreaterempathywiththeirlandandknowledgeofplantingthanwehavenowandtheiroriginalchoicesarethebesttofollowand,insomesituations,shouldbefollowedforhistoricalaccuracy.Althoughtreesnativetotheregionarepreferableinmanysituations,long-establishedpolicyplantingmayhaveagreaterrangeofBritish,EuropeanandevennorthAmericanspecies.Typicalspeciesfordifferentfeaturesaregivenelsewhereinthissection.
Theeffectsofclimatechangeandthemanagementobjectivesoftheproject,includingaimsforbiodiversity,willalsoneedtobeconsideredinselectingspeciesforplanting.
wychelmisomittedfromthelistsgivenaboveduetoDutchelmdisease.Precisespeciesofbirch,oak,limeetcwillvarydependingonthesitecharacteristics.Cultivarsmaybeappropriateinsomesituations.wheretheaimistocreatesemi-naturalwoodlandhabitats,localstrainsmaybesourced.
Plantingforbiodiversity
Thevaluesofdesignedlandscapesincludenatureconservationandcontributiontobiodiversity.whilethefocusofthisguidanceisondesignandconservationoftheman-madeorplantedfeaturesofthehistoricenvironment,anyopportunitytoenhancebiodiversityofthelandscapebyaddingbeneficialspeciesorotherwiseenrichinghabitatsshouldbetakenwhenplanting.
Manyareasofdesignedlandscapes–parkland,woodpasture,woods,treebelts,artificialwaterbodies,naturalburnsandrivers–maybesignificanthabitatsaswellasimportantvisualandamenityfeaturesinthedesignlayout.Evenmoreformalfeaturessuchasavenues,walledgardens,woodlandgardensandarboretumsmayhavedevelopedsignificantnatureconservationinterestthroughlong-establishmentorneglectandinvasionofmorenaturalspecies.Bothindealingwithpastneglectandinneworreplacementplantingopportunitiesoccurtooptimisebiodiversity,forexamplebymodifyingtreespeciesinshelterbeltstoincludethemostbeneficialnativespecies.
MoregeneralinformationcanbefoundonScottishNaturalHeritage’swebsite at:www.snh.gov.uk/about-scotlands-nature
OfparticularinterestmaybeHabitatActionPlansforhabitatsassociatedwithdesignedlandscapese.g.wood-PastureandParkland,includedintheUKHabitatActionPlan(www.ukbap.org.uk).
Protectionofplanting
Protectionofyoungtreesfromgrazingstock,deer,haresandrabbitscanbeamajorcostofaplantingprojectbutisessentialforsuccessfulestablishment.
Permanentprotectionfromstockisnecessaryfortreesadjoiningorwithingrazingland.Fieldboundariesandfencesaroundclumpsandroundelsneedtobekeptsecureandappropriateanddurableformsofbarriermaintainedaroundthetrunksofparklandtrees.
• Protection of parkland and avenue trees–robusttimbertreeguardstokeepstemandbranchesoutofthereachofstockanddeer,andwithstandingbrushingbycattle,alsoprovidedwithrabbitprotection(wiremeshorspiralguardetc).Afterestablishment,steel
Figure 59
Minimumprotectionofindividualparklandoravenuetrees.
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treeguardsareagoodsolutionprovidingtheyareadjustedorupgradedasthegirthoftreetrunksincrease.
• Protection of roundels and clumps–rabbit-andstock-prooffence(ingrazedparkland)asForestryCommissionTechnical Guide, Forest Fencing.
• Protection of woods and belts–deer-,livestock-andrabbit-prooffencingasForestryCommissionTechnical Guide, Forest Fencing.
Maintenanceofplanting
Manyplantingandrestockingschemesfailduetolackofaftercare.Maintenanceislimitedtoafewseasonalorannualoperationsandisnotonerousbutneedstobeallowedforinannualbudgetsandplannedintocontractsorworkschedules.Operationswilldependonthefeaturesoftheplantingschemeandwillinclude:
• weedcontroltoreducecompetition–vitalintheearlyyearsofestablishment • adjustmentoftreeties;checkingrabbitprotection;removalofstakes;removaloftreeshelters • beatinguporreplacementofdeadplants • brashingandthinningtofinalspacing • controloflitter • maintenanceoftreeprotection
Thereisaneedtofacilitatesafeaccessoverfencestoplantingareasformaintenancebymeansofgatesorstiles.
Figure 60
Protectionofindividualtreesneedstoberobusttoprotectagainstcattle,horsesanddeer.
Figure 61
Treeprotectionneedstobemaintained.
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Fencesandsigns
Althoughthisguidanceisconcernedprimarilywithplantingindesignedlandscapes,fencingandsignagecanhaveasignificantimpactonlandscapequality.Useofurbanfencetypesthatareoutofcharacterandaproliferationofsignscanbeproblematic,particularlywheresitesareindividedownership,withseveraluses,andthereisnocoordinatedmanagement.
Traditionalironestaterailingsarepreferablewhereastock-prooffenceisneededalongdrives,althoughtheirexpensemeansthattimberrailoragriculturalfencesmaybeanecessaryalternative.Similarfencesshouldbeusedinotherpartsofthelandscape.wherepresent,drystonewallsandhawthorn,beechormixed-specieshedgesshouldbemaintainedwhereverpossible.
Forestmanagershavetraditionallyusedfencesasoneoptiontoprotectyoungtreesfromdamagebyherbivorouswildanimalssuchasdeerandrabbits.
However,itisanexpensivecontrolmeasure,particularlyinremoteareasorwhereaccessisdifficult.Itcanalsobecontentious,drawingoppositionfromgroupssuchasenvironmentalorganisations,ramblers,hillwalkersandlocalcommunities.
Itisthereforevitalthattheappropriatetypeoffenceisdesigned,locatedanderectedtohighspecifications,andthenmaintainedproperlytoensurethatitfulfilsitsrolecost-effectivelyandwithminimalenvironmentalandlandscapeimpactuntilithasfinisheditsjobandcanberemoved.
TheForestryCommissionthereforepublishedarevisedguidein2006thatupdatesitspreviousadviceonforestfencing.Ittakesintoaccountrecentdevelopmentssuchasnewfencingmaterialsonthemarket,temporaryandelectricfencing,markingfencestoreducedeathsofwoodlandbirdsfromcollisions,andtheuseofmachinery
TechnicalGuide:ForestFencing(www.forestry.gov.uk/publications),waswrittenbyRogerTroutofForestResearch,andHarryPepper,andreplacesForestryCommissionBulletin102:ForestFencing,firstpublishedin1992.
Itrecommendsbest-practiceprinciplesformanagersasaguidetoplanning,assessmentandmitigationofadversefactors,andchoosingthefencedesignappropriateforthetargetspecies.Italsoindicatesthekeypracticalstepsinconstruction.Ithelpsinidentifyingthenormalspecificationsofcomponentsrequiredtoaccommodatetypicalsituationsandwhentakingaccountofspeciallocalcircumstances.
Figure 62
Traditionalironestatefencingsurvivesinsomeplaces,butisdifficulttorepairandexpensivetoreplace.
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whenconsideringdeerfencing,referenceshouldbemadetothejointagencystatementondeerfencing,availableontheSNHwebsiteat:www.snh.gov.uk
Signageshouldalsobewellconsidered.Allsignswillbeintrusivetoadegreeinarurallandscapeandsotheiruseshouldbeminimised.Materialsandgraphicdesignshouldbechosentobalancetheneedtobevisibleanddeliveramessagewiththerequirementthatsignsfitintotheirsetting.Itispreferabletouseasinglestyleofsignifseveralarerequired.
Statutorynatureconservationdesignationsindesignedlandscapes
Adesignedlandscapethathasbeenneglectedcanhavedevelopednatureconservationvaluesthat,intermsofitssignificancerating,mayoutweighitsvalueasadesignedlandscape,forexample,awoodlandmayhavebeendesignatedaSiteofSpecialScientificInterest(SSSI)onaccountofitswoodlandfloraordeadwoodinvertebratesgivingitstatutoryprotectionandvalueatanationallevelcomparedtothenon-statutoryandpossiblelowerrankingasadesignedlandscape.OtherSSSIsmayhavebeendesignatedasaresultoflonguseaswoodland,parklandorwoodpasture.Morecommonly,woodlandsindesignedlandscapearedesignatedasAncient woodland orLong-established woodlands of plantation originandincludedinSNH’sAncientwoodlandInventory.InafewinstancesNationalNatureReservesoverlaptheboundariesofdesignedlandscapes.Inaddition,protectedspeciesofbirds,otheranimalsandplantsoccurringwithindesignedlandscapes.Itisanoffenceforpeopletokillorcapturebirdsandotheranimals,ortouprootplants.Thelawalsoprohibitsthedisturbanceofsomewildcreatures,andtheirnestsorrestingplaces,andthepickingofanypartofsomeplants.
AllSSSIshavemanagementguidanceproducedbySNHtoassistownersandalistofmanagementoperationsforthesitethatrequireconsent.whereaSSSIoccursinadesignedlandscapeandrestorationorreplantingisproposed,carefulconsiderationofmanagementactionsanddetaileddiscussionswiththeSNH’slocalofficewillbenecessaryinordertoavoidpotentiallydamagingimpactsonthenaturalheritageinterestofthesite.writtenconsentforagreedmanagementoperationsmustbeachieved.
Thestatutoryprotectionforspecialsitesandprotectedspeciesmeansthatbylawitisnecessaryforthenatureconservationintereststotakeprecedenceoverotherdesignedlandscapevaluesorissuessuchasaesthetics,useofexoticspeciesetc.However,itistobehopedthatabalancedapproachcanbeachievedbycooperativeworkinginwhichaimsforboththenaturalandculturalheritagecanbeachieved.
Figure 63 PolicywoodlandandSSSI,Clydevalley.
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Fragmentationofsites
Countryestatesareoftensoldasanumberoflotsandresultindividedownershipandalackofcoordinatedmanagementandmaintenance.Insomecasesthemainhouseretainsonlyasmallpartofthegardensorthehousehasbeenlostduetofiresothelandscapehasnofocus.Inmanyinstancesnewhouseshavebeenbuiltinpartsofthegroundsorothernewuseslikegolfaddedtothelandscape.Ofteninthesesituations,morecommonclosetourbanareas,no-onehasoverallresponsibilityformanagementandfeaturessuchastreebelts,hedgesanddrivesthatcrossownershipboundarieshavenoclearownerandbecomeneglectedorsubjecttodifferenttreatments.
Therecanbesignificantcommunalandpublicbenefitinconservingsuchfragmentedsitesthroughcoordinatedmanagement,thatmayincludepublicusessuchascommunitywoodland,thatisbestachievedthroughaConservationManagementPlan.AnewmanagementorganisationorTrustmaybeappropriateinsomecasesandinvolvementofownersandotherstakeholderswillbeessential.
Accessandinterpretation
Manydesignedlandscapesareoutstandingresourcesforpublicaccessinscenicsituationsandpublicareascanoftenbemanagedalongsideprivatelyusedpartsoftheestate.Theirgreatrangeofculturalandnaturalinterestsmeansthatwaymarkedwalksandinterpretationcanaddgreatlytopeople’senjoymentoftheplace.
Accessrights
TheLandReform(Scotland)Act2003(www.snh.gov.uk/land-and-sea)establishedstatutoryrightsofresponsibleaccesstolandandinlandwaterfor:
• outdoorrecreation • crossingland • someeducationalandcommercialpurposes.
TheseareknownasScottishaccessrights.
TheScottishOutdoorAccessCodegivesdetailedguidanceontheresponsibilitiesofthoseexercisingaccessrightsandofthosemanaginglandandwater.TheActsetsoutwhereandwhenaccessrightsapplyandhowlandshouldbemanagedwithregardtoaccess.TheCodedefineshowaccessrightsshouldbeexercised.Thethreeprinciplesforresponsibleaccessapplytoboththepublicandlandmanagers:
• Respect the interests of other people: beconsiderate,respectprivacyandlivelihoods,andtheneedsofthoseenjoyingtheoutdoors.
• Care for the environment: Lookaftertheplacesyouvisitandenjoy.Careforwildlifeandhistoricsites.
• Take responsibility for your own actions: Theoutdoorscannotbemaderisk-freeforpeopleexercisingaccessrights;landmanagersshouldactwithcareforpeople’ssafety.
FulldetailsofScottishaccessrightscanbefoundontheScottishOutdoorAccessCodewebsiteat:www.outdooraccess-scotland.com
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Planningforaccessandinterpretation
Planningforpublicaccessandprovisionofinformationontheheritageofasiteareoftenprerequisitestograntaidforrestorationandrestockingsites.GoodsourcesofguidanceareavailableforbothofthesesubjectareasfromtheSNHwebsite,anditsisessentialthattheseissuesareconsideredattheearlieststageofaproject.
Themostappropriatemediaforinterpretationwillvarywitheachsite.Itisusuallypreferabletoavoidpanelsonsite,duetotheirlimitationsintermsofintrusion,durabilityandvulnerabilitytoabuse,inpreferencetoleaflets,forexample.
Thehistoryofanestateanditsdesignedlandscapeisathemeofgreatinteresttomanyvisitors,althoughsurveysshowthatisseldominterpreted.
Invasivespecies,pestsanddiseases
Invasivespecies
Anumberofnon-nativeshrubandherbaceousplantspecieswereonceusedextensivelyinestateplantingforshelter,gamecoverorornamentandhaveprovenhighlyinvasive,vigorouslyspreadingtoexcludemoredesirablenativespecies.Rhododendron ponticumisthemostwidespreadinvasivespecies,oftenresponsibleforovergrowingpathsandotherfeatures,andwasplantedasgamecoverorastherootstockforspeciesrhododendronthathavesincereverted.Rhododendron ponticumandhybridsisoneofsixspeciesoffloraandfaunaincludedintheScottishNaturalHeritage(SNH)SpeciesActionFramework( January,2007)thatsetsoutaframeworkforthemanagementofspeciesinScotlandandlistsspeciesforwhichclear,targetedactionoverthenextfiveyearscouldmakethemostdifferencetobiodiversity.Lesswidespreadbutlocallycreatingsevereproblemsaresnowberry(Symphoricarpos rivularis)andsalmonberry(Rubus spectabilis).
Amongherbaceousplantsthreelargeperennialsstandout.Allaregardenescapeesoriginallyplantedfortheirornamentaleffect.
• Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica,syn.Polygonum cuspidatum)–listedonSchedule9ofthewildlifeandCountrysideAct1981,whichmakesitanoffencetoplantorcausethisplanttogrowinthewild.Itisnotanoffenceifitisgrowinginyourgardenoronyourlandandthereisnospecificdutyeithertonotifyanyoneofitspresenceortocontrolit.Japaneseknotweedisabletoregeneratefromverysmallpiecesofplantanditsrhizome
Figure 64
DeanCastleCountryPark,Kilmarnock–severalestatelandscapesarenowcountryparkswithgoodpublicaccess.
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systemcanbeupto3mdeep,makingitextremelydifficulttoeradicateonceestablished.Itcausesecologicalproblemsasaresultofout-competingnativeplants.Itcanalsobecommerciallydamagingbecauseofthecostoferadicationanditsabilitytodamagestructuresandroadsurfaces.
• Giant hogweed(Heracleum mantegazzianum)–canoftenbefoundonwastegroundandriverbanks.Itgrowsupto5mtallandeachflowerheadproducesthousandsofseedsthatarereadilydispersedbywindandwater.Ifsapfromtheplantgetsontotheskinandisthenexposedtosunlight,itcanblisterandcausesevereskinirritation.
• Himalayan balsam(Impatiens glandulifera)–anattractivegardenescapeethatcanbeoftenfoundalongriverbanks.Itcanoutgrownativeflora,creatinganecologically-harmfulmonocultureinwhichnativespeciesareunabletothrive.Itisabletoprojectitsseedoveraradiusofupto4mandsospreadsreadily.
Forothernon-nativeinvasivespeciesinScotlandvisit:www.scotland.gov.uk
TheScottishGovernmentalongwithDefraandthewelshAssemblyGovernmentlaunchedtheInvasive Non-native Species Framework Strategy(secure.fera.defra.gov.uk)forGreatBritainon28May2008.Itsoverarchingaimistominimisetheriskposedandreducethenegativeimpactscausedbyinvasivenon-nativespeciesinGreatBritain.Itisintendedtoprovideastrategicframeworkwithinwhichtheactionsofgovernmentdepartments,theirrelatedbodiesandkeystakeholderscanbebettercoordinated.
Figure 67
Japaneseknotweed.
Figure 68
Gianthogweed.
Figure 65
Rhododendron ponticum enclosingdrive,ScottishBorders.
Figure 66
Salmonberry,Rousay.
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Pestanddiseases
Pestanddiseasesaffectingtreesandshrubscanhaveamajoraffectonourlandscapes,nonemoresothanthedevastatingeffectofDutchElmDiseaseonelmsacrossBritainduringtheearlytomid-1970s,whichcontinuestobeactiveinScotland.MorerecentlyPhytophthora,afungus-likepathogenknowninanumberofforms,iscausingextensivedamageandmortalitytotreesandshrubsinpartsoftheUnitedKingdomincludingdesignedlandscapessuchasBrodick,BallochCastleandRossPriory,affectingrhododendrons,beech,yew,larchandotherplants.
witharecentincreaseinfindingsofnewpestanddiseasesitisclearthatBritain’streesareunderunprecedentedthreat.Scienceindicatesthatclimatechangewillcreatetheconditionsforevenmorepestactivity.
TheseheightenedthreatsrequireustotakeamorestrategicapproachtoforestandtreehealthandtheForestryCommissionhasrecentlyformedaBiosecurityProgrammeBoardwithmembersdrawnfromanumberoforganisationswithenvironmentalinterestsintheprivateandvoluntarysectorstogetherwithexpertsfromtheCommissionanditsForestResearchbranch.
ThetopthreatsalreadypresentinBritainare:
• Acute oak decline –adiseaseaffectingoaktreesinpartsofBritain,inwhichbacteria,includingonespeciespreviouslyunknowntoscience,arebelievedtobeinvolved.
• Bleeding canker of horse chestnut(Pseudomonas syringae pathovar aesculi)–abacteriumthatcausesdeathtohorsechestnuttrees.UptohalfofBritain’shorsechestnuttreeshavesymptoms.
• Great spruce bark beetle(Dendroctonus micans)–ispresentthroughoutmuchoftheEurasianregion,practicallyeverywherethatsprucetreesgrow.
• Horse chestnut leaf miner (Cameraria ohridella)–firstfoundinLondon2002.ItsrangehasexpandedovertheyearstomanylocationsinsouthernEnglandandpartsofwales.
• Oak pinhole borer(Platypus cylindrus)–usedtoberareinBritain,butpopulationsgrewinthesouthandsoutheastofEnglandasaresultofthe1987gales,whenittookadvantageofthesuddenglutofsuitablebreedingmaterial.
• Oak processionary moth(Thaumetopoea processionea)–defoliatesoaktreesandcancausethemtodie.Treesareweakenedandbecomepronetoattackbyotherpests.
• Phytophthora kernoviae–hassofaronlybeenfoundinBritain,andonlyinaveryfewtrees.Itcandamageanumberoftreespecies,includingbeechandEnglishoak.
Figure 69
Groundsterilisationtocombatphytophthora,LochLomondside.
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• Phytophthora ramorum–afungus-likeorganismwhichattacksarangeoftreesandshrubs.Japaneselarchhasrecentlybeenfoundtobeahost.
• Pine tree lappet moth (Dendrolimus pini)–hasbeencapturedinpineforestsinInverness-shire.AseriousdefoliatorofpineandotherconiferspeciesinitsnativerangeinnorthernandeasternEuropeandRussia.
• Red band needle blight–causedbythefungusDothistroma septosporum,cancausemortalityandlossoftimberyieldinpinetrees.MainhostisCorsicanpine.
PlanthealthinspectionsoftreesandwoodlandbyForestryCommissionplanthealthinspectorsplayanimportantroleineffortstomanageoutbreaksofpestsanddiseases.TheCommission’sGuidanceforPlantHealthInspectors(www.forestry.gov.uk/planthealth)canhelpyouunderstandwhattoexpectifaninspectorneedstovisityourproperty.
FormoreinformationaboutPhytophthora kernoviae and Phytophthora ramorum inScotlandvisit:www.forestry.gov.uk/phytophthora
Climatechangeandeffectsonwoodsandtrees
Perhapsthegreatestissueaffectingthetreecomponentsofdesignedlandscapesinthelong-termisclimatechange.Climatechangeisnowoneofthegreatestglobalchallengesandresearchisunderwaytoestablishthelikelyimpactsonallaspectsoftheenvironment.Therearemanyuncertaintiesintheextentandrangeofclimatechange,anditslikelyimpactontrees,ecosystems,nativespeciesandmanagementoperations.Akeybasisforriskplanningandmanagementisdiversification;frombroadeningthechoiceofgeneticmaterial,mixingtreespeciesinstands,tovaryingmanagementsystemsandthetimingofoperations.
Inthisrapidlydevelopingfieldofknowledgeitisdifficulttogivepreciseadviceonhowtoadaptaplantingprojecttorestorethetreecomponentsofadesignedlandscapesothatitismoreresilienttoclimatechange.ButthereareemergingrecommendationsfromresearchbytheForestryCommissionScotlandandScottishNaturalHeritage,anditwillbenecessarytokeepintouchwithdevelopmentsthroughdedicatedareasoftheirwebsites.
ForestryCommissionandclimatechange
TheForestryCommission’sprogrammeofclimatechangeresearchontrees,woodlandsandforestsiswide-ranging,coveringimportantaspectsofclimatechangeimpacts,adaptationandmitigation.Theresearchaimstoinformbothpolicyandforestmanagementpractice.Italsosupportsbiosecuritypolicy,andrelatesstronglytotheecosystemservicesapproachtoevaluatingthegoodsandservicesthattreesandwoodlandsprovidetosociety.TheForestryCommissionspendsaroundaquarterofitsresearchbudgetwithForestResearchonclimatechangeandrelatedprogrammes.
ForestryCommissionpolicy
ForestryCommissionpolicyonclimatechangestemsfromtheUKGovernment’sresponsetotheKyotoProtocolwiththepublicationofthestrategicdocumentonclimatechange:Climate Change – the UK programmepublishedinNovember2000.
TheScottishForestryStrategyidentifiesclimatechangeasthenumberonethemecross-cuttingallotheraspectsofforestry.Thestrategycallsforarobustadaptationpolicytopreparetheindustrytoadjustandmaintainorimprovesustainableforestmanagement.
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withinthecontinuouslydevelopingandexpandingknowledgeofclimatechangeanditseffectsandbasedonthecurrentknowntrends,ForestryCommissionScotlandpredictsthefollowingeffectsontreegrowthandcultivationandmakestherecommendationsthatfollow.
Keyfindings:
• Theexpectedwarmerclimatewillimprovetreegrowthnationally,butparticularlyinsouthernandeasternScotland.Productivitywillincreasegenerally,andthiscouldbeby2to4cubicmetresperhectareperyear(m3/ha/yr)forconifersonsiteswherewaterandnutrientsarenotlimiting.
• TheclimateofsouthernandeasternScotlandwillbemorefavourableforgrowinghigh-qualitybroadleavedtreesonsuitabledeep,fertilesoils.
• DroughtysoilsineasternScotlandwillbecomeunfavourableforSitkaspruceandotherdrought-sensitivespecies.
• Changesintheseasonaldistributionofrainfallwillcausemorefrequentsummerdroughtandmorefrequentwinterflooding.
• Changesinthefrequencyofextremewindswillcausemorewinddamage.Howeverwindscenarioshaveahighuncertaintyattached.
• Pestanddiseaseecologywillchangewiththeclimate;forexample,morefrequentgreen-spruceaphidattacksmayreducegrowthineasternandsouthernScotland.
• Scotland’saspirationtoexpandwoodlandfrom17%to25%by2050providesanopportunitytotargetreforestationwithinhabitatnetworks.Thiswillreducewoodlandfragmentationandtherebyhelpimprovetheresilienceofwoodlandecosystemstoclimatechange.
Emergingrecommendations
• Low-impactsilviculturalsystems(LISS)andtheuseofmixturescouldprovidethebasisforadaptationstrategies.
• whereothermanagementregimesareused,awiderrangeofspeciesandabroaderrangeofgeneticmaterialwithinaspecieswillincreasestandresilienceinachangingclimate.
• Acceptanceofnaturalcolonisationofwoodlandsofnon-nativetreespeciesmaybeavalidadaptationstrategy,butthismustbereviewedwhereconservationisamajorobjective.
• ForestnurseriesineasternScotlandwillhavetoadapttothedriersummers(forexamplebyusingmoreirrigation)andtowetterwinters(forexamplebyavoidingsoildamage).
• Contingencyplansneedtoprovideanadequateresponsetoincreasingrisksofcatastrophicwinddamage,fire,andpestordiseaseoutbreaks.
• Theupperwindexposurelimit,definedintermsofthedetailedaspectmethodofscoring,forproductiveconiferplantationsmayneedtobereduced.
SelectedForestryCommissionandSNHreportsandpublicationsgivingfurtherinformationonclimatechangeissuesinclude:
• ImpactsofclimatechangeonforestsinScotland-finalreport,DuncanRaywithDavewainhouse,JoanwebberandBarryGardiner;January2008.
• TheevidencesupportingtheuseofContinuousCoverForestryinadaptingScotland’sforeststotherisksofclimatechange,VictoriaStokesandGaryKerr,October2009.
• ClimatechangeandthefutureforbroadleavedtreespeciesinBritain,M.Broadmeadow,D.RayandC.Samuel;Forestry78:145–167.
• ClimateChangeandBritishwoodland,M.BroadmeadowandD.Ray;ForestryCommissionInformationNote69.
• SNH’sClimateChangeActionPlan( July2009)setsoutinsomedetailtheactionsitintendstotakeoverthecurrentfiveyearperiod.
• Effectsonnatureandlandscapesaresetoutintermsofspecies,habitatsandgeology,soilsandlandscapesinadedicatedareaofSNH’swebsite.
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1. Park trees and groups in need of restocking
2. Parkland trees from early avenue
3. Veteran trees, biodiversity value
4. Standing and fallen deadwood, biodiversity value
5. Drive-side tree groups positioned for views to house
6. Ha-ha separating lawn from grazed park
7. Iron estate fencing around park
8. Former woodland garden
9. Unmanaged woodland garden area with natural regeneration,
balancing management objectives in future management
10. Woodland management in relation to watercourses
11. Unmanaged policy woodland
12. Estate planted roadside trees, potentially dangerous and requiring
replacement
13. Roadside trees from former avenue
14. Hedges requiring regular maintenance and gapping up
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2 3
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7
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12
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25 26
Box 1 General sketch showing selected issues.
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15. Rhododendron invasion
16. Inappropriately located conifer infill
17. Abandoned walled garden, new use required
18. Old trees from lost early avenue
19. Ornamental tree groups including north American conifers
20. Parkland managed as improved pasture with damage trees and
declining tree groups
21. Restocking of main avenue; retained element from 18th century layout
22. Formal gardens
23. Simplification of park boundaries by infill tree planting
24. Outer park planted with trees
25. Commercial forestry on outer hillsides
26. Picturesque glen with wild character and man-made features
27. Former wood pasture with veteran trees
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Illus
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AppendicesResearchsources,mapsandwebsitesinsiteassessment
Therecanbeproblemsindecidingtheextentofdesignedlandscapeswherethereisagradualtransitionfromparklandandpolicywoodlandintothesurroundingagriculturalorforestrylandscape.Inassessingtheextentoftheselandscapesfrommapevidence,oneislookingforsignaturefeaturessuchasfieldshape,gate-lodges,avenues,walledgardensetc.Confusionmaybecausedbylandscapesthathavebeencombined,subdivided,ordiminishedinsize.Forexample,shouldtheboundarymarkthepresentextent,orthemaximumareahistorically,ofthedesignedlandscape,evenwherepartofitmayhavebecomedegradedorbuiltover?
HistoricScotland,InventoryofGardensandDesignedLandscapesinScotland
Themapsintheoriginalpublishedvolumesdefinedkeylandscapeelementssuchasparkland,drives,walledgardensetc,andincluded‘landhistoricallyinfluencedbythedesignedlandscape’withinadottedline,andthemapsincludedinthesupplementaryvolumesforLothian,FifeandHighlands&Islands,definedadditionalelementssuchas‘principalviewsorvistas’and‘essentialsetting.’OnthemapswiththeonlineversionoftheInventory(www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/index/gardens)onlythesiteboundariesaremarkedandthereisnointernaldetailincluded.Insomeinstancesthe‘landhistoricallyinfluencedbythedesignedlandscape’hasbeenomittedfromtheonlinesitemaps,leadingtouncertaintyaboutthetrueextentofthedesignedlandscape.HistoricScotlandarecurrentlycarryingoutasystematicresurveyoftheInventorywhichwilladdresstheseconcerns.
RCAHMS,Pastmap
Thisonlinemap,whichallowszooming,panninganddownloadingofimages,definestheextentofInventorylandscapesclearlywithyellowshading.Nointernaldetailisincluded.Boundariesarenotshownfornon-Inventorysites.Designedlandscapeelementsofnon-Inventorysites–gate-lodges,walledgardens,stableblocks,view-housesetc–maybeidentifiedbyusingthecolourcodedbuttonsforscheduledmonuments,listedbuildings,itemsoncountysitesandmonumentsrecordsetc,thisispoint-basedinformation,anddoesnothelpinassessingtheextentofdesignedlandscapes.
HistoricLand-useAssessment(RCAHMS)
TheHistoricLand-useAssessment(HLA)isajointprojectbetweenHistoricScotlandandRCAHMS. ItisanonlineGIS-basedmap–availableatHLAmap(hla.rcahms.gov.uk)–thatdepictsthehistoricoriginofland-usepatterns,describingthembyperiod,formandfunction.Itspurposeistoenhanceourknowledgeandunderstandingofthehistoricdimensionofthelandscapeandtoinformmanagementdecisionsrelatingtoit.Ithighlightsrelictarchaeologicallandscapesandhelpsidentifyareaswherefurthersurveycouldusefullybetargeted.
TheHLAwillbeusefulinforestplanninganddesign;inconsideringthehistoricelementswithinmostForestryCommissionScotlandgrantsandlicensingactivities;andinconsideringhistoriclandscapecharacterforLocalAuthoritywoodlandandForestryStrategies.
HLAiscompiledatascaleof1:25000(enablingacomprehensivebroadoverview).Thesmallestareathatitisthereforepracticaltomapis1ha(1000m²).Theassessmentisbasedontheanalysisofkeydatasources,suchasearlymaps,theNationalMonumentsRecordofScotland,aerialphotographyandarchaeologicalsurveyresults.Itidentifiesindividualhistoric land-usetypes,
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groupedtogetherunderthematicheadings(categories)andassignedalikelychronologicalperiod.Thesehistoricland-usetypessurvivewithincurrentland-usepatternsandcontaininformationinregardtolandscapecharacteranddevelopment.Italsodepictsrelict land-use;archaeologicallandscapefeaturesthatsurvivebuthavefallenoutofuse.
TheHistoricLand-useAssessmentusesevidenceofthehistoricenvironmentderivedfromavarietyofsourcestoproducethreedistinctbutcomplementarycategoriesofinformation:
• Categoryisdesignedtoaidtheuserbysortingtheindividualland-usetypesintofourteennationalland-usecategoriesforeaseofreference.Land-usecategoriesincludeforestry,agriculture,urban,transportandmineralextraction
• Periodisdesignedtoaidtheuserbyindicatinglikelychronologicalperiodofanygivenfeatureandisindicatedbycentury(andmedieval/prehistoricetc).
• Typeisextensivewithover50land-uses,frommedievalfieldsthroughtocemeteries,charcoalplatforms,fortificationsandrelictgolfcourses.Eachtypeischaracterisedbyitsperiodoforigin,alongsideitsformandfunction.
HLAdataiscurrentlyavailableforaround73%ofthecountry.
ForestryCommissionScotlandHistoric Land-Use Assessment User Guideisavailableat:www.forestry.gov.uk/histenvpolicy
NationalLibraryofScotland,CountyMaps
Althoughcoverageofthecountryisbothpatchyanduneven,dependingonthedateofthesurvey,thescaleofthemap,andthelevelofdetailincludedbytheindividualsurveyor,pre-OrdnanceSurveymaps(i.e.pre-1850)canbevaluableinassessingtheextentofdesignedlandscapes.Onmapsdrawnatalargerscale,itmaybepossibletodistinguishparklandandpolicieswiththehelpofshadingand/orconventionalsymbolsused,thoughthesearenotstandardisedbetweenmaps.AlmostalltheCountyMapsareavailableonlineattheNationalLibraryofScotland’swebsite(maps.nls.uk/counties),whichallowspanning,zoominganddownloadingofthemapimages.
NationalLibraryofScotland,OrdnanceSurveyMaps
OrdnanceSurveymapsatarangeofscaleswereproducedfromc.1850onwards–themostusefulscalesforassessingindividualdesignedlandscapesbeing1:10560(6inchestothemile)and1:2500(25inchestothemile).TheidentificationofdesignedlandscapesontheOS1stedition1:10560sheetsisassistedinmanycasesbytheparklandwithinthepoliciesbeingdistinguishedbyagreystipple.Itmayalsobepossibletodistinguishbetweenpolicyplantingandmorecommercialplantingfromthespeciesmix,evidentfromconventionalsymbolsforbroadleavesandconifers.The6inchOSsheetsalsoincludedetailsofgate-lodges,footpaths,viewhousesetc,whichcanbeusefulindefininglandscapeboundariesandextent.
wheretheyexist,coveringmostlowlandandsettledareas,the1:2500(25inch)sheets,areeasiertoreadandinterpret,butdonotcontainmuchmoredetail.
Boththe1inchOSc.1900and1inchOS Popular Editionc.1925–30,thoughdrawnattoosmallascaletoshowinternaldetail,usegreystippletodistinguishparklandandareusefulforgivinganimpressionofthedistributionandextentofdesignedlandscapesinanarea.AllofthesescalesanddatesofOrdnanceSurveymapsareavailablefromtheMapLibraryonline,withtheabilitytopan,zoomanddownloadimages(maps.nls.uk/series).Insomeinstancesthecharacterand
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compositionofnamedwoodsisdescribedintheOSObject Name Books,microfilmcopiesofwhichareavailablefromRCAHMS.
ForestryCommission,GLADELandInformationSearch
Althoughitisnotthepurposeofthiswebsitetoshowtheextentofdesignedlandscapes,the‘Ancientwoodland’overlaywhichcanbegeneratedbyclickingontherelevantboxwilloftenbefoundtocoincidecloselywiththeextentoflong-establishedpolicywoodlandwithindesignedlandscapes.TheGLADEsite(www.forestry.gov.uk/lis)isalsoanexcellentsourceforrelatedmappingoflandclassificationsanddesignations,andforallforestrygrantsthatarealreadyinplace.
HistoricEnvironmentInformationandAdviceforForestandwoodlandManagersinScotland
AnessentialguidetotheresourcesavailabletoforestandwoodlandmanagersrelatingtothehistoricenvironmentofScotland.Ithasbeendesignedasaroutemaptothemostpertinentavailableinformationandadvice.AvailableasafreedownloadfromtheForestryCommissionScotlandwebsiteat:www.forestry.gov.uk/histenvpolicy
AerialPhotographs
Althoughthereareseveralwebsitesgivingaccesstodetailedaerialphotographicimages,suchasGoogle MapsandBing Map,coverageofthecountryisveryuneven,andthequalityandscaleoftheimagesisveryvariableandnotdated.Aerialphotographscanbeusefulforcorroborativepurposes,butarelessvaluableontheirown.
RCAHMSholdthenationalcollectionofaerialphotographywithperiodiccoverageofmanysitesfrompost-ww2onwards,enablingassessmentofchangeoverthelast50–60yearswithmuchdetaillegible,particularlywhenviewedstereoscopically.AerialphotographsalsorecordScheduledAncientMonumentsandothersitesofarchaeologicalinterest,oftenunderdifferentweatherconditionstorevealotherwisehiddeninformation.RCAHMSaerialphotographyisnotcurrentlyavailableonline.
Sourcesoffunding
ScotlandRuralDevelopmentProgramme(SRDP)
TheSRDPbringstogetherawiderangeofformerlyseparatesupportschemesincludingthosecoveringthefarming,forestryandprimaryprocessingsectors,ruralenterpriseandbusinessdevelopment,diversificationandruraltourism.ItincludesmeasurestosupportandencourageruralcommunitiesanddeliverstheLEADERinitiativeforlocalinnovationinruralareas.withinSRDPthemostapplicablegrantmechanismsfordesignlandscapesare:
• Rural Priorities–thisisacompetitivegrantschemedeliveredjointlybyScottishGovernmentRuralPaymentsInspectionsDirectorate,ScottishNaturalHeritageandForestryCommissionScotlandthroughareaoffices.
ContractsareawardedfortheproposalswhicharebestabletodelivertheagreedRegionalpriorities.Themostrelevantprioritiestodesignedlandscapesare‘LandscapePriorities’and‘Built&CulturalHeritage’Priorities.
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• Challenge Funds –consistsofwoodlandsInandAroundTowns(wIAT)andForestforPeople(F4P)andareadministeredbyForestryCommissionScotland.ThewIATfundisthemostrelevantfundtosupportdesignedlandscapes.ThewIATschemeaimstoimprovethequalityoflifeintownsandcitiesandfocusesonwoodswithin1kmofsettlementswithapopulationofover2000people.Thecoreobjectivesare:
–Bringingneglectedwoodlandintomanagement –Creatingnewwoodlands –Supportingpeopletouseandenjoytheirlocalwoods
AnActionPlanhasbeendevelopedtosupportdeliveryfrom2011–2014 (www.forestry.gov.uk/wiat).
• LEADER–LinksBetweenActivitiesDevelopingtheRuralEconomy–LEADERisabottom-upmethodofdeliveringsupportforruraldevelopmentthroughimplementinglocaldevelopmentstrategies.Support,awardedbyLocalActionGroups(LAGs),isaimedatlocalprojectswithawidecommunitybenefitthatshowanelementoforiginalityorexperimentationwherepossible,andcomplementotheractivitieswithinthelocaldevelopmentstrategy.
TheaimofLEADERistoincreasethecapacityoflocalruralcommunityandbusinessnetworkstobuildknowledgeandskills,andencourageinnovationandco-operationinordertotacklelocaldevelopmentobjectives.LEADERaccountsfor6%ofthetotalScottishRuralDevelopmentProgrammeSRDPallocation.
Forapplicationforms,guidanceandadvicecontactyourLocalActionGroup.
FulldetailsaboutScotland’sRuralDevelopmentProgrammecanbefoundattheScottishGovernment’sSRDPwebsite.
Figure 71
woods,treebeltsandwaterbodiesfromestatedesignedlandscapesoftensurviveasvaluableresourceswithinthebuilt-upareaoftowns.
Figure 70
Manydesignedlandscapesadjointowncentres.Dalkeith,Midlothian.
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CentralScotlandGreenNetwork(CSGN)
TheScottishGovernment’ssecondNationalPlanningFramework(NPF2)designatestheCentralScotlandGreenNetwork(CSGN)asoneofonly14NationalDevelopments.TheCSGNisintendedtodeliver“a step change in environmental quality, woodland cover and recreational opportunities”,tomakeCentralScotland“a more attractive place to live and do business, help to absorb CO2, enhance biodiversity, and promote healthier, more active lifestyles”.
ForestryCommissionScotland,initscapacityasjointleadpartnerfortheCSGN,invitesapplicationstoanewfund,tosupportthedevelopmentofearlyCSGNdeliveryprojects.
Forinformationcoveringthescopeofthefunding,eligibilitycriteria,andtheapplicationprocess,visittheCSGNwebsite(www.centralscotlandgreennetwork.org).
HeritageLotteryFund
TheHeritageLotteryFundusesmoneyfromtheNationalLotterytogivegrantsforawiderangeofprojectsinvolvingthelocal,regionalandnationalheritageoftheUnitedKingdom.HLF’sawardprogrammes(detailsofhowtoapplycanbefoundatwww.hlf.org.uk/howtoapply)thatcanberelevanttodesignedlandscapesprojectsinclude:
• Heritage Grants (grantsabove£50,000):Thisisthemainprogrammeforgrantsover£50,000forallkindsofheritagethatrelatetothenational,regionalandlocalheritageoftheUK.Itisopentoallnot-for-profitorganisations.
• Your Heritage (£3000to£50,000):Thisisthegeneralsmallgrantsprogrammeforalltypesofheritageprojects.Itisaflexibleprogrammeparticularlydesignedforvoluntaryandcommunitygroupsandfirst-timeapplicants.
• Parks for People (£250,000to£5million):ParksforPeopleisforwholeparkprojectsthatsupporttheregenerationofexistingdesignedurbanorruralgreenspaces,themainpurposeofwhichisforinformalrecreationandenjoyment.
• Landscape Partnerships (£250,000to£2million):Thisprogrammesupportsschemesthatareledbypartnershipsoflocal,regionalandnationalinterests,whichaimtoconserveareasofdistinctivelandscapecharacterthroughouttheUK.
• Skills for the future (£100,000to£1million):SkillsfortheFuturefundedprojectswhichprovidepaidtrainingplacementstomeetaskillsgapintheheritagesector,andfullysupporttraineestolearnpracticalskills.
HistoricScotland
HistoricScotland’sgrantsaredirectedprimarilyatlistedbuildings,scheduledancientmonumentsandotherarchaeologicalsites,andconservationareas.Grantscanbeasourceoffundingforworktothesestructuresorareasthatareinorpartofadesignedlandscape.
HistoricScotlandcanawardLandscapeManagementPlanGrantsforthepreparationoflandscapemanagementplansforsitesincludedintheInventoryofGardensandDesignedLandscapesinScotland.
ApplicationsareconsideredthroughouttheyearonHistoricScotland’sLandscapeManagementPlanapplicationform(www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/heritage/grants).Grantscanbeawardedatratesofupto50%ofthecostofpreparingaplanpreparedbyaconsultantwhohasanestablishedrecordofworktohistoricgardensanddesignedlandscapes.
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ForfurtherdetailsvisittheHistoricScotlandLandscapeManagementPlanGrantswebpageat:www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/heritage/grants
Organisationsforfurtherinformationandadvice
• Forestry Commission–www.forestry.gov.ukGrantsandlicences;forestryinitiatives;extensivetechnicaladviceonallaspectsoftreecultivation,woodlandsandforestry;landinformationsearch.
• Ancient Tree Forum – frontpage.woodland-trust.org.uk/ancient-tree-forum • Central Scotland Forest Trust – www.csft.org.uk • Central Scotland Green Network – www.centralscotlandgreennetwork.org • Edinburgh and the Lothians Forest Habitat Network partnership – www.elfhnp.org.uk • Garden History Society in Scotland – www.gardenhistorysociety.org
Independentsourceofinformationandadvice. • Glasgow Clyde Valley Green Network Partnership – www.gcvgreennetwork.gov.uk • Greenspace Scotland – www.greenspacescotland.org.uk • Historic Scotland–www.historic-scotland.gov.uk InventoryofGardensandDesignedLandscapeinScotland;landscapemanagementplan
grants;listedbuildings. • The Landscape Institute–www.landscapeinstitute.org AppointingaLandscapeArchitect,listofpractices. • National Library of Scotland, Map Library – maps.nls.uk • The National Trust for Scotland – www.nts.org.uk • Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland –
www.rcahms.gov.uk • Royal Scottish Forestry Society–www.rsfs.org Journal,eventsandresearchrelatedtotrees,woodsandforestryinScotland. • Scottish Government Rural Payments and Inspections Directorate –
www.scotland.gov.uk/topics/farmingrural/srdp ScotlandRuralDevelopmentProgramme(SRDP). • Scottish Natural Heritage–www.snh.org.uk Statutoryprotectionofsitesandspecies;OutdoorAccessCode;countryparks;grantsand
licences;interpretation;accessdesignguidance;signsguidance. • The Woodland Trust – www.woodsforpeople.info woodsforpeople.
Generalreading
ManyspecialistpublicationsarelistedunderdifferenttopicsinotherpartsoftheprecedingGuidance.Thefollowingisashortbibliographyofgeneralreadingonthesubject,bothpublishedbooksandonlineresources.
BELL,S.(1998).Forest design planning: a guide to good practice.ForestryCommissionPracticeGuide.ForestryCommission,Edinburgh.(www.forestry.gov.uk/publications)
FORESTRyCOMMISSIONSCOTLAND(2008).Scotland’s Woodlands and the Historic Environment.ForestryCommissionScotland,Edinburgh.(www.forestry.gov.uk/publications)
LANDUSECONSULTANTS(2008).An Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland. Vols.1–5(1987),latersupplementsandonlineInventory (www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/heritage/gardens).
REID,J.(1988).The Scots Gard’ner, 1683.ReprintedbyMainstreamPublishingCompany,Edinburgh.IntroductionbyAnnetteHope.
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SCOTTISHNATURALHERITAGE(1997).Designed Landscapes in Scotland: notes on their planting and management.SNHReviewNo.82.ScottishNaturalHeritage,Inverness.
TAIT,A.A.(1980).The Landscape Garden in Scotland 1735–1835.EdinburghUniversityPress,Edinburgh.
wATKINSandwRIGHT(2007).The Management & Maintenance of Historic Parks, Garden & Landscapes.EnglishHeritageHandbook.EnglishHertitage,London.
Relevantlegislationandpublications
A Preliminary and Interim List of Parks and Gardens of Outstanding Historic Interest, ICOMOS-UK 1979An Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland 1987An Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland, List of Sites 2007Ancient Woodland Inventory, Scottish Natural HeritageEuropean Landscape Convention 2000Forestry Act 1967Natural Heritage Futures, Forests and Woodlands 2002 Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas)(Scotland) Act 1997Rural Development Contracts, Land Managers Options2008Scotland Rural Development Programme 2007–2013Scottish Historic Environment Policy2009Scottish Planning Policy 2010The Scottish Forestry Strategy2006The Tree Council’s Tree Warden Scheme, Tree Warden Handbook Town and Country Planning Act 1947Town and Country Planning (General Development Procedure)(Scotland) Order 1992
Glossaryandacronyms
Historic Environment Information and Advice for Forest and Woodland Managers in Scotlandwww.forestry.gov.uk/histenvpolicyListofacronyms.
SyMES,M.(2006).A Glossary of Garden History.ShireGardenHistoryseries,3rdrevisededition.ThemostusefulpublishedGlossary.
Gardenvisit.com–www.gardenvisit.com/garden_glossary–Onlineglossaryofgardenterms.
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The Scottish Historic Environment Policy ( July 2009) describes gardens and designed
landscapes as, ‘Gardens and designed landscapes can be defined as grounds that are
consciously laid out for artistic effect. They are often the setting of important buildings
and, in addition to parkland, woodland, water and formal garden elements, can often have
significant archaeological and scientific interest.’
Since Medieval times, designed landscapes have evolved and at times changed dramatically
in style and character. Throughout all periods and recognised styles however, trees have
been an essential feature. In the 20th century social and economic changes proved
challenging times for land management, with a combination of estate fragmentation,
decline and changed land-use policies, specifically regarding new objectives for forest
expansion and management. Now designed landscapes are appreciated for their contribution
to local landscape character and the distinctiveness of many of Scotland’s landscapes.
Today the challenge is to protect, restore and rejuvenate the remaining legacy, whilst
ensuring arboricultural and silvicultural practices can deal with the changes anticipated
from climate change. This guidance is an essential contributor in helping ensure designed
landscapes can meet those challenges.
Cov
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Dav
id R
ober
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/ww
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imag
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231 Corstorphine RoadEdinburghEH12 7AT
www.forestry.gov.uk/scotland£5.00