conservation and preservation practicesshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/24241/5/ch… ·...
TRANSCRIPT
CHAPTER – III
CONSERVATION DISCIPLINE : IT’S VARIOUS ASPECTS
1. Conservation as a discipline : its theoretical and historical background
For several centuries before ours, the people working in the field of
conservation of historic and artistic works were usually artisans practicing
restoration as an aspect of various traditional trades and they were mostly
craftsmen such as cabinet makers, musical instrument makers, book
binders, etc. Many of their traditional skills and attitudes regarding
standards of workmanship or the appearance of a restored artifact have
persisted as elements of this craft heritage have been assimilated into the
conservation discipline of the present day. The trade and practices of
restoration continue, their common primary ideal being to repair an object
in such a manner that the viewer or user is unaware of such intervention.
This can be accomplished either by skillful facsimile work or by substantial
reconstruction of the original in which a patron or a client and a restorer
consider to be the style or effects most desirable in the particular historical
or aesthetic genre.
Last fifty years or so have however, witnessed an increasing
divergence from such perceptions and practices amongst many concerned
with the study and case of cultural property, manifested in the development
of the museological philosophy and occupation termed as ‘conservation’. It
is considered that conservation should be restricted to treatment necessary
to ensure the object’s existence with the minimal possible deterioration in a
protective environment. There should be no destruction of constituent
materials and structure, just to improve its appearance, and no faking of
89
missing elements without extensive consideration and investigation of its
historical and cultural context.
Until about fifteen years ago, the scale of the conservation
profession as a whole, its research advances discoveries and their
dissemination were such that these could to a satisfactory degree at least, be
accommodated under the aegis of broadly – based organization and
publications which encompassed the whole range of conservation activities.
These bodies continue to play a most vital role in the unification of an
increasingly diversified occupation and is encouraging and facilitating the
cross – disciplinary flow and mutual stimulus of ideas and information[1].
Conservation of Documentary Wealth
Conservation of organic materials which are bound to decay with the
passage of time and exhaust because of use, has become an important
aspect of the modern society. The word ‘conservation’ has been used in
different fields, such as conservation of energy, conservation of
momentum, conservation of forests, conservation of wild life and
conservation of soil etc. Different word power has been used to define the
term in its respective fields. But the soul of conservation i.e., to keep the
things intact and safe in quantity, quality and shape and size for the use of
future generations, has ever been kept intact in every field. Indifferent from
above, the sole purpose of conservation of the
archival and library wealth which is entirely organic in character is to
protect the material from undergoing any changes because of which the
wealth in question disintegrates, damages and perishes.
Today, conservation has come up as a full fledged science and is
composed of five elements. But the question arises as to whether
conservation is a concept of modern age and its seeds were there, in the past
90
as well. In order to find out the factual position, an exploration of the world
literacy sources seems to be the need of time, before making any
comprehensive and analytical study of conservation and its elements.
Antiquity of conservation
The significant character fused by nature in every form of life is the
existence of fear and security against any micro and macro organism or any
other agency. This concept of safety towards life against the enemies is
nothing but a nucleus for conservation. Thus, the antiquity of conservation
may be said to be contemporary to the evolution of life on the earth. The
initial stage or the beginning of first stage, it was limited to life and was
mostly in conceptual form and therefore may be termed as conceptual
conservation. Second phase of conceptual conservation especially in Indian
society, is marked with the concept of welfare for all and that may be
manifested by the emergence of slogans like “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam”
and “Ahinsa Parmodhharama” which appeared as a main code of conduct
of people in the vedican and its contemporary societies.
A remarkable shift, hence after, is noticed in the concept of
conservation when it enters in the form of material conservation from
conceptual one. The oldest example of material conservation in the world
history is the pyramids of Egypt. The remarkable story behind the pyramids
is that people of Egyptian royal family had a custom to bury the dead
bodies of their kings in pyramids, with the belief that after thousand years
or so, the dead kings will come back to life and they will look for their
bodies. These pyramids have been dated back to 4400 years. No doubt, the
pyramids are famous for their glory, but at the same time, they may be
treated the milestone in the history of material conservation because no
other source than pyramid is available in the world literature which throws
91
light on the scientific preservation of organic materials. Thus, antiquity of
material conservation may be fixed to the period prior to 2400 B.C., that is
the age of pyramids, as the thought of preserving dead things of organic
nature would have been appeared much before this age.
Conservation in India :
The concept of conservation may be a new thing for others, but so
far as the Indian society is concerned, it is ages old. The subsequent period
of Indian history is marked with gracious construction of sculptures like
“Stupas” dated 3rd century B.C. But the question arises as to what was the
motto behind their construction ? The answer is to preserve the memories
of Lord Buddha and his teachings. Quite contemporary to stupas, there was
a custom in prevalence to encarve the teachings of Lord Buddha from
Dharmapada on stone pillars and stone caves and the purpose of it was two
folds viz. to familiarize people with the master’s teachings and also to give
them lasting character, obviously the purpose of latter has a tinge not other
than their preservation.
The knowledge of Vedas, which is presumed to be the oldest
knowledge gathered by any human societies on the earth, was in prevalence
in Indian society when art of writing was not known to the people.
Similarly, the knowledge of the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and that of the
Puranas was known to the people of that society which was unaware of
expressing of feelings in characters and letters. A noteworthy feature to be
kept in mind is that age old knowledge, in the form of texts is still with us.
How was it kept alive ? Obviously, it could be possible only because any
system of preserving memories was being followed by the people of
different ages.
92
Thus, it becomes clear from the above that a silent stream,
effectively preserving the knowledge in Indian society, has ever been in
flow because of which scattered knowledge could be put together and kept
alive for the generations of today. Unfortunately, this stream in varied form
could not get due recognition as conservation or preservation unless the
same got recognition from western people[2].
Growth of Conservation in Modern India
Historical sources speak that big libraries were in existence in
ancient period in India. One such library in existence was in Nalanda in the
ages of ‘Ganapadas’. Similarly, various Grinthagars are also reported to
have been in existence during the medieval period. As already deduced that
a stream of preservation had ever been in flow throughout the ages, yet it is
difficult to say that scientific conservation of documentary wealth was in
existence before A.D. 1860. The idea of scientific preservation of modern
records was first time put forth in this year by Sandeman, a Civil Auditor,
suggesting in his report to weed out the records of ephemeral nature and
centralise those that were of value for preservation. But, this idea because
of one reason or the other, could not be put into practice till 1891. For the
first time, restorative conservation was introduced by Samul Charles Hill
(1899 – 1903), the then keeper of Imperial Records Department. He
instructed that folded documents be flattened and placed in docket covers
after necessary repair. Subsequently, Alwyn Faber, made a breakthrough in
the history of archives conservation, by discarding unsatisfactory tracing
paper in favour of more enduring chiffon cloth and less expensive Japanese
tissue paper, as reinforcement material. Actually, it was the period of Faber,
during which restorative conservation was redressed to match the
requirement and thus he put the idea of conservation on sound footing.
Once the archives started to grow, it continuously and progressively
93
remained in growing to the extent that now the same has attained the
leading status to the archival world in third world countries, specially
located in Afro-Asian and Latin American regions[3].
Elements of Conservation
Conservation is not the name of single function or treatment but it is
composed of five elements, namely
a. Examination
b. Preventive Conservation
c. Curative Conservation
d. Restorative Conservation
e. Micro and Macro – Reproduction.
a. Examination
This part of conservation is very much similar to the activities of a
doctor. Not much different from doctoral work, a conservator has to
examine a document and art piece using chemical and mechanical methods
to find out the real cause (diagnosis) of decay, damage and infection before
any remedial measures (treatment) he suggests for its recovery. Sometimes,
a document is subjected for complicated tests to find out the real cause.
Any way, the examination is carried out before a document or art piece is
subjected for any chemical treatment or restorative conservation and also at
the storage level. Examination at the storage level is aimed at to make note
of any adverse development in repository and also to ensure appropriate
storage norms guaranteeing physical defence of documentary wealth.
b. Preventive Conservation
Preventive conservation is an aid to keep the documentary materials
safe and sound because of decay and biological attacks and it involves
94
mainly scientific storage, dust free storage areas, display, ideal storage
conditions and also prevention against theft, fire and intrinsic damages.
c. Curative Conservation
When micro and macro organisms came into play in records to
damage them adversely, curative conservation comes on the way as an
annihilative measure to those damaging agencies. It involves chemical
treatment and fumigation of documents and storage material. However,
now-a-days, non-chemical means as curative measures are coming up as an
effective tool.
It is significant to mention that prevention conservation as well as
curative conservation are jointly known as preservation.
d. Restorative Conservation
Documents which attain fragile character because of decay besides
being damaged because of rough handling and use by the scholars and
administrators are forced for further damage if their use is continued
without any repair. And therefore, in order to bring them back to usable
form, it is essential to rejuvenate them and that is only possible by
imparting additional strength to them. This system of imparting strength to
fragile and damaged documents is put into the category of restorative
conservation.
e. Micro and Macro Reproduction
By adopting effective preventive and curative measures, if the rate of
decay is arrested and chances of physical damage are also reduced to
negligibility, it does not mean that our cultural heritage is sealed for proper
preservation unless the frequency of use of original archives and other
95
documentary material is not significantly reduced. More or less, a file or
book and volume is damaged by users also and the increased number of
demand of a document will lead to its damage in order of proportionality.
Therefore, it is judicious not to supply document, in original instead copies
of these should be supplied. This ideology today has gained impetus world
over and therefore, reproduction techniques has come up in a big way as an
effective tool for conservation of documentary wealth. For the purpose of
reproduction, reprographic and micrographic techniques are being deployed
widely[4].
2. Base Materials Used for Writing Through the Ages
The origin of art of writing in India could be traced back to the Indus
valley civilization, which was one of the four oldest civilizations of the
world. The inscribed seals and tablets collected from the sites of Mohan –
Jodaro and Harappa have revealed this fact. Actually, the writing materials,
the art of writing or depiction of ideas and the styles are almost
contemporary. It is very difficult to guess among the three which came first
into existence.
As water is necessary for ice, so base is needed to incarnate the ideas
or feelings. And if, in this context, we explore the past, the date of origin of
using material for symbolic expression of ideas, goes back to the period of
rock paintings of “Bhima Barthaka” (in modern Madhya Pradesh) which
dates back 16,000 – 18,000 years and appears to be the oldest rock
paintings not only in India, but also in the world. It means that in the age of
Bhima Barthakan society, or prior to it, people of Indian region, had started
to use base material for depicting the ideas and writing. Though the
scholars of world are divided over the issue of first writing material, yet
taking the above facts into account, possibility as stone was the first
96
material used by man for effigy and then for expressing his views in
characters and letters has sound base to believe.
First Base Material Used for Writing
Kalidas’ famous works Kumar Sambhav and Abhigyan Shakuntalam
have referred to use the birch bark leaf (Bhoj Patra) as writing material but
they are silent about its antiquity. If the historical facts are counted well
about the famous poet and his works, the antiquity of material under
discussion can be fixed around 5th or 6th century A.D. It indicates that
during the age of Kalidas, people of India had started the use of birch bark
and leaf as writing material. From this fact, it can also be deduced that the
use of birch bark and leaves is not much older than the stone material,
which was widely used during the period of Mauryas in 3 rd Century B.C.
for the purpose of writing. However, in the course of epigraphical
development, various materials were used by the ancient and medieval man
for the purpose of writing prior to the invention of paper. The materials
which are very strong and can stand with the natural and man-made
calamities may be grouped under inorganic writing materials and the
remaining under organic ones.
Inorganic Writing Materials
Clay, stone, ivory and metal are the principal substances of this
group, which were used for writing in different ages. Clay was used in the
form of tablets and seals, while stone in various forms such as pillars,
plates, rocks, caves etc.
Stone
Evidences show that stone was vastly used in the period of Ashoka
the Great for inscribing religious sutras conveying the messages about
97
maintaining peace and welfare of his subjects. In subsequent period too, its
use continued. Text on stone, Prayaga Prasasthi is one of the well-known
examples of stone inscriptions of later Ashokan period. Other well-known
examples of stone inscription in world history are the Rosetta stone
discovered in 1799 a 70' high obliska and the Cleopatra’s needles. Rosetta
stone was transported to London and now stands by Thames embankment
while Cleopatra’s is now-a-days attracting visitors in New York’s Hide
Park.
Clay
People of Indus valley civilization were the users of clay tablets and
seals for inscribing their views. Custom of writing on bricks and earthen
pots were also prevalent in Indian society of pre-Christian period.
Evidences available in several museum in India and elsewhere throw light
upon the fact that bricks were used for writing in the Buddha age too.
Buddhist religious hymns and sutras were written over bricks in this age.
Apart from Indian sub-continent, Babylonian people in ancient times
engraved letters and characters with stylus on clay tablets, which were
baked until hard and were passed from person to person as in the present
day books and letters. The people of this age were perhaps aware about the
importance of preserving memory and so they established a library in Asia-
minor and Egypt where clay tablets were housed.
Organic Writing Materials
Numerous materials fall under this category but the first and
foremost material, used for the purpose in the history of writing materials
before invention of paper, is the papyrus. Its quality resembles to a great
extent with modern paper and is the oldest known writing materials of
98
organic nature. It is believed that it was used for the first time in 3500 B.C.
by Egyptians and it was prepared by them from papyrus plant. Though, no
collection of manuscripts on papyrus has so far been reported from any part
of India, the possibilities of its use in the region are not entirely eliminated.
So far as the possibilities of papyrus making in Indian region is entirely null
and void as the fauna of this region was deprived of papyrus plant which
was the only raw material for manufacturing the papyrus. But there is no
reason for denial of import of prepared papyrus to this country, as the
writing to Indians at that time was known.
Another important fact to be taken into account is the writing during
these days was generally made under the patronage of ruling clans. So the
import of papyrus depended, to a large extent, on the need and desire of
Kings or Rajas. Under these circumstances, if papyrus was used, perhaps a
very nominal number of manuscripts might have been written only for
special purposes and on special occasions. As a result, collection on
papyrus manuscripts in the region might have been very meager and that
too could not remain preserved either due to disinterest of kings or due to
unfavourable climatic conditions of the region or they were destroyed by
foreign invaders with other valuable assets at the time of rage.
Leather as Writing Material
Leather in the form of parchment and vellum was being used as
writing material ever since 1500 B.C. in different parts of the world. Indian
literacy sources show that leather was used in the region in various ages in
one way or the other. In Devi-Puran, word Charm (leather) has been used
for wrapping the books written on palm leaves. It indicates that people of
India in the age of Puranas were familiar with the use of leather.
99
No doubt, leather was used in India for writing but in a very limited
scale and perhaps the religious traditions were responsible for it.
In the neighbouring region, Iran is a country where books written on
parchment (leather) were prepared. In Palhavi language, the synonymous of
word khal (leather) is Pusta. This word transmigrated to India from Iran and
perhaps is being used as Pustak for books.
Leather (parchment and vellum) was widely used for writing in
Egypt, Arabian Peninsula, Europe and Asia-minor. In Egypt, a number of
leather books were prepared during the period of eminent philosopher,
Socrates. Arabia was another such country where custom of writing on
leather was prevalent in the beginning days of Islam.
Parchment and Vellum
The terms parchment and vellum are often used interchangeably but
it is erroneous.
Parchment
It was discovered, as believed by the king of Pergamam in the year
of 157 – 159 B.C. when the Egyptian ruler restricted the export of papyrus.
However, some facts mention that it was being used in the 1500 B.C. also.
Though, there is controversy about the actual date of its adoption for use, it
is almost certain that the same was prepared from the skin of sheep and
lambs by splitting it into two layers. Flash inside layer of the skin was used
to convert into parchment if it was found suitable. Foul is the coarse type of
parchment made from sheep skin. It was used for manuscripts and bindings
of low quality. One book on parchment has been preserved in National
Library, Calcutta in t he rare book collection wing.
100
Vellum
It is unsplit skin of young, not usually 6 weeks old calf which is
cleaned of adhering flesh, hair, fat and muscles, preserved by soaking in a
lime solution and carefully scrapped and polished. It has always been the
choice of craftsman for luxurious manuscripts and expensive binding. The
fundamental difference between the parchment and vellum is that latter is
finer in texture than average parchment and has ever been preferred for
writing[5].
It has been stated that vellum must not be kept too dry or it will
become brittle. It would perhaps be more correct to say that it becomes
hornier and would probably return to its natural suppleness when returned
to a normal atmosphere. In a horny condition, it could possibly be damaged
by excessive bending and creasing which is hardly the normal treatment for
the pages of a book, though it may be for large documents.
Dampness is the real envy of these materials, causing them to cockle
and ultimately to rot. Owing to a high degree of imperviousness, especially
of vellum, it would be difficult to impregnate them effectively with a
fungicide and in practice, they must be kept dry if they are to last. A
relative humidity of 60 – 75 per cent should be suitable at temperature of 40
– 700 F. It is almost impossible to treat parchment and vellum to render
them unfit for insects to eat, so the only remedy is to prevent the access of
insects[6].
Palm Leaf
Today, more than 4000 species of palms are claimed to be in
existence but a few of them are liable for writing or in carving mental
feelings. Most of the old manuscripts available in India are on palm leaves.
101
The oldest one on “Palm leaf” are two Buddha Granthas, presently housed
along with Buddha Literature collection in Hurij Mahta of Japan. These
books were perhaps transmigrated from Central India and were written in
6th Century B.C. Another such old book on palm leaves belongs to the 4 th
Century B.C. and the script of book is Sanskrit. The text of this book was
published in the Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal (No. 66 : 218).
Likewise, two important works of leaf, belonging to the period 1st and 2nd
century A.D. are Kusmanjali Tika and Prabodhni, both written by Acharya
Rameshwardhwaj who was a follower of Shaivism. A research work of Sri.
C.D. Dayal has established that Tilak Manjari written in the year 1130 A.D.
and Kuvalayamal written in 1139 are the oldest among the so far known
collections on palm leaf in Rajasthan. But according to another source, the
work Panchmikaha housed in the Tapagrachi Granth Bhandar in Jaisalmer,
is the oldest manuscript and belongs to period A.D. 1109.
Other rich collections on palm leaf manuscripts are available in
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona in Maharashtra and
Shantinath Gyan Bhandar, Khambat in Gujarat state. A copy of Jain granth
of the palm leaf comprising 178 sheets and written in Sanskrit script
belonging to period 962 A.D. has been preserved in the Bhandarkar
Institute.
After India, Nepal is a rich custodian of palm leaf manuscripts.
Among the rich collection of this country, a work Scandapuran which
belongs to 7 A.D. has been treated to be the oldest. Another palm leaf
manuscript in Parameshwar Tantra which belongs to 859 A.D. presently
housing in Cambridge Library.
102
It is obvious from the above facts that the use of palm leaf as writing
material started from 6th Century B.C. and continued upto 12th and 13th
Centuries. The old collection on palm leaf belonging to the period before
Christian age are rare in the world. Most of the available manuscripts,
belong to either 11th or 12th Centuries. Palm leaves were not only used as
writing material but also in subsequent period, as base for in carving Arts
and paintings. Some in carved figures and attractive paintings over palm
leaf are housing in Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneshwar[7].
Birch Bark
Birch bark is popularly known as Bhoja Patra. It is the bark of
Bhoja tree abundantly found in the Himalayan region. A rich collection on
birch bark is found in Kashmir. The interior surface of the bark of Bhoja
tree resembles. to some extent, in smoothness, to the modern paper. Some
barks made out of the Bhoja tree are 60' in length resembling in shape to
the trunk of an elephant. One end of the bark is wider which constantly
reduces to the another end. Out of this long bark, the pieces of required
length and width were cut to write upon them. It is comparatively less
permanent than palm leaf and the modern day paper.
One of the oldest collections on birch bark belonging to the 8 th
Century A.D. and is popularly known as Ankaganit of Bakchali. Some
manuscripts collected from Takshashila are being preserved in National
Museum, New Delhi. These manuscripts are written in Brahmi and dates
back to 5th and 6th Century A.D. A religious work on Buddhism
Bhaishajuagyruvadurya Prabha Sutra written on birch bark belonging to
period 5th and 6th Century A.D. has been preserving in National Archives of
India, New Delhi. It is in Guptan script. A copy of Durgasaptashati written
on birch belonging to the period 16 A.D. has been preserved in Rajasthan
103
Prachya Vidya Pratisthan Museum, Jodhpur. A few other manuscripts have
been housing in Maharaja Jaipur Museum, Jaipur. It appears that use of
Bhoja Patra as writing base was prevalent in nearly 5th Century A.D. in
India. Another important fact is that once the use of bark started, it
continued even after the invention of paper. In 17th Century, written letters
on the bark were often sent to Europe from America. Bark books were
common in Central India and the Far East until recent.
Some of the constituents of birch bark are the salts of Salicylic Acid,
which are regarded significant natural insecticides. That is why, the birch
bark collections are seldom attacked by any of the insects and pests.
However, the most common species attacking this materials bookworm or
book beetle also known as gastralus indicus.
Collection on birch bark are adversely affected by physical and
chemical agencies, leading the embattlement of the wealth. They are
vulnerable to dampness. Rough storage conditions marked with high
humidity, high temperature and dust promoting the growth of fungus and
sticking of manuscripts together forming a solid mass. Wet stuck mass of
manuscripts when dried, they split and powder easily on handling[8].
Sanchi Pateeya
Another bark which was used in India, for writing was the bark of
Agru Tree. To make liable for writing, the bark had to undergo mechanical
treatment and was called Sachi Pateeya in Assamese language.
On the basis of collections on Sanchi Pateeya available in India, the
antiquity of its use as writing material goes back to 15 th and 16th Century
A.D. A tantrik work of Buddhists Arya – Manjushrikalpa also mentions the
104
use of ‘Agro Walkal’. It is almost certain that it was used in India (probably
in the North Eastern Region) around 6th or7th Century or even before it for
writing.
Tulipateeya
‘Tulipat’, a writing material used in the past, was neither the leaf nor
the bark of any tree. But it was a papyrus or paper like product prepared
from certain tree barks. After writing on Tulipat, it was called
‘Tulipateeya’. It was used in a large scale in the modern state of Assam.
Tulipat is generally found in three colours – red, grey and white. For
preparing White Tulipat, the bark of mabai tree and for dark grey coloured
Tulipat, the bark of Jamun tree is used[9].
Cotton Cloth
Cotton industry in India, had been very advance even in the ancient
period, much before the period of Christ. From the dressed female effigies
inscribed on gates of Stupa of Sanchi, it can easily be said that people of the
day were familiar with the feature of fine cloth. It is well known fact that
people of Pre-Mauryan age were familiar about the writing script. So the
possibility of the use of cloth, as writing material even in the year before
Christ can not be denied. Unfortunately no such old collection on cotton of
that period have come into notice so far. In Maharaja Jaipur Museum,
several tantric maps, palatial architectural designs on cotton have been
preserved. Most of these belongs to the period 17th or 18th Century. Several
Panchangs also of the period on cotton which are now in brittled state, have
been preserved by Maharaja Museum collection of Jaipur. Some old
“Panchangs” on textile are available in Rajasthan Prachaya Vidya
Pratisthan, Jodhpur.
105
Likewise, in Shringeri Math in South India (now in Andhra), a huge
collection of ledgers are available. All these are on cloth and have more
than 300 years on their back. Both the surfaces of cloth, to prepare ledger
sheets, were specially treated with a paste prepared from the seeds of
“Imli”. The white chalk was used to write upon the sheets. These ledgers
were called “Kaditam”. The only book of cloth, containing 93 sheets has
been preserved in old, Grantha Bhandar of Patna. The title of the text is
Dharma Vidhi and has been written by Prabhasoori. Each sheet of the book
measures 13" x 5" in size.
To make the cloth liable for writing it is essential to make the
surface smooth and for that purpose, paste prepared either from flour or
starch of rice or melted wax was used. After drying, the surface to be used
for writing was rubbed either by “Shankha” or smooth stone or Akik. Not
only the cotton cloth but silk was also used as writing material.
Thus, we find that there were several types of material used as a base
for writing in the past.
3. Writing Materials
Besides the quality of the paper, ink also plays an important role in
the deterioration of paper. Ink, which is being used presently, has come up
after travelling a long course of development. Today it is available in
various colours but in the past, around 2nd Century B.C., it was mainly in
black and occasionally in red and blue. The world’s oldest ink used for
writing was known to the Romans as atramentum spectrum which was
sometimes simply called Atramentum. Another old carbonaceous ink
known to the people of the medieval age was encaustum, which was later
106
known as iron gall ink and today as gallotannate of iron. On the basis of
use, inks may be divided in two groups:
1. Writing ink
2. Printing ink
Writing Ink
This ink further may be sub-divided in three groups viz. (a)
Carbonaceous inks, (b) Iron Gall inks, (c) Inks with provisional colouring
only
(a). Carbonaceous Inks
There are different types of inks, of which the earliest known is
possibly the carbon ink. Carbon ink was used in ancient Egypt, China and
India. It was prepared by mixing lamp black with a solution of glue or gum.
Sometimes, it was moulded into sticks and allowed to dry. Before use, the
ink was prepared by mixing the sticks with water. Solvents used for the
purpose were either water, or wine or vinegar. Carbon black was used as
colouring agent while arabic gum emulsified the oils in the blacks, provided
viscosity to the fluid, kept carbon particles in suspension and also acted as
binder to hold the particles of carbon to the paper or to any base on which it
was used. These inks are called manuscript inks also. The notable
characteristics of such ink is that these do not fade over a period of time.
They remain unaffected by sunlight and bleaching agents. It has also been
observed that the particles of gum and glue do not harm the paper fibre.
From archival point of view, these qualities in ink are regarded and valued.
These inks, however, possess two capital imperfections. First, these can
easily be washed from the documents and secondly smudge in dampness.
107
Ainsworth Mitchell states that this type of ink was in common use until the
eleventh century when iron-gall inks began to come into prominence.
(b). Sepia Ink
Dictionary meaning of sepia is a kind of fish or a black brown
pigment used in painting. This pigment is discharged by the cattle fish in
order to cover retreat when attacked. Ink prepared from this colouring agent
got the name sepia after the name of mother fish. Like carbonaceous inks,
this ink is also dark in colour. It is believed that Romans first used it as ink.
So far as permanency is concerned, sepia inks are less permanent[10].
(c). Iron Gall Ink
According to Ainsworth Mitchell use of parchment and vellum made
iron gall inks essential since carbon-gum inks would not adhere to greasy
vellum and in any case could be readily removed by sponging. Therefore,
perhaps, two demerits of carbon inks, viz. smudging in damp weathers and
washability in water, led the path for discovery of Iron Gall inks. It is
prepared by dissolving an iron salt, like ferrous sulphate and glue or gum in
a liquid extract of nut galls soaked in water which in effect is a tannin. As
the ink is prepared by the action of iron with gall solution, it is known as
iron – gall ink. The other sources of tannin are bark of acacia (babool),
chestnut wood and bark and some leaves. When freshly made, the ink has
very little colour and can not be used but gradually on keeping, oxidation
takes place and a blue black colour develops. The oxidation of the ink
continues even after writing on paper. During this process, the ink fixes
itself permanently on paper. Iron gall ink remains legible for a long time
but through the action of chemical present in the paper, and of light, it
turned from black to brown. Oxidation of iron-gall ink leads to the
formation of acid. This acid, together with the hydrocholric or sulphuric
108
acid mixed to the ink to improve its flow, has an adverse effect on paper.
Quite often, the ink has burnt, and in many a case, produced perforations in
the paper. Sometimes, it might migrate to adjacent sheets and affect them
also.
Many a time, a dye usually of blue colour is added to the iron-gall
ink, so that initially the writing is blue but turns to blue-black on oxidation.
The purpose of the dye is to give a brightness to the writing or fastness to
washing. A number of dyes have been used for this purpose, for example,
the extract of logwood or indigo. These days aniline dyes are commonly
used. By the addition of an aniline dye, the almost colourless freshly made
ink could be given sufficient immediate colour to avoid the necessity for a
preliminary oxidation, while sufficient acid could be added to slow down
the oxidation of the ink to such an extent that it did not quickly become
muddy in the inkwell. This iron – gall dye mixture became the popular
Stephens blue-black ink. It was easy to write with on sized paper, it became
deep black with age and was permanent enough for important archive work
but it was rather too acid for steel pens and on the danger line for paper.
Blue Inks Use of blue inks as writing material started a new chapter in the
history of ink. It is believed that first blue ink was manufactured from
indigo. According to some European scientists, Indigo was first made in
India from the leaf of indigofera tinctoria. According to Mitchell, indigo
was first time used in 1770 for preparing ink. The use of indigo to
manufacture blue ink continued till the invention of Prussian blue in 1800
A.D. After the discovery of new compound, Indigo was replaced by it.
However, despite of its demerits of smudging in dampness and washability
in water, the sphere of its users continuously increased. It was perhaps due
109
to the merits of colour holding capacity, non-damaging character to the
paper fibres and remaining unaffected by certain micro-organisms. It has
also been observed that dyes manufactured with Indigo prohibit the growth
of micro-organisms. Another unusual characteristic of this type of writing is
that after machine lamination, it turns bright blue, but gradually attains its
original colour after few weeks or months. It is believed that it happens due
to the interaction of small fraction of acetic acid, which remain as residual
in the acetate film. Actually at high temperature, the acetic acid changes the
blue Indigo into Indigo white.
Blue Iron Inks
The ink prepared by adding finally powdered Prussian blue to gum
and water in suitable proportions, was termed as blue iron ink. Though,
writing with this ink is resistant to bright light and bleaching agents, yet it
gets affected with moderately strong alkalies and smudges in damping
climatic conditions. Many of the writings, with this ink, even after the lapse
of 100 years or more still posses the high degree of cluster[11].
Modern Inks
Although, iron gall inks are still extensively used for records where
permanence is important, they have been almost entirely superseded for use
with modern fountain and ball-point pens. Nowadays, the inks giving
brilliant colours and easy to be removed of their stains on clothes and on
hands, have gained popularity. Such inks were prepared by the ink
manufacturers keeping in view the increasing popularity if using fountain
pen for writing. But bad experience of impermanency and difficulty of
deciphering the faded writing over yellowed paper after aging, impelled the
industrialists to develop such inks also which may be used for permanent
records. Certainly, success was claimed in formulating such inks and they
110
were known as Gallo Tennate fountain pen inks. This category of inks are
dye based and are available in multicolours such as red, violet, green and
blue etc. But presence of dye and low concentration of iron i.e. 0.1 % in
inks neither could restrict them to fade with age nor made it possible to
revive the writing with usual chemical treatments. And therefore, a new
fountain pen ink of this series with 0.2% iron contents was formulated for
permanent records.
The constituent materials to compose such inks are tennic acid,
ferrous sulphate crystals, gallic acid, oxalic acid, concentrated hydrochloric
acid, phenol, ink blue dye and distilled water which are mixed in fixed
proportion by weight as per procedure to give the required ink[12].
Fountain Pen Inks
Since iron-gall ink contains acids, it can not be used in fountain pens
and it also contains insoluble type particles that may cause clogging in
fountain pens. It has been replaced by solutions of synthetic dyes, which do
not have any suspension and are free from acids. However, they are not fast
to light hence are not permanent. Furthermore, they are soluble in water and
some other solvents and therefore, spread on being wet. This defect is
removed by the use of certain substantive dyes, which on drying are fixed
to the paper fibre. For permanence of the writing, some iron salts are added
to the ink.
In the modern fountain pen ink, there are several other substances,
like humectants, which means those substances which promote retention of
moisture. Some fungicides or algicides are also added to prevent
microbiological growth. Organic corrosion inhibitors are also added to
protect the metal components of the pen[13].
111
Ball Point Inks
The ball point mechanism will work badly with an iron-gall ink, not
only on account of the muddiness which may develop with this kind of ink
but also because of its acidity. Inks of such pens is prepared by mixing
basic dye in fatty acid solution like oleic acid or acidic resins such as the
phthalate. Besides the basic dye, neutral dyes dissolved in suitable solvents
are also used. Solvents normally employed are low viscosity chemicals, for
example benzyl alcohol or glycol. Various synthetic resins are used as
thickening agents. Usually, ball pen inks are water-resistant but yield to
alcohol, acetone, dichloroethylene, choloroform etc.
Felt Tip Pen Inks
There is another variety of modern pen, known as felt-tip pen. Inks
of such pens are based on alcohol in which dyes – both anionic and
cationic, are used. There are other types of inks as well which are prepared
with alcohol or toluene – soluble resin as binding medium.
Indian Ink
Indian ink is a water – proof ink, normally black but sometimes
coloured also. It is prepared with dispersion of carbon black in a colloidal
solution of shellac, in which some glue is also added. These days, shellac is
replaced by synthetic resins. To get coloured Indian ink, dyes are used
instead of carbon black.
Printing Inks
Printing inks are prepared to meet the needs of printing presses.
Usually, it is more viscous, dense and less soluble than the normal writing
ink. They are prepared with pigments mixed in a varnish base. The
112
proportion of the varnish oil is 70 – 80%. Boiled linseed oil, which is a
drying oil solidifying on oxidation is generally used as the binder. There are
different types of pigments or dyes mixed with oil to prepare the ink. Black
ink is prepared generally with lamp black or amorphous carbon. For white
ink, zinc oxide, titanium oxide, or aluminum oxide is used. Yellow inks are
prepared with chrome yellow or zinc chromate. For blue, ultramarine or
Prussian blue are used. For red coloured inks, vermillion, scarlet chrome
and madder were the usual materials.
Printing inks are more or less permanent and do not fade or flake.
Stamping Ink
Stamping ink is of a special type and is used to stamp seal on paper.
In earlier days, oil based carbon ink was in use to fix the seal on paper.
However, now a days, it is prepared by mixing solutions of a nionic or
cationic dyes in water/ ethylene glycol. There are also oil based stamping
inks in which fatty acids and oils are used as binders. Pigments or fat
soluble dyes are mixed with oils to produce the ink[14].
Typewriter Ribbon Ink
The typewriter ribbons are impregnated with carbon black and fat.
This type of ribbon was used in typewriter for the first time in 1900 A.D.
But advancement in typewriter technique has also influenced the
development of ribbon technology and today two major types of ribbons,
i.e. woven and foil ribbons are widely used. Woven ribbons are
impregnated either with carbon black or pigments or basic dyes in non-
drying oils whereas the dye is employed in transferable plastic layer or
wax[15].
113
Pencil
There are many documents written with pencil also. Many of the
diaries written by the Indian poet Rabindra Nath Tagore are in pencil.
In ancient India, burnt tamarind twigs were used for making sketches
on paper. But the most popular material used now is graphite. It is an oil
shiny black substance which when rolled on paper leaves a mark on it. In
the beginning, graphite was used only in the form of a small stone. Later,
they were prepared into small squares and were then wrapped with a string
to form pencils. Still later, the graphite stick was inserted in the wooden
cover in which a groove was cut.
As the requirement for graphite increased, some other materials were
blended with graphite to reduce its consumption. These days, refined
graphite powder is mixed with clay and water and fixed in a kiln. By
varying the clay content, the hardness of the pencil lead is controlled. The
paste of graphite powder, clay and water is partially dried in the form of
putty and then forced through a device to manufacture the lead of desired
diameter. In the end, the lead is fired at about 10370C. Finally it is
impregnated with natural waxes to impart additional smoothness.
Pigments
Another material which is of considerable importance in
deterioration of paper is the pigment. Pigments of various types have been
used to paint on paper. They were also used on manuscripts either for
decorating the margins or at least to draw a line around the text. Sometimes,
manuscripts are also illustrated with paintings. Pigments are either of
mineral origin or artificially produced. Sometimes, vegetable dyes or
animal dyes have also been employed for painting. The pigment verdigris
114
has a very damaging affect in paper. First of all it chars the paper and
ultimately, the paper is so much weakened in the areas where verdigris is
used, that holes are pierced in those places. Verdigis was a very common
pigment for painting in India and Iran.
4. History of Paper Making
Today paper has become a very common commodity used
extensively for writing and printing. However, this was not so all the time.
There was a period in the history of man when writing was not known and
communication was only through speech. Speaking which has been a
medium of transmitting ideas, has existed almost from the beginning of the
civilization. Man evolved the technique of oral communication by the use
of sounds that conveyed a message to the other person. In India, vedas were
transmitted from generation to generation only through hearing and
speaking and hence they were also called Shruti (that which is heard).
The next phase of evolution of human civilization was followed by
first drawing and then writing. Examples of these drawings and paintings
can be seen in the rock-cut caves of Lascaux in France, Bhimbedka in
Madhya Pradesh, and hundreds of other caves in Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh.
After the prehistoric drawings and paintings on the walls of the caves, man
started to use other portable materials, like clay, cylinders or tablets, stone,
wood, metals, pottery etc. Later he discovered that certain types of leaves
like the palm leaves, barks like Bhoja-patra, cloth, papyrus, and parchment
and vellum could be used for writing either by incising or inscribing the
characters on the material. However, there still existed a need for a writing
material that was transportable and flexible[16].
115
The earliest paper known is supposed to have been invented in China
by Tsai – Lun about 105 A.D. In the British museum, there is a piece of
paper, taken from the Great Wall of China, which dates from about this
time. It quite closely resembles fairly modern hand-made paper in
appearance and the torn edge shows a rough hairy texture which suggests
that it had not deteriorated mechanically at the time it was formed. The
early Chinese papers were made by stamping or beating hamp rags, ropes,
fish nets, and linen rags in mortars with water until a smooth paste of fibres
was obtained. This paste, diluted to a suitable consistency, was poured on to
linen fabric stretched on a wooden framework. When the greater part of the
water had filtered through, leaving a thin layer of wet matted fibers on the
fabric, the frame with the wet mat on it was allowed to dry in the sun. The
mat of fiber was then stripped from the fabric and cut to size and flattered.
Later, the linen fabric was replaced by bamboo strips held together by silk
threads, giving the first laid papers. This process closely resembles the
modern ‘hand –made’ technique, the chief difference being in the modern
practice of stripping the wet, newly formed sheet of paper from the mould –
the so called “couching” – in order to economize in the number of moulds
in use.
Some hundred years later, the invention spread from China, moving
east to Japan, south to India and west to Arabia. From Arabia it was carried
to Baghdad, Egypt and Morocco, reaching Spain during the twelfth century.
About this time, the Italian learned the process in Palestine and brought it to
Italy. From Spain the invention spread to France, Holland, Germany and
the rest of the Europe. Very soon, the Dutch became famous as the makers
of the best paper in Europe.
The manufacture of paper in India remained, until comparatively
recently, at the same primitive level of its introduction from China. In
116
Japan, on the other hand, the original crude process was progressively
improved and perfected so that today some of the most beautiful hand-made
papers come from Japan.
In 1490, paper-making was started in England by John Tate at
Stevenage in Hertfordshire. Soon after this, James Whatman achieved
renown for his drawing papers : Balston of Maidstone still makes paper
with Whatman’s old watermark. The developments about this time were
largely in response to the rapid development of printing and the increase in
the demands of the printing press. Hand-made paper kept pace with these
demands until about 1800 when the paper making industry must have felt
the severe strain of the insatiable appetite of the printing presses.
In the mid-eighteenth century, the “hollander” beating engine had
been invented. It replaced the old slow stamping and macerating process in
mortars by a rapid and mechanical process and must have given valuable
help and renewed vigour to an overstrained industry. About 1800, the paper
machine was invented and its use spread rapidly and continuously.
Until the period of machine – made paper, the raw material used
were almost entirely flax (linen) and hemp. Later, cotton and then esparto
replaced these materials. Esparto was used principally in Europe where it
became and remained much more popular than in the U.S.A. Later, still the
various mechanical and chemical wood pulps were introduced. Esparto was
first used in 1852 and Tilghmann invented the sulphite pulping process in
1866. The sulphite processes made available the abundant and quickly
replaceable pine woods.
117
Modern Paper
Paper was always regarded as a durable material in the past. As
books were rare and therefore, valuable, their owners expected a long life
for them. The earliest books were made from papyrus, which is similar in
composition to paper and is known to have lasted two or three thousand
years under good conditions of storage. Modern paper is less durable than
the old and we may find reasons for this in the developments in paper-
making that have taken place through out the ages[17]. However, the
mechanical strength of paper depends largely on the length and strength of
the individual fibre. Length of fibre is important since short fibres can not
be made to interlock so completely as the longer and more flexible fibres.
Quality depends largely on the nature of the fibre. Some fibres respond to
treatment in the beater than other. Some readily become gelatinous while
beating and tend to give hard raftly papers. Other readily fray out at the
ends and these frayed ends give an excellent interlocking action and lead to
strong tough papers[18].
Fibres Used for Making Paper
The chief fibres in use today are cotton-flax (linen), hemp, esparto,
straw and wood. In the raw state, all except cotton are impure forms of
cellulose, usually lignocellulose, and need some form of chemical treatment
to liberate the fibre is the form most suitable for making a good quality
paper. All the natural fibres are tubes, often collapsed to flat ribbons, and
the thickness of the walls of the tube is of great importance to the paper
maker. Following raw materials are used in making paper :
CottonCotton fibres are obtained from old rags or new cotton waste from
the industry[19]. The cotton fibre is about 25 mm. long by about 0.25 mm.
118
thick. It consists of a flattened tube with thin walls and is twisted into a
corkscrew – like shape. Paper made from it is soft, flexible and bulky. The
fibres do not normally pack together very closely, but owing to their
corkscrew form, they can interlock and give strength to the paper made
from them. The cotton fibre is a very adaptable fibre and much sought after
for making good quality paper[20].
Flax
This is the best fibre, i.e. one from the inner bark of the plant. It is
about 25 mm. long and by about 0.02 mm. thick. It is therefore thinner than
the cotton fibre and its tube has a thicker walls. It is stiffer and stronger
than cotton, has a rounded section and is knotted at intervals along its
length. Linen was used by the Chinese for the first paper to be made in 105
A.D. It is used today for the tissues and cigarette papers but not much for
other kinds of paper[21].
Hemp
Several kinds of hemp are used. Many of them come from waste
rope and cordage, some from crops grown especially for paper making. The
fibre is similar to flax and consists of thick walled tubes. It is used chiefly
for thin opaque papers with great strength[22].
Esparto or Alpha Grass
This harsh tough grass grows in north Africa and southern Spain.
The fibres are fine, cylindrical and smooth, 1.5 mm. long by 0.012 mm.
thick. They are too short to impart much strength to paper made from them
which is silky, bulky and has a good uniform surface. It is much in demand
in this country for making printing papers but is not much used in the USA,
119
probably because of the high freight charges that would be incurred in
transporting it.
Straw
Straw fibre is somewhat similar to but rather shorter than, that from
esparto. It was not much used in England owing to the high cost of
collection and uncertain supply of straws. It is much more popular in
Holland for cheap paper and strawboard because its collection has been
well organized. The Second World War cut off the supply of esparto to
England, and straw had then to be used. Since that time, esparto has again
become freely available and paper-makers have turned from straw, which is
rather more troublesome to process, to the esparto for which their plant was
originally designed[23].
Wood
The fibres of wood are of two very different kinds, depending upon
the method used for pulping. For mechanical wood pulp the logs of timber
are simply ground to powder on grindstones liberally supplied with water.
The fibre is short and brittle and is only used for the cheapest papers.
Newsprint consists largely of this fibre but it needs a certain addition of
chemical wood pulp to give it even the limited strength required for a
newspaper. Chemical wood pulp have fairly long fibres, though much
shorter than those of cotton or linen, and are smooth and silky. The conifers
– spruces and pines – give a rather longer and stronger fibre than that from
the deciduous trees – poplar and beech. The three processes used in the
chemical pulping of woods are known as the sulphite, soda and sulphate
processes. These fibres between them supply the part of the raw material
for the modern paper mill[24].
120
5. Properties of Paper
The only property of paper in olden times considered by the writers
of that period was smooth surface liable for fantastic writing and painting
without showing any feathering character. However, in modern times,
paper is considered to have following characteristics.
Weight of the Paper
Weight of the paper is an important factor as most of the paper is
sold on weight basis only. It is expressed as gram per unit area rather than
gram per unit volume. It is expressed as G.S.M. (Gram per Square Meter).
Strength of Paper
Strength of paper differs in different directions and behaviour of ink
is different on both the sides of paper. Not only with ink, but with aqua base
adhesives also, the paper responses differently in both the sides, and
directions. Keeping these facts in view, the terminology relating to paper is
being given which will be of immense help to a paper conservator.
Machine Direction
The direction of paper of board paralleled to the direction of flow of
the pulp stuff while the paper or board is under making is called machine
direction. Actually, because of flow of sieve, the cellulose fibres of pulp try
to set themselvers paralleled to the direction of flow of machine and
because of it, the tearing strength of a paper is always greater in this
direction than the cross direction.
Cross Direction
The direction perpendicular to the machine direction of the paper is
cross direction. In order to determine the machine direction of a paper, a
121
straight line is drawn on the plane of the paper and a circular piece of about
5 cm. diameter is cut out of the sheet. While the circular piece is being cut,
it should be ascertained that the line drawn is carried by the circular piece.
Now this test piece is floated over water, and the direction of curl is noted.
The axis of curl will be paralleled to the machine direction of paper. Now it
is easy to know the cross direction which will perpendicular to machine
direction.
Wire Side
The side of the paper which remains in contact of the sieve made of
wires, during the making of the paper is known as wire side of the paper.
Top Side
The opposite side of the paper to the wire side is called top side of
the paper.
The wire side of the paper is determined by examining the paper
under oblique illumination, using a low power lens. The wire side of the
paper shows the mash like structure. If the structure is not visible clearly,
the test paper is made moistened with water or with dilute caustic soda
solution. This causes the fibre to swell and usually makes the mesh
structure more clearly visible.
Water Mark
To make a distinction of papers of different kinds. They are water
marked. Bond and Ledger papers are especially water marked by
incorporating words, “Bond Paper” and “Ledger Paper”. Water marked
papers also display authenticity for their originality. This is the reason that
these marks are sometimes impressed on the surface to the paper by using
122
chemicals, oils, fluorescence under U.V. light. Original water mark in paper
is incorporated at the time of moulding of paper. However, distinction
between original water mark and impressed one can easily be made by
applying ether over the mark. If mark is artificial, that will disappear after
applying ether while original water mark will remain unaffected.
Breaking Length
Breaking length of a paper is defined as the length of a paper or
board strip of uniform width required to cause the strip to break under its
own weight, when the strip is suspended from one end. It is expressed in
metres.
Paper strip hanged from one end.
Mathematically, breaking length in metres is expressed as follows :
Breaking length (in metres)
Tensile strength in Kg.per cm. width of test strip X 100000
Substance in gram per square metre
Figure – 1 : Breaking Length of Paper
Tensile Strength
The resistance shown by the paper to direct tension is known as
tensile strength. It is defined as the force required to break a strip of paper
of specified length and width of 15 mm. For testing of this strength, the
123
tools which are used, known as tensile testers. Tensile strength is reported
in Kilogram for 15 mm.
A relation between breaking length (in meters), tensile strength,
length and weight of strip exists and that is expressed as under :
Length of Strip (metre)Breaking length (m) = Tensile strength x
Weight of Strip (Kg).
It is significant to note that length of the test strip influences the
tensile strength. The standard strip length is 180 10 mm but different
lengths can be used depending upon the size of the sample paper.
Bag and wrapping paper of higher tensile strength are always
regarded as a quality paper. But higher tensile strength is an important
characteristic in newsprint and other papers also to be printed on a web
press.
Folding Endurance
The number of double folds in opposite directions at the same point
to which paper will endure before its tensile strength falls under specified
tension of one Kg. is called folding endurance. There are two instruments
commonly used for folding endurance, the scupper, and the Mit. Previous
one was developed by German Papers Engineers and the latter by the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Stiffness
Stiffness of paper is related to brightness, rattle and other less
definable paper qualities. Paper made from highly beaten stock (bond and
124
glassine) have higher stiffness than papers made from lightly beaten stocks
(Toweling and filter papers). Paper made from pulps containing
hemicellulose in high amount (e.g. straw pulps) are stiffer than the paper
made from pulps containing less amount of hemicelloluse (e.g. alpha
pulps). Papers made from short fibres (straw, ground wood, chestnut) are
generally stiffer than paper made from long fibres. Addition of starch or
sodium silicate to the pulp furnish, increases stiffness.
Stiffness is very important factor in box boards, because the utility
of a box depends upon its ability to resist bending when filled. Stiffness is
desirable in some types of papers such as typing paper, playing cards,
where the paper must stand upright during use. On the other hand, hard,
stiffness is undesirable in some grades of paper such as tissues, toweling,
printing and label papers. To lower the stiffness plasticizers are added to
glassine.
Durability and Permanence of Paper
Durability and permanence of a paper are very important terms to be
known for a paper conservator and custodian of records. Durability of paper
is defined as the capacity of paper to withstand handling while permanence
as the capacity of the paper to withstand time. The paper, which is tough
and rattle does not give a guarantee that it will last without loosing its
strength for a long time. Some papers, as newsprint really shows a good
strength while it is new but it decays with faster speed in normal climatic
conditions. On the contrary, some grades of paper, neither discolour nor
loose their strength for a long period of time say 100 – 200 years. The best
example of this type of paper is hand made papers prepared in cottage
industry in middle ages. The paper showing good strength while it is fresh
and new but disintegrating within a short period of time, is known as
125
durable paper. But the paper which is capable to retain its strengrth amid
the adverse climatic conditions and normal storage condition is termed as
permanent paper.
In other words, durability of a paper is a physical characteristic
while permanence the chemical one.
A paper of permanent nature may be durable but a durable paper
may not be permanent.
Composition of Paper of Permanent Nature
In general, the composition of paper of permanent value should have
following characteristics :
(a). Physical Characteristics
(i). Folding endurance - Not less than under 250 double folds one Kg. tension
(ii). Burst Factor- 25
(b). Chemical Characteristics
(i). Rag Contents - 100%
(ii). Alpha Cellulose contents - Not Less than 85%
(iii). Copper number - 2
(iv). Ash Content - 2% maximum
(v). Rosin Content - Not more than 1.5%
(vi). pH Value - Not less than 5.5
126
Copper Number
The copper number is expressed in terms of the number of
milligrams of metallic copper which is reduced from cupric hydroxide to
cuprous oxide in Alkaline medium by a given weight of 100 gm. of
cellulose material. Copper number of unaged paper ranges between .01
to .2 but for practical purposes, it is considered zero. A completely decayed
or disintegrated paper has a copper number 300[25].
6. Paper Making Process
Paper making process can be divided into three parts :
1. Hand made process
2. Machine made process
3. Paper – making operation in Mill
Handmade Process
The handmade process involves following steps in paper making[26] :
I. Beating
II. Paper making operation
a. Moulding
i. Wooven
ii. Laid
iii. Metal-wire mould
b. Couching
c. Drying
III. Sizing
IV. Finishing
127
I. Beating
Beating or stamping of the stock material to separate the fibre is the
first step in paper making. The original Chinese method of beating was to
place the material with some water in stone mortars and beating it by means
of pestles or mallets, which were operated by hand. The process has
remained almost the same with minor variations like fermenting the soaked
pulp for a few days before adding lime or soda-ash for easy separation of
the fibres. In some countries, wooden mortars, instead of stone ones were
used for pounding. In India, wherever the production was more, the pulp
was prepared in a large stone mill in which a heavy stone was rolled by a
bullock. After the pulp is ready, it is washed well with water.
II. Paper – making operation
a. Moulding
After beating and washing, the pulp is suspended in water filled in a
tub or small tank and scooped out in the form of sheets with the help of
moulds which are of several types.
i. The Woven Mould
The woven mould is a preliminary type of mould prepared by
stretching a piece of woven cloth over a rectangular bamboo
stretcher. The first mould of the Chinese was probably of this type.
The mould was inserted in the tank filled with the suspension of
fibres in water, perpendicular to the water surface and then lifting it
from one side, it was brought to a horizontal position. It is then taken
out of the tank, when a deposit of fibres is formed over the cloth. In
another method, the suspension is poured over the mould, the water
is drained, retaining a sheet of felted fibres over the cloth. Either
128
way, the mould with its deposit of fibres was placed in the sun and
allowed to dry. After all the water had evaporated, the paper sheet
was removed from the mould and allowed to dry completely. In this
type of mould, there is a major drawback, the paper sheet must be
reasonably dry, before it can be removed from the mould, and
therefore a large number of moulds are required for making paper
sheets. In some improved versions of mould, this difficulty is
removed, for example by using laid mould or metal wire moulds.
ii. Laid Mould
The laid type of mould is prepared by placing thin strips of
rounded bamboo side by side and tying them together at regular
intervals with silk or flex thread or combs or horse hair.
With this type of mould, it is possible to remove the wet sheet
of paper, without drying. These types of moulds were very much in
use in India. This was a great advantage in technological terms,
because with one mould, it was possible to fabricate a large number
of paper sheets.
iii. Metal Wire Mould
In Europe, the bamboo strips tied with hair was substituted by
a metal wire net, since bamboo was not easily available there. The
technique of using the moulds remain the same.
b. Couching
When the laid mould was introduced, wet paper sheets were placed
one over the other, without using any inter-leaving cloth. In Europe, thin
felt is placed between two wet leaves which are soaked in a heap and
129
pressed with a screw press to allow the water to drain and then the paper
sheets are removed for drying.
c. Drying
The next step in the process of making paper was the drying of the
paper sheet. In India, drying of wet paper sheets was done mostly by
brushing them against a smooth well, like that of marble or lime masonary.
In this way, the sheets were held flat and when removed from the wall were
smooth, particularly on the side which was towards the wall. In China, in
early days, the papers were dried on the mould itself. In Thailand, sheets
are spread flat on boards or on the ground.
III. Sizing
In order to make the paper less absorbent, to prevent ink from
running, sizing was necessary. Sizing means application of a solution like
gelatin or starch on paper. In India, handmade paper was sized by applying
starch paste with brush. In some countries, the paper is dipped in solution.
IV. Finishing
For writing to be fine and smoothening of the paper surface is also
essential. In India, this is achieved by burnishing with an agate stone of
horn. A very shiny and smooth surface is obtained by this procedure.
Normally, burnishing is done only on one side of the paper, but since the
paper sheet rests against a smooth and hard board, the other side also
acquires a shine. By burnishing, the paper not only gets a shine, its pores
also get clogged and it becomes excellent for writing as well as for making
paintings in which fine lines are necessary.
130
In Europe, smoothening of paper at least after the 17 th Century was
done with the help of a pressing hammer or by wooden glazing rolls which
gave the paper a uniform surface. In this machine, there are two large
rollers, through which the paper was passed[27].
Machine Made Process
In machine made process, the various steps are :
I. Pulp – making
II. Bleaching
III. Paper making
IV. Sizing
V. Filling
I. Pulp Making
With the invention of printing, there was an ever increasing demand
for paper. To meet this demand, a proper machine was invented, and since
plenty of raw material was required wood pulp was used. In the machine,
the process of sheet formation, drying and finishing is in one continuous
operation. Previously, only cotton rags were used as raw material.
However, soon after this supply was found insufficient and there was a
search for an alternative material. In today’s paper making, the main source
of cellulose fibres is wood pulp. It began to be used for this purpose since
the 19th Century. Some other sources are grass straw, bamboo etc. All these
materials contain besides cellulose, lignery binding materials and many
substances, which are carbohydrates, but do not possess the fibrous
properties of cellulose. In order to make the paper, it is necessary to
separate the lignery and most of the hammy substances from the fibres.
131
This is achieved with the help of chemical digestion and bleaching. There
are several processes for this operation. The chemical wood pulp is
prepared by digesting wood with a cooking or pulping liquor at a
temperature of about 140 – 1800 c under pressure.
The oldest method for preparing wood pulp is possibly the soda
process in which the wood chips are boiled with a solution of caustic soda.
Then came the acid sulphate process in which the cooking liquour
contained calcium, sodium or ammonium bisulphite with plenty of
sulphurous acid. This process gave rise to several problems, particularly on
account of excess acid, which made the paper very weak. Therefore, some
modifications were done in this process. In the modified bisulphite process,
the liquor is less acidic and the chemical is magnesium or sodium
bisulphite.
In another method known as Neutral Sulphite Semi Chemical
(NSSC) process, the cooking liquor contains sodium sulphite plus sodium
bicarbonate. Thus, the solution is slightly alkaline.
Now-a-days, most of the paper is produced by what is known as the
sulphate or Kraft process in which the chemicals used are caustic soda and
sodium sulphite. Sodium sulphate is added from time to time to makeup for
the loss of the chemicals, and it is thus known as the sulphate process
II. Bleaching
By the process of chemical pulping, all the lignin is partially
removed and the colour of the pulp is therefore slightly tar or brown, which
is removed by the process of bleaching. The most important finishing
132
chemicals are chlorine, hypochlorites, chlorine dioxide and hydrogen
peroxide. These chemicals are normally used in one of several sequences to
conserve the chemical and to lessen the degradation of cellulose and other
ingredients present in the pulp. There are other intermediate steps of
washing and alkaline extraction.
When extra pure pulp containing alpha cellulose is required,
treatment with hot dilute caustic soda solution is carried out. Even cotton is
sometimes used for making paper by machine, but only to a very limited
extent. Only when a superior quality paper is required, for example for
ledger, drawing, etc. cotton is used. Sometimes, cotton fibres are mixed
with purified wood pulp to bring down the cost. Cotton materials are
purified for paper making with lime or soda ash followed by bleaching.
It would be obvious from the above account, that normally wood-
pulp is much inferior in quality to the pulp used earlier for making paper by
hand. This is so not only due to low cellulose content in the pulp, but also
because of the various chemical processes through which the pulp has to
pass, before it is suitable for making paper. Thus, generally speaking, in the
machine made paper, fibre length is short and there is also the presence of
acidic remains, either from the cooking liquor or from the bleaching
solution. This is one of the main reasons for the less durable nature of the
19th and 20th century papers as compared to the papers of earlier periods.
Modern paper becomes acidic and brittle very soon, resulting in the loss of
strength.
Paper is also produced from pulp prepared from wood by
mechanical users without the use of chemicals. The pulp is made by
grinding peeled logs of wood against a rotating abrasive stone under a
133
stream of water or by grinding chips in a grinding stone mill. However, the
mechanical pulp contains all the components of the wood from which it is
made, except what is removed by water.
III. Paper Making Operation in Mills
The paper machine in a mill has a complex mechanism for
performing all the steps of sheet formation, pressing and drying. Basically,
the principle is the same as that of hand made paper.
There are some differences also, for example in paper mills, the
paper goes through a process known as calendering. In calendering the
paper is passed through horizontal cast iron rolls with chilled hardened
surface. By calendering, the smoothness and gloss of the paper surface is
increased.
IV. Sizing
For sizing the paper, the material normally used consists of rosin
dissolved in an alkali. Alum is then added to precipitate compounds of
aluminium and rosin which are absorbed by the paper fibres. However,
alum also acidifies the paper (pH 4.5 – 5) affecting its durability.
Sometimes starch, glue and wax emulsions are also used as sizing
materials. These days, emulsions of synthetic resins are used instead of
natural rosin.
V. Filling
In machine made paper, we also find the use of fillers which are
added to paper pulp to make it white, less transluscent and fit for printing.
Some of the common fillers are kaolin, barium sulphate, titanium white,
chalk, gypsum, magnesium silicate etc.[28].
134
7. Factors for Deterioration of Paper
Paper materials including manuscripts, documents, books and
paintings are all subject to various forms of deterioration. Initially, the
paper may be strong and white, but in due course of time, on account of
physical, chemical and biological factors, their properties undergo change
and they deteriorate and get damaged.
There are various types of damages, which may be found in paper
documents. They may be listed as :
i. With age, the paper may become weak, sometimes it gets so
weak that it is broken into pieces.
ii. There may be colour alteration in it and it may get yellowed.
iii. Dust and dirt may be present on the surface.
iv. Insects of various types may damage the document.
v. Fungi may be actively present or might have damaged the paper
in the past.
vi. The document may have got stained by various means, for
example, there may be water stains, fungus stains, oil stains, ink
stains or simply dirt stains.
vii. Water may have affected the paper at some time, and besides
staining, it may have made it limp.
viii. In prolonged contact with water, it may become soggy.
ix. The sizing materials may have deteriorated, making the paper
loose or soft.
x. The document may not be complete, and some part may be
missing.
xi. If the paper is kept folded, it may have become weak or may
have broken at the creases.
135
Thus deterioration of paper takes place due to various agencies
which may be grouped as[29] :
Biological,
Physical, and
Chemical
Enemies of Library Wealth
Enemies responsible for decay Enemies responsible for biodeterio-ration and physical damage
Environmental Atmospheric Acidityfactors such as polluting fact-heat, light, etc. ors such as aci-
dic gases, water vapours, solid particulates etc.
Biodeterioration I Biodeterioration Intrinsiccaused by insects caused by elements dangersand animals of plants
Figure – 2Biological Factors
In tropical countries, the danger of damage to books by termites,
cockroaches, silverfish, moths and other insects always exist[30]. It is a
common experience in recent rooms and repositories and in the places
where climate is hot and moisturous that sometimes, specially in rainy
season, quite a few insects are found hidden in the pages of books, files and
in the dark and neglected corners of the room. If one has dealt with old
collection of books or files, they might have come across many volumes
whose pages bear irregular pinholes near the spine which are difficult to be
136
contrived. In the tropical and sub-tropical regions as in India and other parts
of world, such damages are commonly caused by the insects, and they are
such enemies who do physical harm to records and may be termed as
records bug. The species of such insects can be divided in following two
main groups :
(a). Zoological agents
(b). Botanical agents
(a). Zoological Agents
Silverfish
137
The silverfish, lepisma saccharina has received many names,
viz., silver-moth, sugar louse, sugar-fish, fish-moth, and slicker are
some of them. Occasionally, they have been confused with the
bookworms. It is wingless, carrot shaped insect and is known as
“bristled fair” also. It feeds on starch, photographic gelatin and glue
which are available over the surface of the sized or coated paper and
photographic prints. In physical structure, it is hardly about one cm. in
length but slim and almost silvery in colour. In shape and movement it
much resembles to fish and hence getting the name silverfish.
A temperature range between 160C to 230C and relative
humidity above 55% provide favourable conditions for its growth and
multiplication. To get at glue, they damage the bindings of books,
especially when they are of leather, ordinary cloth, or rayon fabric,
they eat gum from postage stamps, envelope flaps, and date labels;
they gnaw holes in papers, prints, photographs, catalogue cards and
cardboard boxes. Although, most active at night, they may be
encountered at their work of destruction during the day in dark places
such as drawers of desks.
Cockroaches
138
Cockroaches are said to have appeared in the Silurian age long
before even the stegosaurus, the diplodocus and the pterodactyl, but,
whereas these other horrors became extinct aeons ago, the cockroach
has persisted and multiplied, therefore, all librarians and housewives
in warm countries are quite familiar with it. This insect, known also as
“steambug” is found all over the world. The brownish tan or black or
tea coloured shiny, flat and winged insect occurs in various species
and commonly found in cities where climate remains hot and
moistened. In such cities, this insect can be seen in toilets, which are
not generally washed with acids and chemicals like phenol. In
libraries, they are attracted by the adhesive used to stick cloth or
buckram to the binding board, by the starch stiffening added to some
binding cloths, by other pastes and glues employed in binding, and by
certain dyes. Their flattened bodies allow them to hide by day behind
skirting-boards beneath floors, and in crannies and dark corners of all
kind. As soon as it is dark, they emerge from their hiding places, find
their way to books, and start gnawing and sucking the book covers. In
addition to gnawing books, they emit a dark ink like liquid which
defaces the pages of books and anything else across which they
scuttle. In addition to the damage they do to book covers, cockroaches
are suspected of spreading leprosy, poliomyelitis, cholera, typhoid
fever and dysentery.
139
Beetles (Bookworms)
Bookworms have been notorious ever since the making of
books began. They have attacked palm leaf manuscripts in India.
Aristotle mentioned them as a pest; in modern times their attacks have
been so spectacular as to constitute plagues. They are said to be
capable of eating arsenic and lead – anything except cast iron. This
‘worm’ is actually the larva of a beetle or rather it may be the larva of
anyone of one hundred and sixty species of beetles. The eggs are laid
on the edges of books and the larvae when they hatch, soon burrow
into the books, riddling them with tiny tunnels. Most of these
bookworms are small dark brown or reddish brown beetles. They fly
into libraries through open or unscreened windows or crawl in below
ill-fitting doors. Beetles can easily digest cellulose, and therefore for
their food they attack the pages of books or files which are rich source
of their food.
Book Lice (Psocoptera)
Psocids or book lice are small grey or pale yellow insects with
soft bodies and jaws well developed for the purpose of chewing. They
may some times be found among older, little used volumes that have
become damp and it is alleged that they injure the bindings of such
books by eating the paste or glue. It seems more likely that they feed
on the micro-fungi which form on book bindings under damp
conditions of storage. But it has been experienced that book lice are
not noticed in the books, which are constantly used. They are very
small so do very little damage to books. However, leather objects are
generally damaged by these insects.
140
Moths
The occurrence of this moth is reported from South Eastern
Asian countries like India, Australia and Sri Lanka. It also occurs in
Western European countries and North America. The moths, which
are brown in colour, are commonly known as “House Moths” and
feed on glue and starch. So this insect generally attacks bound books
and some time loose sheets also. The attack by moths is generally
followed due to poor storage conditions. Sometimes cocoons are
found on the shelves in bad infestation.
Cricket
In the tropical regions, this insect is found very active and
every year in India, a considerable chunk of foodgrains, after
harvesting of Rabi crop, is eaten by this insect. Its attack is not limited
to the crop only, but is extended to the pages of files and books also.
In the libraries and record rooms where storage conditions are better
and records are constantly used, the presence of this insect is almost
negligible. But, where records, after housing once, are left dump, the
open surface of files, edges of documents are cut into pieces by this
insect. Most of the collections, not in frequent use, are generally
attacked by this insect and thus, document get damaged.
Rats and Rodents
Rodents like rats are another great enemies of paper objects.
Rats are a major threat to all types of books, photographs,
manuscripts, textiles and other organic materials as they tear them
into small pieces .
141
Termites
Termites are often called white ants, but they are neither ants
nor white. There are known to be 1,861 species of them, they have
been on earth for more than two hundred million years, as compared
with man’s one million years. Though Africa is their headquarters
but they exist in all warm countries. The food of termites includes
grass, humus, dried plants, timber, wood-work of buildings, other
furnitures, library books, files, photographs, valuable pictures and
frames and catalogue cards and cabinets. If they invade a library in
force, they can do irreparable damage in a single night.
There are two categories of termites namely wood dwellers
and ground dwellers. The latter group can be further classified in
three sub-groups :
i. Subterranean termites
ii. Mound building termites and
iii. Carton nest building termites.
Subterranean termites are responsible for causing damage to
buildings, books and manuscripts or any other objects or organic
nature. The main shelter or abode of this insect rests under the
ground. They reach to their food indirectly by burrowing through the
earth and buildings covered runways.
142
The galleries of subterranean termites follow the grain of
wood, which they secretly and silently eat away and thus the serious
damage is done quite much before their presence is noticed. One of
the important requirements for the existence of termites is the need
of higher percentage of humidity. Concrete, bricks, marbles, stones
and other hard substances which are un-penetrable for termites are
by passed over by granular earth like shelter tubes.
The objects mostly attacked by the termites are wood, any
other article made of paper, and any material which is rich in
cellulose. Wood and paper both contain a large percentage of
cellulose. Besides, pulp products, paste boards, rolls of cloth and
leather are also rich source of food material required by termites.
Another important habit of termites is that they hate some metals
like zinc and copper and their compounds and show their disliking to
downward slopes, exposed points, edges, dryness and bright light.
If the books and manuscripts get infested by termites, they
can be destroyed and damaged in no time. They move from one
place to other through earthen channels which they construct on the
walls which are often sure indication of the presence of termites[31].
(b). Botanical Agents (Micro-organisms)
Micro-organisms specially bacteria and bacteria like
organisms are of very early origin. They existed some 3.5 – 4 billion
years ago. Micro-organisms have the natural capacity to multiply
very fast, this is due to the simplicity of their structure and the
fastness with which they can absorb the nutrients. Another important
property of micro-organisms is the capacity of their spores to travel
ling distance in air or water and their presence in all types of
143
feasibilities. They can survive in all kinds of environments not only
in the atmosphere but also on earth and under water. They even
develop resistance to chemicals, which are toxic to them. Therefore,
most of them are instrumental in the decay of materials including
library and archival objects. As such, the first step, to deal with
microorganisms are to know their nature and their reproduction
habits.
144
Fungi
Fungi are the most notorious of living things, occurring
wherever there is organic matter upon which they can subsist. Most
are too small to be seen with the naked eye. These plants are quite
diverse in structure, but all lack chlorophyll, the green colouring
matter of the plants. They are either parasites, living on and
absorbing food from other living plants, or saprophytes which live
on dead or decaying organic matter. The difference between fungi
and plants of higher order is physiological resulting from those food
habits. Green plants absorb carbon di-oxide from the air and with the
aid of their chlorophyll in the presence of light and moisture, covert
it into carbohydrates for tissue building and growth. Since fungi
have no chlorophyll, they must get their carbohydrates from other
organic matter. Another distinguishing characteristic of these plants
is that they grow much better in darkness than they do in light[32].
145
Most of fungi grow between the temperature 00C and 350C,
but optimum temperature lies in the range of 200C to 300C.
Development of fungi takes place by the germination of a conidium
or spore of fungus on a suitable matter. They start to germinate in
wet conditions. Spore wall bursts and a germ-tube develops. With
time, this germ-tube grows further and takes the form of a hypha.
The body of fungus is composed of these hyphae, resembling like
branding threads and called mycelium. The growth of more fungi
may also take place if any part of the mycelium is transferred to a
subject strata[33]. Fungi prefer an acid medium for growth. That is
why the records in the repositories where dust particles are layered
up, are attacked by fungus during rainy season. Dust particles
actually absorb the moisture from air. Acidic gases, present in the air
mixed with moisture are also got absorbed with the dust particles. So
they provide the acidic medium and act as nucleus for growth of
fungus, whose spores are found present in atmosphere. For
expansion, fungus gets the material to form new cells from paper
which is rich in cellulose. Cellulose in paper products and cloth book
cover, glue in bookbindings and wooden shelves and collagen in
leather provides sufficient nourishment to fungi.
Mould and mildew are interchangeable term and can be
recognised by the progeny masses (colonies) of spores formed on the
surface of materials. Dampness sustains the growth of mildew. The
molds damagial to paper material can also cause fading of certain
inks. It is difficult to restore the writing faded by this agency[34].
146
Usually, fungi grow rapidly in moist places such as
basements and rooms without ventilation. Rooms, which are not
opened for long periods, develop a misty odour, which is indicative
of fungal growth. Good ventilation is very necessary for prevention
of fungus. Fungus may grow even in air-conditioned rooms, which
are without adequate circulation of air.
There is very characteristic difference between the damage
caused to the paper by acidity and that caused by fungus. While the
fungi make the paper soft and weak, it may still be possible to
handle it and fold it without causing any damage. On the other hand
with acidity, the paper may become so fragile and brittle, that it may
break into pieces on mere touching.
The action of fungus may sometimes be very slow, requiring
from several months to several years before its presence or the real
damage caused by it is detected. The appearance of colour is not the
only indication for the growth and the presence of fungus, since
there are several varieties of fungi, which produce little or no colour.
While there are others which produce a great amount of colour with
almost no growth. The intensity of the color imparted by fungi is
also influenced by the acids produced by them. The loss in the
strength of the paper may in fact be the only indication of the
damage by fungus. Due to the effect of fungus various adhesives like
starch glue and paste may break down and get converted into other
materials, resulting in the loss of the sizing of the paper, making it
soft and absorbent. If the effect of fungus continues, the paper may
be reduced to pulp.
147
Fungus also affects leather and other materials of the binding.
It may grow on inks, particularly those which have a component of
gum or glue and also iron gall ink which are specially susceptible to
fungus. Owing to the attack of fungus, the inks may fade, sometimes
almost completely. Modern researches on the fungal devastation
have brought to our notice the fact that resistivity of paper against
fungi depends upon the chemical treatment given to it at the process
of manufacture. A paper with pH range of 5.5 to 6 is extremely
resistant to mildew. Machine made pulp are more susceptible to
fungal attack than handmade rag paper. Unsized paper, because of
their high hygroscopic character are much more vulnerable than
sized paper. Likewise papers bleached with chlorine are susceptible
while calendered papers because of being smoother and less
hygroscopic, are resistant to molds. Certain gelatines promote the
mold attack whereas some resins oppose it.
Foxing
The growth of brown spots on paper of all types is very
common. This phenomenon in the conservation literature is referred
to as foxing. It is now commonly believed that the foxing stains are
the result of the effect of the organic acids produced by the fungi and
also in some cases due to the effect of chemical action of iron
impurities in the paper. It is not necessary that the moisture must be
present in great quantities for spots to grow. The extent of foxing
spots present in the paper depends on the impurities present in it. It
has also been observed that papers of the earlier periods, for example
of the 14th or 15th centuries, which contain almost pure cellulose, are
less affected than the papers of the 18th or 19th centuries.
148
Yeast
Other micro-organisms like yeasts may also cause
deterioration of paper materials. Ascomycetes is a group which
belongs to this class. Yeast cell walls contain chitin as well as fat.
One group of yeast may cause reddish colouration of paper
materials. There are some varieties like canadida which destroy
leather and animal glue.
AlgaeIn fact, algae have very little role to play in the deterioration
of materials. However, sometimes they have been detected on
subjects, which receive maximum sunlight. Normally, they are to be
found on the surface of buildings, stones, etc. and are of not much
consequence to paper.
Effect of Micro-Organisms on Materials
(a). Effect on Paper
Some micro-organisms are found only accidentally on paper
and do not cause any harm to it. Some of them may be attracted to
the paper because of the presence of some nutrients like oils, dust,
adhesives or similar other materials. The micro-organisms present on
the paper, for whatever reason, may not only stain the paper but also
consume the cellulose and weaken the fibres completely and
perforate the sheet to a great extent. Thus, micro-organisms have a
double action, namely discolouring and weakening of material. A
colony of fungus may contain both species, namely the ones which
produce colour and the ones which decompose the cellulose.
(b). Effect on Adhesives
149
Biological agents may also destroy adhesives like gum,
animal glue or even synthetic products used for paper manufacture
or for their repair. Starch paste is one of the oldest and cheapest
adhesive used for paper objects. Starch is produced from wheat,
barley or rice. Whatever may be the substance, which attracts fungus
will ultimately affect the paper. Starch adhesives are also affected by
microbial enzymes like amylase when this happens, the paper not
only becomes weak but the spines of books and binding loosen their
strength too.
Animal glue solutions have been used for sizing old and for
the repair of paper. However, in the modern methods of
manufacturing paper, they are rarely used. Animal glue is largely
used for book binding, and the spines of manuscripts and books are
specially susceptible to the growth of micro-organisms
As compared to the adhesive of vegetable or animal glue,
synthetic adhesives are more resistant to degradation by micro-
organisms.
(c). Effect on Ink
Writing ink, which contains glue or gum is also attacked by
micro-organisms, particularly by fungus. Iron-gall ink too is effected
by some micro-organisms. It has been found that 0.1% solution of
O-phenyl or phenol inhibits completely the growth of ink
decomposing fungus.
(a). Effect on Paints
150
Different types of paints like water colours, pastels, crayons
prepared by mixing a binding medium like gum or animal glue with
pigments were used to paint upon parchment, palm leaf, paper and
other writing materials. All such types of paints are susceptible to
attack by fungi and other micro-organisms. Sometimes, it is
observed that paintings prepared with water colour and postel fade
completely due to the effect of fungus.
Micro-organisms affect the paints and varnishes in three
distinct types of damages :
i. The paint film is broken down mechanically because
the binding medium is destroyed.
ii. The paint colour may be altered on account of
metabolic products of microorganisms, such as
hydrogen sulfide.
iii. Enzymes produced by microorganisms may digest the
materials of the paint.
Paint materials contain different types of organic substances
like natural vegetable oils, fatty acids, sugars, honey, gum, glue, etc.
all of which are excellent nutrients for fungi. Dust particles, which
are present on the paper manuscripts and the paintings, also have
great effect on the growth of fungus. In fact, water absorbed by
paper is more instrumental in the growth of fungus than the actual
relative humidity present in the atmosphere. Sometimes,
condensation of moisture on the paper may give rise to the rapid
growth[35].
Physical Factors
151
Constituents of physical surroundings are basically responsible for
defining the climate of a region. Frequent change – apart from the
individual effect of a constituent elements of climate, is concerned to the
Library world, so far as their preservation is concerned. A vast difference in
day and night temperature in tropical and sub-tropical regions induces the
rapid decay of organic materials. It is noticed that with time, paper gets
physically weak and brittle. The main cause of physical deterioration are
light, heat, moisture and handling. While light, heat and moisture bring
about photochemical changes or oxidative changes in paper, mishandling or
neglect may cause mechanical damage. On account of these factors, the
paper may become yellow and may get progressively brittle, breaking down
by even the slightest touch.
(i). Heat
The degradation caused by heat and temperature is almost the
same as temperature is nothing but the measurement of quantum of
heat. It can be said that heat adversely affects the fibres of cloth,
paper and other allied materials that are organic in nature. The
general effect of heat on materials of archivo-library wealth may be
summarised to the extent that it accelerates the process of
deterioration, mould growth, dries out adhesives, causes
embrittlement of paper, leaves skins and barks of all kinds and
results in buckling of film and tape. Precisely, the heat has more
degrading influences on cellulose than acids and oxidising agents.
Cellulose dried in excessively high temperatures looses flexibility
and hygroscopicity because of dehydration. The loss of
hygroscopicity and smelling ability on heating can be understood by
increased hydrogen bonding between adjacent cellulose molecules or
152
by forming the chemical linkage between adjacent cellulose
molecules.
Obviously, the heat and the moisture are the climatic factors,
which play a dangerous role in weakening the life of paper, books
and allied materials and so in order to protect them from decay, they
should be provided with suitable temperature and humidity.
(ii). Light and Its Effect
Light is another factor which causes damage to the paper and
allied material. The disaster caused by this physical agent is two
fold: firstly, it destroys the strength of all the information carriers
organic in nature, i.e. paper, leather, film, etc. by setting up a process
called photochemical deterioration and secondly, it fades up the ink
and colours. Before detailing the disastrous effect of light over the
material, it is important to be familiar with the types of light and its
nature.
The orthodox explanation of light is an aid with the help of
which an object can be seen. But scientifically, light is a form of
energy, radiated from every illuminant source, which propagates in
waveform. Light waves are termed to be electromagnetic in nature.
White light is composed of various wavelengths, each associated
with different colours. Sunlight is the purest form of white light and
composed of visible and invisible regions, ultraviolet and infra red
are very prominent from the stand point of conservation of archivo-
library material.
The Ultraviolet Region
153
This region is divided into two regions called ‘near’ and ‘far’
two regions and whole the region lies between wavelengths 136 Ao
to 4000 Ao.
The Visible Region
A range between wavelengths 4000 Ao to 8000 Ao is termed
as visible region, which is also known as white light region. This
region is composed of seven colours namely Violet, Indigo, Blue,
Green, Yellow, Orange and Red. These seven colours in the age of
Rigveda represented seven horses, carrying sun-ridden chariot.
Obviously, it indicates that the sages of that time had the deep
knowledge of solar system and physics.
The Infra-Red Region
This region is also known as Heat-Ray region. Roughly, this
region is located between the wavelengths 8000 Ao to 4 x 106 Ao.
Actually, some portion of this region overlaps with the Hertzian
region which occupies the place extreme to the Infra-Red region.
The most fundamental characteristic of UV rays is that they
are penetrative because of their shorter wavelength. Another
characteristic is that they are observed by most of the substances and
cause luminescence. Ultra-violet rays are generally treated as the
destructive source for archives and library materials.
Taking into account the source of origin of light, it can be
divided into two main groups, Natural and Artificial. The sun is the
main source of natural light in the solar family, while various
154
sources of artificial light are available and they can be divided in
Incandescent and Fluorescent light[36].
Light, produced by something to white hot, as filament
resisting an electric current in a glow lamp or burning of any fuel,
falls under the category of incandescent light. This category of light
is free from ultra-violet radiations while fluorescent light is
associated with it. Ultra-violet light is radiated by absorption of
electricity by fluorescent materials. It is brighter in nature. All the
brighter lights are found associated with the ultra-violet radiations.
The light emitted by the mercury tube or mercury bulbs is the best
known example of fluorescent light.
Researches carried out in the field, reveal the fact that the
association of ultra-violet radiation with light, decides its damaging
character. Obviously, the day light and tube lights are more
dangerous for records and materials of libraries than incandescent
light produced by the glowing of bulbs etc.
Ultra-violet rays and other rich light sources are particularly
destructive. Ultra-violet radiation upto 360 nm causes loss of
strength and oxidation of cellulose. The rate of deterioration when
exposed to radiation below 360 nm is very rapid. It is also observed
that the effect of light on paper is enhanced in the presence of acidity
and is very much dependent on the type of material the paper is
made of. The photochemical stability of papers is related to the
nature and origin of the materials used in their manufacture and it
declines in the following order : new rag refined sulphide paper, old
rag, soda sulphite and newsprint. However, the phenomenon is quite
155
complex and is influenced by the presence of materials like glue,
resins, alum, iron, lignin and other substances. Other materials which
are used in book-making like binding materials, cord, cloth, leather,
various types of plastics, adhesives etc. are also deteriorated by light.
Dyes and inks often fade due to the effect of light.
Sometimes, the writing may disappear completely on prolonged
exposure to light. In this respect, carbon-ink is far superior to other
types of inks[37].
Physical Embrittlement Caused by Light
To understand precisely the action of light for physical
deterioration of cellulose material, it is essential to know the
structure of cellulose fibre, which is the polymer of Beta glucose
monomer. Millions of monomers when link up in a straight form, a
cellulose fibre is formed, as shown in the Figure – 7. Naturally, there
exists a minor gap between the two monomers.
Light propagates either in waveform or photons as shown in
Figure – 8.
When a document is exposed to light, visible to invisible, it
falls over the documentary materials. Irrespective of their form,
wavy or photons. It strikes the gap between monomers also apart
from other regions of fibres as shown in Figure–9.
If this attack continuously happens to continue for years
together, the bond between the monomers is weakened and because
of that cellulose fibre breaks into pieces and as a result, texture of
156
paper or cloth becomes loose and over all strength of paper sheet is
got reduced or embrittlement of paper occurs. This action of light
over cellulose fibre will be very similar to the example quoted
below.
If a rope is tied between two pegs A and B as shown in Figure
–10 and a particular point C on it is striked by a rod repeatedly for a
long time, it will result in weakening the rope at point C. Ultimately,
a time will come when the rope will break from this point[38].
In case of light, cellulose fibres are ropes and rays of light are
rods, which are striking the rope like cellulose at various points. As
stated above, if light is falling over the material for a long time, it
will result in loosening the texture of paper and ultimately
weakening its strength.
Beta glucose unit
Alpha cellulose fibre o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o
Gap between two monomers (glycosytic bound)
Figure – 7Structure of Cellulose Fibre
Light propagates either in wavy form or in the form of photons as
shown below :
Source of Light
Photons
157
Photonic Form of light
Figure – 8Wavy and Photonic Form of Light
o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-oWavy Form Photonic Form
Figure – 9Display of light falling over the document
Rod
Peg A C Peg B
Rope
Figure – 10Showing Rope striking by rod.
Moisture Content (Humidity)
The moisture content of paper also plays an important role in
its stability. Low humidity causes paper to dry out and become
brittle, while on the other hand, with high moisture content, the
paper becomes limp and soggy. High humidity also encourages the
growth of micro-organisms.
A temperature of 200 – 240C and relative humidity of 55% are
most effective for preservation of paper records. However, this type
of climate must be maintained for all the 24 hours, and throughout
158
the year. Even a poor quality paper may survive long, if kept in
controlled climate[39].
Chemical Deterioration
It is very difficult to make a distinction between physical and
chemical deterioration of paper. It is only for understanding the
phenomenon that certain types of deterioration for example caused by light,
heat and humidity have been included under physical deterioration.
Although it is very well known that these agencies also cause chemical
action like photochemical action, oxidation, hydrolysis, etc. Under the
heading chemical deterioration are included those actions which brought
about by the chemicals present in the paper or in the atmosphere[40].
Atmospheric Polluting Factors
Atmosphere is represented by various gases, mineral and dust
particulates, smokes and moisture. These representatives of atmosphere
differ in quantum from place to place. Similarly, fine dust particles are
mostly available in every type of atmosphere but particles of geological
origin and chemical nature join the atmosphere of the regions where various
factories vibrate, volcanoes burst and quarrying functions. Similarly, the
internal atmosphere of modern archives and libraries where modern means
of storage and preserving materials are used, but if proper norms of their
safe use are not practised upon is represented by totally new gases. Most of
these are disastrous for the longevity of documentary wealth[41].
All pollutants may be grouped as follows :
(1). Gas Pollutants
(a). Exterior gas Pollutants
(b). Interior active gas pollutants
159
(2). Solid Particulates
Exterior Gas Pollutants
Normally, the following gases are present in atmosphere :
i. Nitrogen
ii. Sulpher dioxide and Carbon monoxide
iii. Carbon dioxide
iv. Oxygen
v. Ammonia
vi. Ozone
vii. Hydrogen Sulphide
viii. Noble Gases
Oxides of Nitrogen
Oxides of nitrogen are formed on heating air to high
temperature as in the case of flames, and lighting. Oils, gases, wood
and coal used for combustion in engines, furnaces and boilers also
produce oxides of nitrogen. Besides, cellulose nitrate base films in
archives and libraries form the basis to generate these oxides.
Sulpher dioxide
Sulpher dioxide is mostly formed by the combustion of oils,
coal and pyrites. It is needless to mention that these combustible
materials are largely used as fuel and as source of energy for running
industries and various types of transport means. The remarkable
characteristics of oxides of nitrogen and sulpher dioxide are that they
dissolve readily in water and form respective acids. Nitrogen oxide
160
forms nitrous as well as nitric acid whereas sulphur dioxide forms
sulphuric acid.
Because of affinity to water particles of these gases, in
presence of excess of humidity or moisture, mix-up with moisture
homogenously and absorbed by the wood, paper, textiles and leather
objects being hydroscopic in nature. In unwashed and uncontrolled
internal atmosphere of Archives, Libraries and Museums or any
other place where materials of this nature are housed, this process
continues and the concentration of these acids reaches to an alarming
stage resulting in acidifying the documentary wealth. Sulphuric acid
is a very strong and non-volatile liquid and remains within the
material for indefinite time damaging the fibres of various nature
converting them to powder.
Oxygen
Perhaps, it would be surprising to learn that oxygen which is
known to most of us as life sustaining agent, promotes disintegrating
of paper materials. But, it is a time–tested fact and to give a strong
base to this belief, an example is being very often cited of Asiaminor
where various palm leaf collections and paper scrolls, recovered
were found fresh and young. In other words, no change of sign
caused by the age was noticed on them though they have passed
through a long period of almost 200 years. Actually, these palm leaf
manuscripts and scrolls on the walls of caves were kept buried in the
holes sealed with mud or concrete, barricading the transfusion of air.
So whatever, oxygen was present in the hole was consumed by the
reaction taking place with cellulose material of palm leaves and
paper scrolls and thereafter, for the want of oxygen and any other
161
agents actively reacting with the material, resulted in ceasing the
process of decay completely. The secret behind the sign of aging,
appearing over organic materials is the chemical change. When this
change is very slow or almost nil, the change of face value will
almost remain stationary. In other words, no sign of change caused
by the age or time will be noticed. Taking this fact into account, an
equipment has been designed and manufactured by the scientists of
National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi to preserve the original
copy of Constitution of India. Not only this, now a days, aluminium
pouches have also been designed and manufactured to preserve the
master negatives of microforms and they are rendering satisfactory
results at present.
Ammonia
Presence of ammonia is generally experienced near poor
sanitation. This gas, being soluble in water, gives alkaline solution.
Like other acidic gases if it is also absorbed by paper materials, it
results in forming salts with other gases inducing the accumulation
of the salts and subsequently contributing localized acidity. Besides,
Ammonium hydroxide is responsible to affect certain inks adversely.
Hydrogen Sulphide
This gas is generally produced by the biodegradation of the
proteins containing sulpher. Its weak acidic character though does
not affect organic materials seriously, yet it is very effective in
disfiguring the images over microforms and paintings. Presence of
lead in some paintings as compound of lead make basis for various
colours, respectively form silver sulphide and lead sulphide
162
compounds by reacting with hydrogen sulphide. Since these
compounds are black in colour and they cause disfiguring the image
surface.
Ozone
Ozone gas which is formed by the interaction of oxygen in
presence of electric sparks, discharges ultraviolet light. It is though
unstable, yet as a strong oxidizer it has capacity to force a change in
many organic materials. Photocopying machines are also a good
source of producing ozone within the library.
Smokes
The atmosphere of industrial cities is generally full of several
kinds of smokes, which are formed by the incomplete combustion of
fuels such as oil, coal, wood, gas and rubbish etc. Though smoke
particles of black colour are essentially carbon and chemically inert,
yet the particles that are surrounded by oily and dry substances and
can be quite acidic.
These particles usually get deposited over the edges, and
surface of books, volumes, files that are exposed to open surface
forming a thick layer with the passage of time and thus discolouring
the pages. Because of smoke, the colour of pages of books and
sheets of manuscripts become brown, or dark brown depending upon
the thickness of layer of smoke deposited over them.
Interior Active Gas Pollutants
Researches conducted on the enemies of library materials
have revealed the fact that archives and libraries making use of
163
modern aids for scientific conservation of documentary wealth are in
the grip of a new problems which are created by these materials as
they generate disastrous gases in subsequent times. These polluting
agents, popularly termed as internal active gas pollutants, are
complex in nature than the exterior gas agents. Some of such agents
like nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide are common to exterior
agents but (1) formic acid (Methanoic), (2) Acetic acid (Ethanoic),
(3) Proponoic, (4) Butonoic and (5) Hydrochloric acid are quite new
which damage archives and the other materials of organic nature
finding place in archives, libraries and museum.
All the interior polluting agents are acidic in nature and are
generated by the materials used for storage and reinforcement of
archives including adhesives and also by new formals of archival
materials.
Dust Particles (Solid Particulates)
In addition to various external and internal pollutants, the
presence of solid particulates is also noticed in the atmosphere,
specially the atmosphere of tropical and sub-tropical regions, is often
represented by fine dust particles of silicon and soil of geological
origin. But atmosphere of the areas where volcanoes bursts, where
various factories vibrate and quarrying functions, particles of lime
and minerals, cement also join the other solid particulates present in
the atmosphere making the density of solid particles thicker. These
solid particles along with other aerosols are carried to long distances
by fast winds and storms and they settle indiscriminately over
various objects, such as files, books, volumes and leather objects. A
layer of such particles can easily be noticed over the material, which
are not in constant use. While rolling the finger on the surface or
164
edges of it, brownish or black dirt will come over the finger and
simultaneously, trace of finger over the surface or edges where the
finger was rolled will come to exist. If this process of dust
accumulation continues for a long time, the later on deposited
particles increases layer by layer and that causes not only
discolouration to the surface but also affects the legibility of writing.
Secondly, the rate of absorption of moisture is accelerated by the
dust particles which provide a suitable base for the growth of micro-
organisms such as fungus[42].
Acidity
Acidity is a major cause for damaging the strength of various
kinds of records[43]. Cellulose is attacked by acid causing the paper to
become fragile, brittle and discoloured. These changes will take
place even if the climatic conditions are ideal. However, high
temperature and relative humidity as they occur in tropical climate,
will accelerate these reactions considerably.
Acidic gases, smokes and dust present in the atmosphere,
acidic inks or pigments may also degrade the paper.
Sulpher dioxide produced by industrial units and nitrogen
oxides emitted by automobiles are major causes of chemical
deterioration of paper. Sulpher dioxide is converted into sulphuric
acid by the action of traces of iron and copper present in paper.
Sulpher dioxide deteriorates even high cellulose paper. It has been
seen that storage of paper documents in closed cupboards is very
effective in preventing damage on account of acidic gases present in
the air.
165
In the process of manufacture of paper, certain chemicals like
alum-rosin used for sizing and chlorine used in the bleaching process
remain in the paper, causing degradation at a later stage. The
oxidizable carbohydrates present in chemically purified wood fibres
also contribute to the degradation of paper. Ground wood pulp
contains lignins and complex organic compounds which decompose
to form a number of components, several of which are acidic. These
components discolour the paper and make it brittle[44].
Browning of Paper
It has been observed by several conservators that the ground
wood prints and black boards of the mats undergo yellowing or
browning in the areas of the window opening and that this browning
occurred in all the prints. This happens in spite of the fact that the
documents are kept in mats made of acid free boards, which are
stored in boxes and store rooms climatically controlled at a relative
humidity of 50–55% and temperature of about 180C. It was noticed
that the phenomenon occurred mostly with soft-sized cardboards,
normally used in some museums. Mats made of hard sized boards do
not suffer from this type of alteration. Research in this area
conducted by Hofenk de Graaff shows that the browning (oxidation)
of the paper in the window opening is a result of water evaporation
of the paper surface. It has been shown that the browning of the
paper results from degradation of cellulose as the wet dry interface
due to the evaporation of water. Since there is an absorption and
desorption of water by the paper in the window opening, browning
in that area occurs. It was also observed that the degree of browning
increases with the frequency of changes in the relative humidity.
166
This type of browning can be controlled or at least minimised by
placing a sheet of tissue paper, between the window–cut and the
print[45].
Action of Inks
Quite often it is noticed that paper based documents,
manuscripts and drawings written with iron-gall ink get damaged
due to corrosion by ink[46]. The paper deteriorates on account of the
nature of iron-gall ink, resulting in mechanical deterioration of the
paper and ultimately charring of the paper. First of all before the
actual corrosion of paper, the writing gets fudgy and all around the
letters, brownish edges are formed. On the reverse side, ink
discolours the paper to brown. Sometimes, the effect of the ink also
migrates to the adjoining paper. High humidity further causes the
reaction of the ink. It is presumed that the discolouration of the paper
may be on account of the oxidation of cellulose, or on account of the
formation of iron hydroxide due to the oxidation of iron ions.
It is recognised that iron-gall inks are highly acidic, pH values
ranging from 2 to 3.7. The most common metal salt used for
producing iron-gall inks or for adding to carbon inks was ferrous
sulphate. Ferrous sulphate reacts with gallotannic acid to produce
iron-gallo-tannates and sulphuric acid. The excess ferrous sulphate is
converted to ferric oxide and sulphuric acid. A similar reaction will
take place in the case of carbon ink to which ferrous sulphate is
added.
If the nature of the ink was acidic, it was reasonable to
presume that deterioration due to ink could mainly be on account of
167
acid hydrolysis. It has however been noticed that de-acidification
does retard the process of deterioration but does not stop it
completely. On the contrary, sometimes, aqueous de-acidification
results in the increase in the corrosion due to ink by helping in the
migration of iron (II) ions to the paper. It was therefore, summarised
that acidity of ink was not the only cause of paper deterioration. It
has also been shown that the lignin free papers degrade faster than
the lignin containing paper, it is presumed that lignin acts as an anti-
oxidant because of its property of oxidizing faster than cellulose and
forming stable radicals. It would therefore appear that the iron-gall
ink also has an oxidative process which degrades papers[47].
Action of Pigments
Certain pigments cause very serious damage to paper. This
type of deterioration is often caused by green copper-based pigments
such as verdigris. The effect of the green pigment percolates through
the sheet, usually causing the paper to become brown and finally,
destroying the painted area completely.
Besides the destructive action of green pigments, copper
alloys usually brass that have been used to imitate gilding, also cause
damage to paper. The mechanism of the chemical reaction between
the copper alloys and paper is not fully understood and is a subject
for future research.
Human Beings
The discussion over archival enemies will remain incomplete
unless the damage caused by the human beings is taken into account.
168
Because of mishandling, mismanagement and lack of archival
importance, the valuable records in archives and books in libraries
are forced for their immature death[48]. Continuous use of a book or a
manuscript causes them to become weak sometimes, paper develops
tears or its corners get damaged and lost. Careless handling results in
the crumpling of paper. Creases are produced, if the paper remains
folded for long. It may even be torn at the creases, if it is kept in that
condition for long. Rolled papers, if presses hard, will get crumpled
and may be torn.
Intrinsic Dangers
Land sliding, earthquake, floods etc. are such severe dangers,
which pose documentary wealth a serious risk and are termed to be
intrinsic dangers. For proper preservation of documentary wealth,
custodians or archivists should take every care to save the materials
from these dangers.
Fire
Fire is another enemy which does not leave anything but
charcoal and ash. Therefore, there is an urgent need to plan anti-fire
strategies in libraries if information in the form of archives and
books is to be preserved[49].
8. Preventive Conservation
Present day conservation is characterized by a conceptual approach
underlying the solution to problems aimed at ensuring the preservation of
library stock and elaborating appropriate specifications. Generalization and
analysis of phenomena leading to transformation in the system of
conservation have induced reflections, search for the cause and effect[50].
169
These causes call for urgent steps in conservation. The conservators’
task is to determine the strategy of document preservation for the nearest
and the most remote future under normal conditions and permanent
operational readiness and resourcefulness in emergency conditions.
In conservation of documents, two aspects are involved, namely : (i)
Preventive conservation, and (ii) curative treatments. Both aspects are
important for proper maintenance of paper documents. Preventive measures
are the techniques or aids which help in arresting the fast rate of decay and
damage of library wealth by various enemies of records. Curative measures
on the other hand are the activities which are applied to protect the records
against the enemies which have set on for physical damage of such
wealth[51].
Actually, hazards to record materials are caused by two ways, decay
and physical damage. In the process of decay, which is governed by the
physical and the chemical agencies, no sign of damage is visualised in some
grades of papers, while in some poor quality of papers, made of ground
wood pulp, the same can be seen as discolouration by experienced
conservators. In case of decay of certain record materials, though nothing is
observed as a sign of their weakening except discolouration but forces
acting as decay agencies constantly and silently continue their work to
disintegrate and loosen the texture of record base materials. It is significant
to mention that because of decay information carriers not only loose
strength but also loose their flexibility.
Physical damage to record materials is caused mostly by micro and
macro living organisms such as insects, fungus, rodent, fire, intrinsic
dangers and human being leaving scars over the information carriers which
170
can be seen by unaided eye in the form of holes, tunnels, fed surface, mark
of tear, curling from the sides and corners etc. Hence, if documentary
wealth is to be preserved for posterity for a longer period, they should be
prevented from last decay besides being subjected to timely curative
measures if they are being infected by any of the agencies.
In other words, to protect the documentary wealth against the
physical and chemical hazards and other intrinsic dangers, a special
planning, right from the selection of site for the functional library building
is needed so that the adverse affect of atmosphere and environment is
negated and growth of insects and micro-organisms over the material may
be prevented.
The essential elements of preventive conservation are :
1. Scientific storage
2. Requirement of library Building
3. Ideal storage conditions
4. Control of insects.
1.1. Scientific Storage
Storage of documentary wealth, in any form, i.e. documents and
microforms, on scientific pattern over and in specific storage equipments, is
an important factor for preventive conservation. For scientific storage, first
and foremost requirement is suitable building and then storage
equipments[52].
1.2 Requirement of Library Building
Design of Buildings
171
Buildings not designed with security in mind may be marvels of art
and architecture, but if they are insecure, they lack an essential quality of
the good public building. The architecture of a building can be a boon or
bane to a potential thief, mugger, purse snatcher or library materials thief.
Security provisions are an expensive afterthought. The cost of altering
buildings to repair security deficiencies is generally huge. Security must be
given considerable priority in the design of libraries and archival
buildings[53].
The role of building for conservation of documentary wealth is so
important that negligence of certain provisions required for a suitable
library building will not only hamper the preservation of records but also
restrict activities to be carried out for the purpose as well.
It will be worthwhile to say that ‘Building’ is a basic tool for
preventive conservation of documentary wealth and while considering the
case of building, we come across with two prominent categories, i.e.
adopted and purposely built. In case of previous category of buildings,
some changes are must to be incorporated suiting to aids towards
preventive conservation guaranteeing security and safety of documentary
wealth, while in later, some facts mentioned below if considered well and
taken into practice, definitely they will facilitate the task of conservation.
These facts are :
Suitable Site or Location
Right selection of a site for the construction of library building will
lighten the load of preserving the records in one hand and on the other
minimise the risk of ravages. From this view point every record holding
agency will have to consider the following points :
172
1. It is needless to mention that flood may bring irrecoverable loss to the
library materials and therefore in order to avoid the risk from this loss, a
site selected for the building should neither be on the bank of any rivers,
big canal nor over the low land where rain water stores. Evidences are
there that some times floods have brought unexpected loss to the
property in the nearby regions of water carrying veins called nalahs.
2. In some areas, termites are found very active. If it is so, that area should
preferably be eschewed to be selected for archival and library building.
Because of any reasons, if exigency to have an Archival building over
such sites arises, the character of building should emerge as termite –
proof, which is possible only by making use of modern technology and
materials available for the construction of building.
3. In hilly regions, if exigency of establishing an archive or library strikes,
definitely the site chosen for the purpose should either be in the safest
zone, free from land sliding or should have the least chances of it.
4. A land made up of subsoil, damp land and to be effective of heavy seas,
should also be avoided to have an archival building.
5. Though earthquake may happen at any time and in any part of the
world, if it so, then the wisest step would be to avoid to have a building
in such areas.
6. Apart from above, sites near causing intrinsic dangers, such as sites
located near the installations of high fire or explosive risk (petrol tanks,
gasometers, explosive depots) air fields, major railway and bus centres
should rigorously be avoided.
173
However, a site near universities and learning institutions, museums,
well connected with transport means, surrounded with green vegetation and
prevailing with colour and peace, free from chaotic noise, is regarded as the
best site for archival and research oriented library buildings[54].
General Requirements of Library Building Promoting Preventive norms to Records
1. The entire rung of building should be such that it faces North and South.
2. All around the building, there should be sufficient space to carry out fire
fighting activities without any obstruction at the time of any fire
accident in the building or nearby any other building.
3. To suppress the effect of air pollutants, the surrounding areas of
building should be well vegetated.
4. A building should be equipped with all modern facilities required for
detecting, controlling and fighting fire.
5. A building should have a well ventilation system and capable enough to
prevent the entry of outdoor ultra – violet rays and air pollutants.
6. Floor height of a building should allow easy access by staff to the
documents placed on shelves without the use of stools, ladders etc.
General floor height recommended by European conservators varies
from 2.10 to 2.15 m. But more than this height facilitating an open
space above the racks in tropical and subtropical countries will be
promotive of preservation norms.
7. Load bearing capacity for library building is of special consideration.
The floor of the library storage should be able to support a weight of 15
to 20 quintals per square meter per storey when cantilever system of
174
shelving is deployed. This per square meter weight per floor reaches as
much as 60 quintals in case of compactus shelving system.
8. The suitable area for a strong room should run between 150 to 200
square meters. Fire resisting walls, ceiling doors, provision of fire
scapes in a building to be used for archives and library materials are of
dire need from the view point of modern techniques of preserving
documentary wealth.
9. The care, maintenance and management of the building must always be
designed and directed as the priority to the minimum intervention into
the integrity of the material it holds[55].
1.3. Ideal Storage Conditions
For the longevity of library wealth, as a preventive conservation
tool, maintenance of ideal storage conditions which involve the control of
fluctuating climate, and maintenance of heat and humidity at the optimum
ranges is desirable[56].
Control of Climate and Environment
The climatic condition of the place where manuscripts and books are
stored has a great effect on them. They are affected by humidity and
temperature and also due to variations in them. Water, in the liquid form as
well as in the vapour form, accelerates the chemical process of
deterioration. In moist atmosphere, paper becomes limp and looses its
crispness. Furthermore, there is a rapid growth of insects and
microorganisms like fungi in high humidity. Paper is hygroscopic and
therefore increases in size when there is increase in humidity and shrink
175
when the humidity decreases. This type of variation in the humidity
condition causes strain on the objects[57].
Control of Humidity
In Indian subcontinent, in summer, humidity goes down to 20 per
cent while in rainy season, in some parts of the country, it goes beyond 180
% and both these stages are alarming one, not only from the view point of
preservation, but also from the view point of health. Coastal areas generally
face the problem raised by high humidity.
Obviously, to control the humidity at conducive range for record
material is a must and for that two distinct manual methods :
Humiditification of stack areas in summer and de-humidification in rainy
season and winter are to be deployed[58].
Monitoring of Climate
In order to control the humidity, it becomes necessary to measure the
temperature of a place. It is done by using thermometers. If it is desired to
know the maximum temperature attained during the day, a special type of
thermometer, called Maximum and Minimum Thermometer is used. A very
simple method of measuring relative humidity is by the wet and dry bulb
thermometer. In this instrument, there are two thermometer, with one of its
bulb covered with a cotton wick, while the other end is dipped in a
receptacle containing water. The water rises upto the wick and keeps the
bulb of the thermometer moist. An improvement on the wet and dry bulb
thermometer is whirling hygrometer. There are also direct reading
instruments like the dial type hair hygrometer, which however is not very
reliable.
176
The hygrometers or thermometers read temperature and relative
humidity only at the particular moment when the reading is recorded. It
does not give an idea of temperature and relative humidity for all the 24
hours. To overcome this disadvantage, “Thermohygrograph” is used. It a
self-recording hygrometer which operates round the clock. A graph paper
marked for temperature – records on one half and for relative humidity on
the other half, is fixed on a cylinder which revolves by a clock device. The
cylinder alongwith the graph keeps moving day and night. There are two
pens in the instrument fixed to a bimetallic coil for temperature reading and
the other to a bundle of hygroscopic fibres to measure relative humidity.
After calibrating the equipment, when the cylinder is started, the pens,
properly marked are set in a manner that they touch the graph paper. The
pens move up or down according to the temperature or relative himidity
condition. As the cylinder rotates, the pens leave a mark on the graph and
record the temperature and relative humidity. Thus, a record of the relative
humidity and temperature are obtained on the graph on a time scale.
Climate Monitoring Policy
In a museum or a library, where a record of temperature and relative
humidity is to be kept for the safety of the objects and documents, it is not
enough that they are measured in one or two rooms only, once or twice in a
day. The important consideration is to record how the climate differs or
varies during the day and during the different months of the year. A long-
term study lasting for at least one year, with the help of a
thermohygrograph has to be undertaken. Manuscripts, which are very
sensitive to temperature and relative humidity, are kept in the areas having
the most stable humidity.
Climate Control
177
For most effective preservation of documents, climate should be
controlled within limits. Needless to say that climate of a building can best
be controlled through air conditioning. The normal standard for maintaining
relative humidity is between 45 – 60% and for temperature between 20 to
240 C. Within this limit, the norms can be selected, depending on the
climatic conditions outside the museum or the library. In humid climates,
for instance, RH can be controlled at 55 % or more, but it must be kept
below 65 %. For dry climates, normal limit of about 45 % is permissible. In
the same manner, the temperature for hot climate may be set at the higher
limit of 24 0 C. On the other hand, in cold climate, it may be maintained at
24 0 C.
An important principle of air conditioning is that constant
temperature and relative humidity are maintained throughout the 24 hours
of the day and throughout the year, which means that the air conditioning
must work day and night. Quite often, in many libraries, the air
conditioning plant is operated during office hours and is switched off
afterwards. This is a very dangerous practice and should never be allowed.
It would introduce artificial variation of the climatic conditions, prevailing
during the day when the air conditioning is on, and at night when the plant
is switched off. Although air conditioning is excellent for climate control
and is recommended if institution can afford it, but most often it is not
feasible on account of high cost, not only of the equipment but also of
running it. Therefore, in such situations, it is wise to use chemical and
mechanical methods to control the humidity[59].
Chemical Method
This method involves the use of anhydride calcium chloride and
silica gel. Normally two types of silica gels are found. But one of them
which is white in colour, transparent, granular amorphous structure and
178
contains 7 – 10 per cent water is not suitable for the purpose of reducing
water vapour contents. It has chemical formula Si .O2 x H2 O. The other
type of silica gel which is used as water absorbent almost had light bluish
colour in dry state and turns to light pink on absorption of moisture or water
vapour. Silica gel can be reactivated by indirect heating upto 120–160 0 C,
until it regains white bluish colour. On heating silica gel for reconditioning,
its water content should not be reduced less than 7 – 10 per cent. A
modified form of silica gel marketed under the trade name “Art Sorb” sold
by Fuji – Davison Chemicals Ltd. of Japan is more effective. Another
chemical also marketed by Japan under the trade name of “Nikka Pallets”
has found to be equally effective, as humidity buffering agent. Silica gel is
preferred for de-humidification of the closed space as it has tremendous
surface area. For use in closed space, it may be kept in perforated
containers, in windows, ventilators and other places where from moistured
air is supposed to enter. On placing gel in such places, it should be ensured
to cover maximum possible area. Besides, it should be kept in shallow
containers, at various points of closed space where from humidity is to be
reduced. Requirement of silica gel, actually depends upon the percentage of
humidity present in the air. However, normally 2 – 3 gms. of this
compound will suffice to de-humidify a closed space of 25 m3 [60].
Mechanical Method
For dehumidification nowadays mechanical dehumidifiers are
available and they can be used as per convenience. For reducing the level of
humidity in a closed space, a dehumidifier is used. In using dehumidifier,
there is a danger that the relative humidity may go down very low. That
must be avoided. Humidity in closed rooms can be increased with the help
of portable humidifiers. Some simple devices like placing pots of plants or
Khus curtains, which are kept wet, are useful devices[61].
179
Control of Light
Paper documents are also very sensitive to light. When exposed to
light for long duration, paper becomes brittle. Any writing or painting on it,
gets dim and quite often it completely fades out. There are three sources of
light, namely sunlight, fluorescent tubes and tungsten bulbs. The rays
emitted by a source of light normally contain visible radiation, as well as
other radiation like ultra-violet and infra-red. Damage to paper is caused by
the visible rays as well as by ultra-violet rays.
Control Methods
The effect of light on paper can be controlled by taking the
following precautions:
1. Reduce the intensity of light falling upon the object.
2. Expose the objects to the light only for a short period of time.
3. Filter out photochemically active radiation like ultra-violet rays
from the light.
The recommended level of light for paper paintings is 15 lux. For
normal paper documents, the light intensity can be increased to about 150
lux. If important paper documents are on display, they should be put to
view for a short period. Curtains can be used on showcases to display such
objects, which are opened only when a visitor wants to see them. Another
device is the use of time switches which shut off automatically after a brief
period of time.
Ultra-violet radiations can be eliminated from light by using an
ultra-violet absorbent filter. These filters are manufactured by adding ultra-
180
violet absorbing chemicals to acrylic sheets or films. Such sheets or films
should be fixed in front of the light source. Ultra-violet absorbent films can
be applied on glass panes to absorb ultra-violet rays present in the sunlight.
Flash Light for Photography
For photocopy of documents, intensive light should never be used.
Electronic flash is safer to paper materials then tungsten lamps, because the
duration of exposure to electronic flash is very small. The lighting groups
of the ICOM committee for conservations have approved the following
precautions for the use of photocopy of art objects by electronic flash[62].
1. Not more than two sources of flash should be used.
2. Total energy from both light sources should not exceed 1400
joules (watts/ seconds).
3. The light source should be more than 3 meter from the object.
4. The flash light should be covered with a filter which can absorb
all radiations of wave-length shorter than 380 nm.
5. There should not be more than one flash exposure per minute.
Planning Anti-Light Strategies
It is a well-known fact that sun is the bounting source of light of
various forms, i.e. visible, ultra-violet and infra red radiations etc.
Therefore, in planning strategies against light, all efforts have to be taken so
as to avoid direct entry of light in the building specially in the areas holding
precious collections of archives and books.
Following precautions can be taken to control the light.
181
a. To barricade the entry of ultraviolet rays from outside, the first
requirement is that the windows and ventilators which are the
best known sources to allow the entry of light rays, should be
minimum in number facing East and West. And it is possible if
the entire rung of building faces North and South.
b. Scientifically, it has been proved that certain colours viz. red,
black, yellow, blue, green are good absorbent of ultraviolet light.
The ancient Indian people had a custom to wrap religious books
and manuscripts in cloth of either red or yellow colour. Actually,
these two colours have nothing to take with religion but it seems
that people of that period were familiar with the fact that the
these two colours keep the documentary wealth safe against
ravages. And it is true also as now the fact that these two colours
not only absorb ultraviolet light, but also discourage various
insects, has been proved scientifically. Obviously, if glasses of
windows and ventilators are coloured with any of the colours
mentioned above, a good chunk of ultraviolet radiations may be
prevented from entry.
Planned Internal Lighting
Internal lighting in the building is essential for proper illumination of
space and for that artificial sources of light such as fluorescent lights and
glow bulbs are deployed. Glow bulbs making use of filamentous wire are
incandescent source of light and are free from ultraviolet radiations while
light emitted by fluorescent lights is associated with it. But for proper
illumination of areas, fluorescent lights deployed in the area will produce
ultraviolet light in direct proportionality. Therefore, to minimize the
quantum of ultraviolet lights, efforts should be to achieve proper
182
illumination by deploying less number of fluorescent lights and that can be
done by making use of paints on the walls. But it should be ensure that
paints to be used for the purpose are free from any such contaminant which
may prove if subsequent grave risk for documentary wealth housed in the
area. Anyway, tube lights installed in stack area or in the areas used for
storage should be fitted with glass shelves capable of absorbing ultraviolet
radiations[63].
183
Preventive Care Against Living Organisms
Insects, particularly in tropical countries like India, are possibly the
greatest enemies of manuscripts, books and documents. All paper materials
are damaged by book-worms, cockroach, silver fish or termites.
For the librarian faced with the necessity of protecting the library
from the jaws of many thousands of species of insects, it is necessary to
know which is the best type of chemical warfare to wage. He must become
first an entomologist, so that he may gain appreciation of the life habits and
food preferences of his insect enemies, and then a chemist, so that he may
understand the properties, and possibly the dangers, of the poisons with
which he hopes to kill them[64].
Control of Insects
The design of the building in which paper documents are kept plays
an important part in the prevention of insect attack. It is preferable to use
insect proof materials like sheet for the construction of a building. The
foundation should be treated with chemicals for the control of insects.
There are several chemicals which do not terminate the insect but repel
them and are known as repellents[65].
Role of Plants as Disinfectant and Insect Repellent
Sources of the past throw sufficient light upon the fact that problems
of insects to devour documentary wealth is old one and those days various
herbs and plant leaves were used to protect bark and palm leave
manuscripts against the onslaught of insects. Ghorabach (a herb), Pandry, a
type of grass, neem tree leaves are a few examples of this type.
184
Not only the leaves of neem, but its bark and oil also have been vary
popular among the Indian rural masses for their medicinal values. Neem oil
which is also known as ‘mergosa oil’ (bitter in taste) is still being used as
insecticide and as antibiotic. In the decade of 90, the role of neem leaves to
protect material of textile and paper was put on test on scientific lines and
the results obtained were quite satisfactory. It is the presence of
‘quarantine’ in neem which acts as antifungal and antibacterial agent.
Dried neem leaves in shadow are kept inter-leaved with textile and
in a container like box or any storage equipment containing books,
manuscripts and documents which are to be preserved against fungus and
insects. Since fresh leaves stain the material and therefore their use is
avoidable. Leaves dried in sun and damped atmosphere, generally suffer
from the loss of repelling as well as antibacterial character, therefore, for
effective results leaves dried in shadow are preferably used. The archives
and libraries which are storing their wealth in the form of Bastas and in
carton boxes, they may use it conveniently by putting some dried leaves in
them on the bottom, middle and upper levels. After a period of six months,
these leaves should be replaced by freshly prepared lot of leaves.
Besides, various insecticides, pesticides, fungicides and insect
repellents are now available which can conveniently be used in modern
archival building and libraries at various levels i.e. at reinforcement level
and storage level.
Use of Insecticides and Pesticides at Restoration Level
Needless to say that most of the record materials are defiled by the
insects because of the availability of starch, glue, gum and gelatin over
them which are of their food value. Hence, it is imperative to take steps
preventing the growth of organisms and discourage the insects to touch the
185
materials if really they are to be protected from ravages against insects. And
for the purpose, through the ages, various chemicals such as copper
sulphate, cederwood oil, cayenne pepper, colocyrsth, buck bean, alum and
wild chestnut were used from time to time as insecticides with adhesives.
Besides, some chemicals such as white Arsenic, Corrosive sublimate,
borax, naphthalene, camphor, carbolic acid, formaldehyde were used as
surface coater on the finished books. The selection of any such chemical
(insecticides, pesticides, fumigant, insect repellent etc.) is guided by
following points :
a. Efficacy against the biological species to be eliminated.
b. Effect of the chemicals on paper.
c. Their toxicity to man.
Obviously, there are a very few chemicals, which can be used
to disinfect books and documents. The treatment must be done when
infection is actually present. Also, all precautions must be taken to
ensure that the chemicals are completely safe to the worker,
conservators as well as to the users of the documents.
Mercuric chloride and alum could no longer be used as insecticide as
they were not only found dangerous for the lives of working staff but also
they were visualised the promoter of record perishment.
Though, copper sulphate, commonly known as Nila-Thotha is a
good insecticide and fungicide and the same was vastly used in Indian
libraries with starch paste but visualisation as one of the acidity
contributory sources to record material, it was dropped from further use.
186
Now-a-days 2–3 percent formalin or .3 per cent sodium penta
chlorophonate by weight of starch is used with starch paste to protect the
record materials against insects and animals like rodents. Similarly, one per
cent phenol is used with glue.
Formalin keeps binding properties of the paste in cold climates while
in hot, it brings about suppression. But antifungal and insecticidal
properties of formalin are retained irrespective of any climates.
In unmonitored repositories, it has been detected as a source for
producing formic acid fumes which are dangerous for records as well as
working staff therein.
Use of Insecticides, Fungicides etc. at Storage Level
To maintain insect free zone in repository of library where valuable
archives and books are housed, the use of some insect repellents and
insecticides has been found satisfactory.
Spray of Insecticides
The transition period of the regions, marked by various seasons, as
in India, South-East, South-West Asian countries and in most of the African
countries, is conducive for the growth and propagation of various micro-
organisms and insects. For dis-infection, insecticides are sprayed on the
walls and not directly over the records as these may not only stain them but
may also rapidimise the rate of decay. DDT was once being used for this
purpose but recent discoveries have found it carcinogenic and therefore it
has now been banned for further uses.
187
Fog of pip or any other suitable insecticide has also been found very
effective to kill cells of microorganisms and insects. It has capacity to enter
the inter-spices of books, volumes and files and thus to eradicate the insects
hidden therein[66].
Since it is not possible to treat each object in a large collection,
cupboards, shelves, drawers, etc are always treated with liquid insecticides.
An insecticide like pyrethrum in powder form is dusted on the shelves.
Insects which come in its contact are destroyed[67]. It is beneficial to place
naphthalene bricks in archival records. Bricks of specific size say 5’ x 2.5”
x 2” of this material have been envisaged and they are suitably placed in
stack areas. About the placement, normally they are kept maintaining a gap
of two metres between the two bricks in every dimension. However,
formation of fumes is affected by the atmospheric temperature and
therefore we can not stick to this distance in every season and at every
place. In a region where atmospheric temperature normally stays at 23 – 300
C, this gap is suitable while at temperature below and above it, this distance
may respectively be decreased or increased to 1 meter and 2.5 meters
depending on the conditions[68].
A very common insect attracted by paper documents is silverfish.
Some specially prepared insecticidal paper/ boards are placed in the storage
cupboards at the back of the books and documents.
Cockroach, a common insect attacking books can be controlled with
the use of “Baygon Bait”. It is sold in a power form and is sprinkled on the
floor where cockroaches are likely to come. Cockroach walking on the
powder is knocked off.
188
Fumigation Chamber
Fumigation and insecticidal treatment have been used to control
insects in museums and libraries[69]. Insecticides can be used either as a
fumigant or in the form of a solution. For the use of fumigants, a
fumigation chamber is needed. It can be constructed of wood or sheet with
tight fitting doors and one or two shelves. An improved variety of
fumigation chamber is the one inside which vacuum can be created. The
books are placed inside the chamber, the door is tightly closed and the
vacuum pump is switched on, to evaculate the air from inside. When the
desired vacuum level is reached, the vacuum outlet tap as well as the
exhaust outlet are closed. The fumigation gas is introduced into the
chamber and the inlet tap is closed. After the treatment is completed, the
exhaust fan is started to drive out the gas from inside. At this stage, the door
of the chamber is opened and the object aired for sometime before placing
them on the shelves.
Ethylene oxide was the most popular fumigant for controlling fungi
and insects on art objects, including paper documents. Ethylene oxide being
as gas does not leave any ill-effect on the material. However, it has several
disadvantages and in some countries, it is totally banned[70]. First of all, the
gas is extremely poisonous and must be used only in special air-tight
chambers. Furthermore, it is explosive and has to be mixed with carbon-
dioxide to dilute its action. It has also been feared that ethylene oxide is
carcinogenic and therefore could be extremely dangerous for conservators.
As far as the effect of ethylene oxide on paper is concerned, it has been
found that it does not affect the aging of paper. Fumigation has one major
drawbacks : its effect does not last long and therefore the process has to be
repeated at periodic intervals.
189
Deep-Freezing Method for Eradication of Insects
Deep-freezing technique has been used for curing infestation of
insects found in books. This is a non-toxic method for eradication of
insects. For this treatment, a special freezing equipment is required. The
books are placed inside the freezer. The door of the freezer is closed and
then it is switched on. The books are kept inside the chamber for about 72
hours and then removed. At the end, the books are kept on the shelves.
When the books are removed from the freezer, there is condensation of the
moisture on the bags. It takes about 36 hours for the moisture content to
evaporate[71].
Low Oxygen Atmosphere
A new technology using low oxygen levels has been introduced for
the control of insects. It has been shown that good insect control can be
achieved with low relative humidity (30 – 40%) and low oxygen levels
(below 2%)[72]. Low oxygen level can be obtained by replacing oxygen with
an inert gas, like nitrogen introduced in a hermetically sealed cupboard or
display case. It has been demonstrated by researchers that a nitrogen
atmosphere can control the life cycle of insects like D. melanogaster[73]. For
this treatment, a vacuum fumigation chamber or even plastic bag in which
nitrogen is introduced are effective to kill the insects. Nitrogen mixed with
carbon-dioxide can be used to decrease the duration of the treatment and
improve the efficiency of the treatment[74].
Fungus
The most important microorganism of importance in paper
conservation is fungus. Normally, fungi are aerobic, which means needing
air for their growth. There are, however, some species, which do not require
190
any air and are anaerobic. Finding a suitable climate, they grow on paper
objects like manuscripts and books very quickly.
For prevention of fungi, humidity control is best method. If air-
conditioning is not possible, there should be enough ventilation and air-
flow inside the room. Cleanliness is another factor for the control of their
growth. All books, manuscripts and paintings should be taken down from
the shelves periodically and cleaned with a soft brush or vacuum pump of
low vacuum.
Disinfecting the store room where manuscripts and books are kept
will be beneficial. Normally, a 10% solution of thymol in rectified spirit is
used. The solution is sprayed in the room with a fine spray gun. Precautions
must be taken against fire because rectified spirit is inflammable.
Fumigation of manuscripts, books and documents with thymol is
also recommended for the control of fungus.
Dis-infection of paper materials can also be achieved by wrapping
them in fungicidal papers and keeping them inside polythene bags for about
one week. The fungicidal paper is prepared by treating blotting paper with a
1% p-chloro-m-cresol solution or 1% phenyl mercuric acetate solution and
then drying them.
Control of Termites
Termites are very deadly insects, not only for paper but for all types
of organic materials. There are two types of termites, namely subterranean
termites and drywood termites. The subterranean termites make their nest in
the earth and even when some of them go out, they maintain a link with the
earth. On the other hand, the drywood termites live in wood and do not
191
have any link with the soil. While constructing a new building, insecticides
like DDT, BHC or dieldrin is added to the foundation soil. This action
creates a type of chemical barrier between the found and the building
structure. Sometimes, a physical barrier is introduced. A physical barrier is
created between the soil and the structure of the building by using metallic
termite-shields over the foundation walls[75].
In those buildings, in which termite proofing was not done before
the construction of the building, it is advisable to treat it later on. For this
purpose, holes of about 10 cms. apart depth are drilled 50 cms. apart at the
junction of the floor and the walls.
An insecticide solution is forced into these holes, till no more is
absorbed. Chemicals are also injected into the soil through the cracks,
which might be present in the floor and the walls.
Termites may also attack interior woodwork. All wooden structures,
which might have been damaged by termites, should be replaced and the
remaining wood should be treated with an insecticidal solution. Any object,
which is infested by termites should immediately be fumigated and
cleaned[76].
Rodents
In order to counteract the hazards of rodents in a library, following
steps may be adopted :
1. Like other insects and animals, rodents also are attracted by the
food items, and therefore, non-availability of these items will
certainly discourage rodents’ entry in the repository and for the
192
purpose, as a matter of policy, no edibles should be allowed in
the library.
2. No granary or storehouse should be allowed to function nearby
the archives and library building and in the campus.
3. All the holes in the repository as well as in the other parts of
archives and library building should be covered with cement and
concrete.
4. All the outlets in the building facilitating entry of rodents from
outside including pipes and windows should be covered with
metals gauzes.
5. Push-pull type doors in the repository should be fitted so that
they may shut automatically after the use. This will negate the
possible entry of rodents from the other parts of the building.
If in spite of all these precautionary measures, rodents have got entry
in the repository through any source, the plan to kill them or trap is the only
alternative to get rid of them and for that baits and poisons like zinc
phosphide, barium carbonate, warfarin and arsenic oxide with food
materials may be used effectively. Now-a-days electronic equipments
which generate electro-magnetic waves of wave length causing irritation to
this animal and compel to escape from the area are available and can be
deployed in repositories. However, for elimination of rats from a closed
space, poisons like 4-5% zinc phosphide, and arsenic oxide in addition to
poisons mentioned above in suitable baits bases (Bread, floor, and cheese)
are safely used in archives and in libraries[77].
Control of Atmospheric Pollution
Pollution in the atmosphere is also a major hazard for deterioration
of books and manuscripts. Air contains many types of gases like sulpher
193
dioxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrogen sulphide produced by industries,
motor vehicles, train engines, etc. Another major contaminant in Indian
cities, particularly in dry area like Rajasthan is dust.
Control of Pollution
The safest way of removing polluting gases from the atmosphere of
the room where books are kept, is to pass the air through a filter of
activated carbon or through water-spray. This type of treatment can be done
if there is air conditioning in the building. Simple measures like wrapping
the books and manuscripts in cloth or placing them in book boxes reduces
the effect of pollution to a great extent. The books kept inside closed
cupboards will be better protected than those, which are kept outside.
Documents kept inside folders are safer than those, which are kept in
open[78].
Dust-free Storage Area
In order to achieve the goal, careful and meticulous planning against
dust is indispensable and for that building should be so designed as to
barricades the entry of dust to a maximum extent without affecting the
other requirements of the ideal storage area. But in spite of these provisions
dust will get place in stacks as records are self dust creating objects. And
therefore, removal of dust from the floor, shelves and from the record
materials is must and for that, planning on scientific lines is needed.
1. To minimise the entry of dust from the surrounding, all the
possible entry points such as windows, ventilators should be
fitted with wire meshes and glasses. Use of curtains in windows
and doors would be extra benefit in obstructing the dust entry.
194
However, the provision of these all the things is not going to
prove for any help unless they are used properly.
2. To expel out the accumulated dust from all possible points of a
stack area, use of vacuum cleaner has been found very effective
as it sucks dust particles and allow them to settle in a bag and
thus giving no chance to float them in space. Use of wet jute
tissues and cloth for wiping floor and racks shelves are the best
manual means to maintain a dust free zone in stack area.
Proper Air Circulation
Stagnant air in stack areas can give rise to form stagnant air pockets
within the area which induces growth of insects and fungus. Therefore,
from the view point of preservation, it should be ensured that no stagnant
pocket within the stack is formed. And for the purpose, proper ventilation
in the stack areas is essential which can be achieved by cross ventilation
and circulating the air in the area by using fans, exhausts and air
circulators[79].
1.4. Prevention of Physical Damage
Physical damage is caused to books and documents due to
mishandling or improper storage. Precautions have to be observed while
turning over the pages or carrying the documents from one place to the
other. It must always be ensured that while opening the manuscripts or the
books, the pages are not torn or corners are not damaged. They should
never be folded otherwise creases will be formed and they may even be torn
at the folds. For carrying a large number of books and manuscripts from
one place to another, trolleys should be used, they should not be taken in
hands, lest they may fall down and may get damaged. If the documents are
195
too weak, they should not be used unless they have been consolidated and
conserved. For rare and valuable manuscripts, microfilms should be
available and normally only microfilms should be used by readers and
scholars, barring in some very exceptional cases[80].
How we handle and use a book contributes to its longevity. If a book
will not lay flat, do not use force to open it further. The covers should
always be supported when the book is open.
Many books are damaged by the habit of pulling the books off the
shelf from the top to the spine. It is a much better practice to push two
adjoining books inward and remove the book by holding the spine. Place
similar sized books, vertically next to each other on the shelf, packing them
neither too loosely or tightly.
The use of paper clips, folding down pages, and marking pens to
make notations should be discouraged.
The practice of using rubber bands or string to tie up a book should
be avoided because they often cut into brittle pages and damage fragile
covers. An excellent way to protect fragile books is with a box that is
custom made to the dimensions of the book. Books with dry flaking leather
covers can be wrapped in paper or polyster jackets to keep the fragments
from transferring to hands adjoining books or the rest of the pages.
Books also get damaged during the process of collaing cataloguing,
accessing and stamping. Therefore, proper care should be taken when
books are going through all these processes. Recording and accessioning
and cataloguing offer the hazards to books if not properly carried out. Some
record should certainly be made as to date of receipt, source, cost and these
196
notes may perhaps be added in offensively and inconspicuously. Though
library practice tends increasingly to minimize the amount of such
information, entered in the book itself. Some owners content themselves
with a pencil note on the fly leaf or other blank page, on a margin of a leaf,
on a book plate. With most books, however, it is safe to say that the less the
marking the less the danger of harm. So far stamping is concerned, it should
be applied to the verso of the leaf instead of the title page of the book. This
will serve the purpose equally well.
Life on the ShelvesIt may be recalled that originally, books were designed not to stand
upright but to lie flat on their sides, the ideal position. Vertical shelving is a
space saving compromise. Because weight of the paper in a book shelved
upright normally pulls away from the spine, it is desirable that books be
supported by one another, on shelves reasonably filled, or by means of
book supports. If, however, the shelves are too full, it means rubbing and
friction and when books are forced in or removed. Of on the other hand the
shelf is not full enough, the books will lean to one side or the other, and the
binding will be harmed. Hence, there is no more insidious or harmful
enemy of books than the practice of letting them sag on the shelves. If there
are pamphlets or paperbound volumes among the lot their life is certainly
neither long not merry unless they are properly supported.
Large book should be stored on shelves deep enough to hold them
safely or shelves fitted with proper supports, where the volumes can also
support one another and not sag. Similar special treatment should be
accorded to miniature books, which if shelved with normal – sized books
failed to give the larger volumes needed support and are themselves in
danger of being abused and browbeaten by their neighbours.
197
Books in Exhibition Cases
When books are displayed in exhibition cases, care should be taken
that the pleasure they provide is not also occasion for serious damage.
Above all, direct sunlight should not be allowed to fall on them. The pages
exposed to view should be changed now and then, to equalize the harm
from exposure. The cases should be dust proof and if they are, the books
are in effect protected by the stable condition of the air. A greater danger
arises when the cases are illuminated by electricity with its accompanying
heat. Leather bound books are particularly liable to damage in the
exhibition case. Such harm can be reduced somewhat by oiling the bindings
before and after placing them on exhibition and at intervals if they remain
there any length of time[81].
Books and manuscripts are also damaged if not properly stored. For
preservation of archives, books, manuscripts and other allied materials of
organic nature, not only the scientific storage is desirable, but also the
storage materials of quality are highly essential. The quality of the boxes in
which the documents are stored assumes a great importance. Preservation
of the material will also be governed by the quality of the archival box.
They are supposed to protect the documents from the damaging effect of
light, dust, mechanical damage and other similar factors of deterioration. It
is necessary that archival boxes should be made of acid-free or buffered
mildly alkaline cardboard, so that the documents stored inside are not
damaged. Experiments were conducted by Hanus et.al. and on the basis of
measurement of pH, folding endurance, tearing resistance, tensile test, etc.
it was concluded by them that the aging rate of paper samples stored in
acid-free box. (Hanus et.al., 1995). Apart from the use of stable materials
for making containers, it is also important that documents are kept in them
properly. They should neither be overstuffed nor should there be too much
198
vacant space, which would allow the documents to slump and curl. All
documents must be fully protected and supported by the container in a
manner that the edges of the documents are not torn. To full the vacant
space in a box, special boards of corrugated sheets are prepared to fit the
empty space. Before the documents are stored in boxes or in file covers, it
should be ensured that all metal clips, rubber bands, coloured tapes etc. are
removed.
Materials used for the construction of boxes and file covers should
be tested in a paper laboratory to ensure that they adhere to archival
specifications. Cloth tapes should be white or coloured with a dye that does
not bleed.
Preparation of the Documents
Before storing the documents in a contained, they should be properly
prepared by eliminating all types of foreign materials like plastic covers,
staples, paper clips, newspaper coverings, brown wrapping papers,
envelopes, etc. The document should also be cleaned with a soft brush to
remove all loose dust.
Storing Method
Storage in Bastas
Storage in Bundles
Matting of paper documents
Portfolio for documents
Cloth wrapper
Slip Book case
Manuscript Box
Storage in container
199
Storage in Bastas
In this form, the books, files and manuscripts etc. are wrapped in
thick cotton, cloth or wrapping material of any type, protects the documents
from the ravages of dust and humidity. However, this method of storage is
not fit for long term storage because curling of documents in the long run
starts. It happens because of the un-uniform external pressure is displayed
over them. Secondly, week documents get damaged from the sides and
corners at the time of their displacement from one place to another which is
very frequent in archives because of search cases and also for attending
cleaning task in the stacks. Any way, if this method is to be used for
storage, in the first instance, files and loose document sheets to be stored
should be placed in between two hard sheets/ boards of quality and then
entire assembly should be tied in the cloth. Cloth used for storage in the
form of Bastas should be thick, coloured (red, yellow, green) and free from
sizing materials and acidic contents.
Storage in Bundles
Storage of archives in the form of bundles has now emerged as the
best way for their proper conservation. For the purpose, files and loose
records are tied in between two specific plywood boards.
In general, for normal size of files, 5th ply board larger than the size
of the files having four grooves two in each longer side as shown in figure
are used :
But archives of the plywood boards may run from 5 to 8 ply,
depending on the size and bulk of the manuscripts or documents to be tied
between. Things to be noted is that a ply should be strong enough to bear
200
the load of the record material tied between at the time of their handling on
shifting. The bundles are tied by the rope known as log-line passing through
the grooves. Equal distribution of pressure is must to keep the records flat
and unstrained because any strain into play, silently and constantly weakens
the fibres of documentary base.
Matting of Paper Documents
Paper documents and paintings are kept between two mat-boards to
protect them from binding or getting abraded. The best method to protect
small documents and paintings on paper is to fix them between hinged mats
of all-rag mount boards, with a window cutout in the top mat, for allowing
the document to be seen, while keeping it securely in place.
Portfolio for Documents
Single documents should always be separated from each other by
soft tissue paper, and stored in special portfolios prepared of good quality
materials.
There are two main parts in this type of portfolio, used for storing
individual documents and small manuscripts. These are :
i. An outer cover of thick acid free mount board.
ii. A folded paper envelope for keeping the documents.
First of all two board 6 mm bigger in dimensions than the document
are cut out. The two boards are joined together with a cloth tape or good
quality book-binding cloth.
201
An envelope of 3 mm bigger than the size of the documents is cut
out.
The envelope is joined to the board with an adhesive used only at the
edges.
The document is placed inside the envelope and its flaps are folded
over the document.
The name of the document or documents is written on a label and
pasted over the outer cover.
Cloth Wrapper
The traditional Indian custom of storing manuscripts was to place
two boards on either side of the manuscripts and wrap it with a piece of
cloth. This piece of cloth is normally square, at one corner of which a
length of ribbon is stitched. After keeping the document, along with the
boards on either side, on the square cloth, the three corners of the cloth
cover are folded over the document to make a neat bundle. In the end, the
corner with the ribbon is also folded and the ribbon is tightly tied over the
manuscript. The cloth used for this purpose was normally dyed red or
sometimes yellow.
This type of storing of manuscripts has much merit to be
recommended for general usage. First of all, it is very simple and cheap. It
keeps the manuscript covered from all sides and fully pressed. In some of
the Indian libraries, particularly traditional ones, it is still in use.
Slip Book Case
The slip book case is enclosed on all the sides, except on one side,
but does not open like a box. The manuscript can be slipped inside from the
202
open side. It is useful for those books and manuscripts which are in good
physical condition.
Those manuscripts and books, which are fragile and highly
damaged, should not be stored in such book cases. For them, a proper box
should be prepared.
Thus purpose of the containers such as these is to provide physical
protection to the document, manuscript or the book. It also protects the
objects from coming in contact with other contaminated material. Keeping
the documents in a container or portfolio does not mean that its treatment is
not required. If there is acidity, insects or any other defects, they must be
eliminated.
Manuscript Box
a. The boxes had to provide sufficient pressure to the manuscripts.
The pressure would help to ensure that the conserved
manuscripts would not cockle again and the absorbent nature of
the materials to be used in box constructiobn, whether of wood or
millboard, would help to even out changes in environmental
conditions in the room[82]. For important documents and
manuscripts, an enclosed box should be constructed
Storage Containers
Storage of archives in any form in carton boxes is one of the best
storage systems provided material of carton boxes is free from acid and
other unwanted elements causing damage to records. A carton box, is a
barrier against dust and rodents but it may cause stagnancy of air which is
undesirable from view point of preventive conservation of documents as it
203
fosters the growth of microorganisms and insects. Therefore, a carton box
should be so designed which facilitates free passage of air and for the
purpose a carton box should bear pin holes.
An ideal record container should be characterized by (a) proper
design, facilitating (i) easy handling in both closed and opened positions,
(ii) maximum utilisation of space of container, (iii) reasonably smooth
interior permitting easy movement of records, (iv) smooth exterior; (b) fire
resistant character and ability to protect to contents against fire; (c)
imperviousness to dirt and dust; (d) lowness in cost; (e) light in weight; and
(f) durable and permanent.
Type of Containers
All over world, three types of containers are used in majority :
a. Press Board Containers
b. Sheet-metal Containers
c. Foil-clad press board containers.
First two types of containers were not found suitable as they did not
put barrier against fire. The foil-clad press board container is nowadays
widely being used in America with satisfactory results.
The documents, manuscripts for storage, should be kept flat in the
box. Sufficient space should be there to handle the records. Obviously, the
size of the box should be larger than the size of a document/ manuscripts to
be stored.
The board suitable for making of the boxes should be made of single
ply, hard pressed at pH range not below 6. Milboards of high quality
display these characteristics[83].
204
Standards for Permanent Records
It is now recognized world wide that the quality of books, records
and other documents is so enormous that unless some improvement is
introduced in the quality of paper on which the documents are printed or
written upon and also quality of storage materials is improved, it would be
impossible to preserve what is being produced today. Some standards have
been suggested by Hofenk de Graaff. They are mentioned below :
Composition and Cemical Requirements
1. Paper must be made from cotton or linen pulp fully bleached
wood pulp or a mixture of both. It must be totally free of
unbleached wood pulp or ground wood.
2. pH of paper must range between 7.5 to 9.5 measured by the cold
extraction method.
3. The paper must contain an alkaline buffer of calcium or
magnesium carbonate, minimum 2 % of the oven dry weight of
the paper, calculated as calcium carbonate.
4. The sizing of the paper must be neutral and should not contain
alum or alum-rosin.
Physical Requirements
1. The weight per sq.meter should be according to the requirement
of the document.
2. The average internal tearing resistance in each direction shall be
not less than 60 gms.
205
3. The minimum folding endurance, taking average of both
directions should not be less than 150 permanence.
4. After accelerated aging for 72 hrs at 1050C the internal tearing
strength and folding endurance must be at least 80 %.
Standards for Folders
Besides the suggested specifications for permanent papers,
specifications have also been suggested for file folders for storage. They are
as follows:
Composition and Chemical Requirements
1. Paper must be free of unbleached wood pulp or ground wood
(0.1%).
2. The pH of the cold extract of the paper must be between 7.5 –
9.5.
3. The paper must contain an alkaline buffer of calcium or
magnesium carbonate, at least 2 % of the weight of the paper.
4. The sizing of the paper must be neutral and should not contain
alum of alum rosin.
Physical Requirements
1. Weight per sq.meter is according to the need.
2. It should be white or of a light colour. If coloured, it should be water
resistant.
3. The internal resistance of the paper should be minimum 130 gms.
206
4. The minimum folding endurance, taking average of both directions,
should not be less than 300.
Permanence
After accelerated aging, the internal tearing resistance and folding
endurance must be at least 80 %[84].
FireFire is one of the greatest enemies posing danger for archivo library
materials. Other enemies of the records take some time to disrupt and
destroy the documentary wealth available in various forms, but fire takes no
time in doing so.
The nature of material housed in libraries is mostly inflammable and
even a neglected spark; may completely burn the house. Therefore, it is
essential to take care of documentary wealth of unique nature from fire, if
these are to be preserved for posterity.
While planning, strategies for prevention of fire in the archives and
libraries it is must to find out possible sources which may cause outbreak of
fire and such sources are nothing but smoking practices and short
circuiting. So first and foremost activity for prevention of any incident of
fire is the complete prohibiting of smoking practices in archival and library
buildings, specially in the areas where valuable documentary assets are
housing. Secondly, a special wiring system negating short-circuiting should
be adopted. Thirdly, all the possible points helping to cause short-circuiting
in the electrical wiring should be discouraged to make into practice.
Fourthly, sufficient fire fighting aids should be stockpiled in the vicinity of
respective buildings to meet any challenge of fire.
207
In order to control and combat it, following measures have to be
adopted in library buildings :
a. Sectional Wiring System
b. Detection of Fire
c. Fire Fighting aids, and
d. Evacuation.
Sectional Wiring System
In this system, whole of the stack space, housing valuable archives,
photographs records and books etc. is divided into small sections each
having of an independent wiring and operative system. The arrangement
will help in controlling the spread of fire. The area of such sections should
not exceed 200 sq. meters. Use of electric dempers is helpful in controlling
the outbreak of fire. Doors and partition material are to be conveniently
made fire proof by making use of fire resistant paints and other materials
abundantly available nowadays.
Detection of Fire
Timely detection of fire facilities is effective control of it. It is a fact
to be kept in mind. Fire involves smokes, heat and light and all the three
ingredients have been used for the detection of fire. Detectors making use
of smoke, heat and flame are known respectively as smoke detector, heat
detector and optical detector. But while deciding the appropriate fire
detectors to be installed in archives and libraries, it should be borne in mind
that fire occurring in library is generally slow to outbreak and to spread
since files tightly packed in bundles and cardboard boxes filled with
documents are not likely to burst into flames quickly. Secondly, library
material in the incipient stage, generates a large quantity of smoke,
208
followed by lights and heat. For this reason, fire detection system making
use of smoke and combustion gases are more appropriate than those which
works on ambient temperature rise. The significance of all the detection
systems is that they raise alarm just after the outbreak of fire and the
indicator panel of the system shows the location of place where fire has
broken.
Fire Fighting [Control]
Because of any reasons, if fire outbreaks and the same is detected,
the next important step is to control and combat it. For production of fire,
three elements are essential viz.
1. Combustible substance,
2. Presence of elements supporting combustion (air mixed with
oxygen) and heating agents, and
3. Absence of any of the elements, will certainly result in non-
production of fire.
Obviously, a fire can be ceased, if any of the element is trapped or
removed. Taking these facts into account, fire extinguishing aids have been
devised which are mentioned here :
1. Soda Acid Type Fire Extinguishers
Soda-acid type fire extinguishers, contain sulfuric acid and sodium
carbonate. At the moment of use, handle of extinguisher is stroke against a
hard surface, helping in mixing up the above constituent chemicals, which
react together to form carbon-dioxide and water. Due to the pressure of
carbon-dioxide gas in the extinguisher a powerful stream of liquid along
with gas comes out through a tube and extinguishes the fire. This type of
209
extinguisher on the one hand helps in combating the fire, but on the other
risks the safety of records because of presence of water and acid, which
may damage the record materials if they fall over them. Therefore, use of
this type of fire extinguisher is not safe, so far as preservation of records is
concerned.
2. Foam Type Fire Extinguisher
The working of foam type fire extinguisher is based on principle to
cut off the supply of atmospheric air to the burning substances. In
construction, foam type fire killers are very near to soda-acid type fire
extinguishers. The only difference is that in place of sulfuric acid, in foam
type extinguishers, solution of aluminum sulphate is taken and a little
amount of turkey red oil is mixed with sodium bicarbonate solution.
Aluminum sulphate produces sulfuric acid on hydrolysis which reacts with
sodium bicarbonate and these produce carbon-dioxide. The process of
reaction starts when the handle of extinguisher is pressed against hard
surface. Because of presence of turkey oil, a stable foam of carbon-dioxide
comes out of the extinguisher with great pressure and forms a layer, cutting
the contact of burning substances to the atmospheric air. Like soda type fire
extinguishers, foam type extinguishers are also not useful for archives and
libraries because of the presence of water and acid.
3. Carbon Tetrachloride Type Fire Extinguisher
This type of fire extinguisher work on the principle of cutting the
contact of burning substance to the oxygen of atmospheric air. Carbon
tetrachloride which is an organic liquid readily converts into its vapours
which are heavier than air. Secondly, this substances does not burn. On
pumping carbon tetrachloride from the extinguisher to the fire affected
place, if converts into vapours. Vapours being heavier than air settle down
210
on the burning material and cut off the air supply resulting in extinguishing
the fire. These extinguishers are very useful for combating fire caused by
electricity.
4. Carbon-dioxide type Fire Extinguisher
Carbon-dioxide is a gas which does not help combustion. By
reducing the percentage of oxygen in the fire affected area, it helps in
combating the fire since carbon-dioxide does not affect the documentary
wealth adversely during the process of combating fire and after it, it is ideal
fire fighting means for archives and libraries.
5. Powder type fire Extinguisher
Powders of non-combustible nature are available nowadays. When
these powders are poured over the fire hit substances, they deposit on
burning objects and cut off the contact of fire from the surrounding and
result in ceasing of fire. This system is not much suitable for fighting fire in
archives and libraries.
6. Aqua based fire Extinguisher – Water Filled
Deployment of these extinguisher in archives and libraries may
cause soilage of paper wealth by wetting them. In case of archives,
document written with water soluble inks, will disfigure, smudge and spoil
if water falls over them. Keeping this fact in view, an archives and library
should not depend on using water to combat fire incident.
Evacuation
Removal of combustible materials preferably documentary wealth
including carton boxes etc. from fire hit area to a safer place is known as
evacuation. This process not only helps in controlling the fire but also
211
guarantees safety of records and books etc. against fire hazards. Keeping
this in view, the archives or library building should be provisioned with
such areas where materials may be retired after the breakup of fire. Besides,
provisions of exits in stack areas will prove to be of extra help in
evacuation.
Besides few more points to be kept in view in this respect :
1. All the windows and ventilators should be covered with metal
grills and wire mesh, which will help in checking the fire
incidents planned by enemies from outside the building.
2. For effective control of fire, checking of all fire fighting
equipments and detectors etc. should be made periodically.
3. Main power switch board should be installed in a convenient
place in the out sphere of the building so that at the event of any
fire incidents, electric supply may be cut off for immediate
control of fire[85].
9. Curative Conservation
Before undertaking any conservation treatment, it is essential to
examine the object thoroughly, to ascertain firstly its nature, then to identify
the type of damage and thereafter prescribe treatment to be given to the
object. Only after detailed examination, it will be ascertained whether a
treatment is required or not[86].
Objectives of Examination :
The objective of the examination is to ascertain :
1. Nature of the material
212
2. Extent and type of damage
3. Type of ink
4. Condition of the paint
5. Acidity
6. Presence of old repairs
7. Numbering of papers
Nature of the Material
The conservator should first of all ascertain whether the
manuscript is written on paper or on some other material. In case it
is written on paper, it is useful to have an idea of the nature of the
paper. The examiner should also try to see whether the sizing is still
present in the paper or it has been destroyed.
Extent and Type of Damage
The main purpose of the examination of the paper document
is to ascertain the extent of deterioration or damage that has taken
place. Thus, the examiner should observe :
i. whether the manuscript is strong or has become weak ?
ii. whether it is soiled or possesses any dirt ?
iii. whether it is yellowed ?
iv. damage by insects or the presence of insects should also be
recognized
v. presence of fungi or damage by them should be noted
vi. any stains, and the nature of stains should be detected. Stains
may be caused by contact with water, oil, grease, ink or paint
etc.
vii. whether it has been affected by water at some time ?
213
viii. whether it has become soggy ?
ix. condition of the sizing material should be ascertained
x. whether it is broken in pieces or is liable to break when
touched or handled ?
xi. if there are any missing parts ?
xii. whether it is folded and broken at the crease ?
xiii. whether there are any old repairs or strips, hiding the writing?
xiv. if there are any wrinkles in the paper ?
The examiner should always make detailed notes of all the
observations, preferably in a proforma. It is also a good idea to add
the graphic as well as photographic documentation of the extent of
damage.
Type of Ink
The next step in the examination is to note whether the ink is
soluble in water or not. While examining the ink, it should also be
noted whether the ink has faded or altered and whether it has charred
or damaged the paper in any manner. It should also be observed
whether it has seeped into the fibres and has affected the other side.
The charring of paper is a clear symptom of the acidic nature of the
ink employed.
Nature of the Paint
Certain pigments especially verdigris, have a damaging effect
on paper. In the early stage, paper becomes brownish at the back of
the pigment, where it has been applied. In the next stage, the paper is
completely charred, holes are produced in those areas and paper in
those portions fall off. The solubility of the paint in water as well as
214
in some organic solvents like ethyl alcohol, toluene, acetone, etc.
should also be examined.
Another point to be noted in illustrated manuscripts is the
flaking of the pigments. Minute cracks may also be present in the
paint, and quite often these defects are not visible with the naked eye
and therefore examination with the stereomicroscope preferably with
an arrangement for viewing on a television monitor is most
beneficial.
Acidity
Acidity is the most potent damaging factor for paper and
therefore it is absolutely necessary to test for its presence or absence.
Acidity in paper may be determined by measuring the pH of the
extract of a portion of the manuscript in water. pH reading is taken
with a pH meter; a pH of 6.2 or lower is an indication of the
presence of acidity in paper. Another method to test the acidity is the
use of blue litmus paper. The document to be examined is moistured
with a drop of distilled water, blue litmus paper strip is laid over it
and slightly pressed with a glass rod. If the blue colour of the strip
turns red or pink, it is an indication of the presence of acid. After this
test, the moistured spot on the document should be dabbed with
ethyl alcohol to prevent the formation of water stain. pH paper strips
give better results then litmus paper. Since different colours develop
in the pH paper strip at different pH values, an indication of the pH
value is obtained by noting the colour developed.
215
Presence of Old Repairs
At the time of examination, it has to be checked whether any
old repairs are still present or not. If they have been done using right
type of material or if no damage has taken place on their account, it
may not be necessary to remove them. However, if there are any
patches of paper or glue tapes or sellotapes, they are most dangerous
and do not conform to good conservation practice, and in such cases,
the old repairs may have to be removed. Sometimes, the materials of
the old repair produce a stain on the painting or they themselves turn
acidic, while the original document may still be non-acidic. In such a
case, old repair should be removed.
Numbering
If the document has a single sheet, there is no difficulty of
numbering. On the other hand, if it is a manuscript having several
leaves, whether in loose form or in a bound form, numbering of the
leaves should be invariably checked. It should be examined whether
all the leaves are present or some of the pages are missing. Whether
they are in an order or are jumbled up and mixed. In case there is
any discrepancy, or the numbers of some pages have been lost, the
entire manuscript may have to be renumbered. Renumbering may be
done in the centre or in the right hand corner of the bottom of each
leaf. Renumbering is done with soft pencil so that it can be erased if
necessary. In case there are any broken sheets, they should also be
numbered giving a sub-number of the relevant pages.
Pattern of Examination
While conducting the examination, it is quite useful to divide the
document at least in three horizontal parts. This division is only imaginary
216
and not the actual physical division of the object. These three divisions may
be described as upper part, central part and lower part. Thus, the
observations are described in each segment separately[87].
Restoration aspects for minor deterioration
Restoration is most frequently needed in a conservation job. Repair
is only one part of the whole process of restoration i.e. examination,
fumigation, cleaning of de-acidification, sizing and repair or reinforcement
process. The method of repairs or any kind of treatment must be undertaken
with an awareness of the risks involved. So it should be undertaken only by
an experienced conservator. Documents, paper paintings, manuscripts and
books have intrinsic and individual values. So the principles for repairing
the paper should be observed as below :
Intrinsic Evidence
The process of repairing should do noting to remove,
diminish, falsify or obscure in any way, the documents intrinsic
evidence of its age, authenticity provenance and history.
Legibility
Repair material applied over areas of damaged text should not
unduly impair the text’s legibility.
Holes
Evidential holes should not be repaired unless they weaken
the fabric of the document.
Flexibility and thickness
217
The repaired part of the document including the actual joints
should as far as possible be as flexible as the undamaged part and
not thicker than necessary, particularly if the leaves are bound
together.
Reversibility
The whole method of the restoration should be reversible. If
not possible, the object should be saved at any cost even
irreversibility.
Materials
The amount of new material and adhesive used in any repair
should be kept to the minimum. Paper should be light and of
adequate strength. Excess of new material may be trimmed off,
provided that sufficient evidence is left of the extent of repair.
Before going to start any conservation, first thing is to apply
cleaning method. Cleaning often forms an important part of the
stabilizing process because dirt on the object can be a potent source
of deterioration.
Dirt can be classified into two categories :
1. Foreign Matter : The matter which is not the part of the
original but has later become mixed with it i.e. soot (carbon
particles), grease, adhesives and filling from old repair.
Sometimes, strains are penetrate into the paper fibre, i.e. oil stain,
blood stain, rust stain, tea or coffee stain, fungus stain and due to
acidic paper. It is also called stain.
218
2. Product of alteration : Some original material may change in
appearance or substance. It has formed through a chemical
combination of the original material with chemicals from the
environmental such as gases in the air or salts in solution from
the soil or by sea (a chemical reaction occurs between the dirt
and the object).
Conservator should be able to remove material which is in the wrong
place without removing the original material which is in right place.
Type of Cleaning
There are so many cleaning processes, which depend on the
condition of the object to neutralize them i.e.
1. Mechanical Cleaning/ Dry Cleaning
Dusting and polishing.
Picking methods for removing solid layers.
Cleaning with erasers.
Cleaning with mini vacuum cleaner but blower is not
recommended.
2. Aqueous Cleaning
Dampening of the object.
Spray or brush.
Immersion in water bath.
Floating on a water bath.
Cleaning with wet blotter between the poly thene sheet.
3. Non – Aqueous Cleaning
219
Quality of Adhesives
An adhesive used in document repair work should have the
following qualities :
pH value should be within the range of 6 to 9
It should be free from hygroscopic material which means that it
does not absorb moisture from atmosphere.
The adhesive should be colourless and not liable to subsequent
discolouration.
The adhesive should be easily removable without damage to
document.
The adhesive should not shrink excessively on drying.
It should not affect any colouring matter on the document.
Quality of New Paper
Repair paper should be chosen to suit the paper to be repaired and its
condition and future use. It should be checked for its suitability before
repair.
All repair papers should be within the range of 6 to 9 pH.
The paper should be lignin-free without any mechanical wood
fibre.
The texture and felt mark should be compatible with the original.
The thickness of new paper should be compatible with the
original, preferably slightly thinner.
The flexibility of paper should be maintained as that of the
original one[88].
De-acidification of Documents
The one of the main causes of deterioration of paper object is the
presence of acidity in them. The acid residue in paper at the manufacturing
220
stage causes its deterioration at a rapid pace. Therefore, removal of acidity,
or de-acidification as the process is called, is of utmost importance for
conservation of paper. Any other treatment like lamination, relining,
binding etc. is of no value, if the paper documents have not been de-
acidified.
Sources of paper acidity
Acidity in paper can come by any one of the following ways :
i. from sulpher dioxide present in the atmosphere which is
converted to sulphuric acid in the presence of moisture.
ii. from the chemicals like bleaching solutions used in the
manufacture of paper.
iii. from carboxyl groups produced by oxidation of cellulose
brought about by the process of bleaching at the time of
manufacture of the paper or during conservation treatment.
iv. from the partial or total hydrolysis of the alum (potassium
aluminum sulphate) mixed into the paper either alone or with
gelatin, at the time of manufacture of paper.
v. Alum (Aluminum sulphate) used in Rosin-alum sizing of
paper from 1807 onwards. Partially hydrolyzed alum attaches
itself to the cellulose and can not be readily removed.
The exact source of acidity can be known only after the particular
document is examined by the conservator. Oxidation, which takes place on
account of the presence of metallic ions, produces local discolouration, for
example foxing, which sometimes may affect the entire document. Presence
of fungi also indicate an acidic paper.
Consideration for de-acidification
221
Some of the important requirements of de-acidification are as
follows :
i. the process ideally should not only de-acidify but should also
leave a buffering chemical in the paper which will prevent
them from becoming acidic again, even when it is stored in an
acidic atmosphere.
ii. pH value of about eight is most suitable for permanent paper.
iii. De-acidification treatment should not affect paper, ink, dye,
or the pigment in any manner.
iv. The de-acidification treatment should be able to remove acids
present in the paper. This requirement is unfortunately not
met by some of the non-aqueous and vapour phase de-
acidification systems.
v. If there is any chemical remaining in the paper, it should be
neutral or slightly alkaline. It should also be ensured that the
remaining alkalinity should not be very high otherwise it will
also oxidise cellulose.
vi. The process of de-acidification should not leave any stain or
film on the surface of the document. Sometimes, some de-
acidification processes leave a white film on the surface.
vii. The entire thickness of the paper should be de-acidified and
not only the surface. The de-acidification solution should
penetrate the document completely in a short period of time.
viii. The entire paper must be neutralized uniformly and not in
patches.
ix. At the end of the document, the paper should have a pH of 7 –
8.
x. The paper should have an alkaline reserve equivalent to 2%
calcium carbonate for maximum permanence.
222
xi. The de-acidification treatment should not impart any type of
smell in the document. The paper or the leather binding
should not discolour by the de-acidification treatment.
xii. The treated paper should be non-toxic to humans.
xiii. The treatment should be economically viable[89].
De-acidification processes
Several processes have been introduced to effectively neutralize the
acidity in paper and arrest its deterioration action. Methods may be
categorized under the following headings :
1. Aqueous De-acidification
a. Calcium hydroxide solution followed by treatment with calcium
bicarbonate.
b. Solution of magnesium bicarbonate.
c. Dilute solution of sodium carboxy methyl cellulose.
2. Non-aqueous De-acidification
a. Solution of barium hydroxide in methyl alcohol.
b. Magnesium methoxide in methyl fluorinated hydrocarbon
solvent.
c. Magnesium acetate – polyvinyl acetate solution.
3. Vapour Phase De-acidification
a. Ammonium hydroxide.
b. Morpholine
c. Cyclohexylamine carbonate.
d. Diethyl Zinc.
223
4. Solid Phase De-acidification
Magnesium acetate in Polyvinyl Acetic Film.
Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages. There
are documents and manuscripts for which aqueous solutions can not be
used at all, for instance when the ink or the paint is soluble in water. There
may be many cases in which non-aqueous methods can not be used[90].
Aqueous De-acidification Methods
Some aqueous de-acidification methods have been used for the
removal of acidity from paper documents. Water based neutralized methods
have a great advantage which supersedes other techniques because water
itself is a very good solvent of acids present in the paper and can remove
them.
There are two main aqueous de-acidification methods :
1. Calcium Hydroxide – Calcium bicarbonate process
2. Magnesium bicarbonate process
1. Calcium Hydroxide – Calcium bicarbonate Process
This probably is the most popular and easy de-acidification process.
In this method, there are two steps. The first step after washing is
immersing of the document for 15 minutes in a saturated solution of
calcium hydroxide, which is lime. Lumps of lime are soaked in water and
allowed to stand overnight or more. Some amount of lime passes into
solution till it becomes saturated. The concentration of the saturated
solution is about 0.15 %. After taking out the document from this solution,
it is placed in a second solution of 0.15 % calcium bicarbonate solution.
The object is immersed in the solution for 15 – 20 minutes. At this stage,
224
the calcium hydroxide still remaining in the paper is converted to calcium
carbonate filling the pores of the paper and as a result acts as buffer against
future acidity.
At the end of the reaction, calcium carbonate is precipitated on the
fibres of the paper. Any acidity for example produced by sulphur dioxide of
the atmosphere reacts with calcium carbonate to neutralize the acid.
2. Magnesium bicarbonate Process
Another process using magnesium bicarbonate which is a single
solution technique was recommended by W.H. Barrow. In this technique,
the paper is immersed in a bath of 0.2 % solution of magnesium
bicarbonate in water. Magnesium bicarbonate is alkaline and neutralize the
acidity present in the paper. Excess magnesium bicarbonate remaining in
the paper in contact with carbondioxide of the atmosphere is converted to
magnesium carbonate, which gets deposited in the fibres of the paper and
acts as a buffering agent to neutralize acidity which might develop in
future. After immersing magnesium bicarbonate in this solution, the
document is removed from the bath and is dried in air.
Non-aqueous De-acidification Processes
In non-aqueous de-acidification treatment an organic solvent with a
neutralization chemical is used. The organic solvent would normally not
affect the ink or pigment. Since organic solvent evaporates quickly,
generally cockling or distortion of paper does not take place. Several
chemicals like barium hydroxide, magnesium acetate, magnesium
methoxide and cyclohexylamine have been used for neutralization.
225
Barium Hydroxide Process
A method involving a solution of barium hydroxide in methyl
alcohol for the de-acidification of paper documents, written with water
soluble inks was developed by Baynes – Cope of the British Museum
Conservation Laboratory. The method is also useful for neutralizing fragile
documents which can not be treated by water based solutions. In this
method, a solution of barium hydroxide is prepared by dissolving 1.86 gms.
of barium hydroxide octahydrate in 100 ml of methyl alcohol. The
document is either immersed in the solution taken in a tray, or the solution
is brushed or sprayed on the paper. After treatment the document is dried in
the air. The barium hydroxide solution neutralizes the acidity and the
remaining part is converted to barium carbonate by the action of carbon
dioxide present in the atmosphere. The barium carbonate remains in the
paper fibres and acts as buffer to nullify the acidity developed in future.
While using the solution of barium hydroxide in methyl alcohol, utmost
care is necessary because methyl alcohol is highly inflammable and also
toxic.
This non-aqueous de-acidification process has been frequently used
in the laboratories of the National Museum, National Research Laboratory
for Conservation of Cultural Property, Lucknow and also the INTACH
Indian Conservation Institute, Lucknow.
Magnesium Acetate Process
A method was developed using magnesium acetate dissolved in
polyvinyl acetate organic solvent. The solution is 4-6%. It is reported that
entire books may be treated by this method. The book is immersed in the
solution, removed from it and kept so that the solution is drained off. Air is
directed towards the books to dry them. Polyvinyl butyral also imparts
226
some strength to the paper because it acts as a sizing. However, it is feared
that the resin may have some long term ill effect. In any case, the document
becomes slightly stiff.
Vapour Phase De-acidification
Since wet treatment as well as organic solvent treatment sometimes
affects susceptible type of inks, dyes and pigments, a need was felt for the
development of gaseous or vapour phase de-acidification systems, which
obviously have certain advantages. Since the document is not to be treated
by any solvent, the ink and dyes are not effected by or damaged in any
manner. Also gases penetrate the object more thoroughly than the water
solutions or solvents.
Ammonium Hydroxide
A very interesting vapour phase de-acidification method was
proposed by Mr. Y.P. Kathpalia of the National Archives of India. This
method is based on the use of ammonium hydroxide. The manuscripts,
documents and books needing de-acidification are exposed to ammonia
vapours in a sealed chamber. Ammonium hydroxide diluted (1 : 10) is
taken in a glass bowl and kept inside the chamber. The ammonia vapours
are produced inside and they neutralize the acidity in the paper after an
exposure of about 24 hours. The process does not affect the paper or the
water-soluble inks or pigments in any manner. It was observed that the pH
of treated papers was raised to 6.8 and 7.2 and no deposit of any type was
found on the surface of the paper. The process was used in the National
Archives, New Delhi and some laboratories in the U.S.S.R.
227
Morpholine
Walker introduced a vapour phase de-acidification method useful for
books based on impregnation with a mixture of morpholine vapour and
water vapour. In this process, the books or manuscripts which are to be
deacidified are placed in an air-tight chamber and most of the air is
removed from the chamber with a vacuum pump to bring down the pressure
inside to 0.5 to 1.0 torr. A mixture of morpholine vapour and water vapour
is introduced in the chamber for about 10 minutes. The morpholine vapours
are alkaline and they completely penetrate the documents. Whatever
morpholine vapour remains inside is exhausted and thereafter air is
admitted in the chamber to remove the remaining gas. The morpholine from
the chamber is absorbed in a water bath and then taken down to the drain so
that free morpholine does not enter the room. It is reported that the process
is effective in de-acidifying the documents. However, there are some
drawbacks in the system. First of all, morpholine has a very strong foul
smell. More importantly, sometimes morpholine changes pyroxylin and
leather book bindings. It is observed that the colour of leather binding is
considerably darkened. Also certain types of paper get yellowed[91].
The Repair, Restoration and Mending of Books
After cleaning, washing and de-acidification, manuscripts require
some restoration and repair work, which may consist of flattening, resizing,
minor or major repairs to impart strength to the document. Those
documents, which have become extremely brittle, may need major repairs.
For any repair work, there are certain pre-requisites which are
mentioned below :
228
1. The original quality of the paper document or the manuscripts,
including its texture, nature of written material and painting
should not be altered in any manner.
2. The repair must be aesthetically pleasing.
3. The repaired portion should be easily visible.
4. The writing or the painting should not be damaged in any
manner.
5. It should be possible to remove the repair without damage to the
original.
6. All chemicals and materials employed for restoration work
should be durable and permanent, chemically as well as
physically.
7. The economics of the process should also be worked out so that
it does not become unduly costly[92].
Steps of Repair
i. Flattening
ii. Resizing
iii. Minor Repairs
iv. Reinforcement of paper
Flattening
In this process, any folds, wrinkles or distortions in the documents
are removed before undertaking any repair work. Very often wrinkles and
folds are formed in paper documents. If the fold is removed beforehand, the
eventuality of this break may be avoided.
229
Flattening Process
The paper is opened with care and spread on a plastic net fitted on a
wooden stretcher. The document is placed in a special humidification
cabinet. The humidity inside the chamber is increased by introducing cool
steam. The relative humidity is maintained at about 90% for some time.
Normally 30 minutes to 45 minutes will suffice. The documents which at
this stage are thoroughly damp are removed from the humidity chamber.
They are placed individually between blotting papers and pressed with
slightly hot iron, till all folds, creases and wrinkles are flattened. Iron
should not be brought in direct contact with the paper document.
Sometimes, there is a tendency to apply water on the folds only. This
tendency should not be used, otherwise the paper may get stained.
Another method for flattening paper documents, the ink of which
does not bleed, is used at the Indian Conservation Institute, Lucknow,
NRLC, Lucknow and also at National Museum, New Delhi. In this process,
the document is wetted in water bath, or with a moist brush placed on a
smooth flat surface, and folds removed with a stiff flat brush and then
allowed to dry. At this stage, strips of a strong white paper are pasted on the
edges of the document, half with of which covers the document and the
other half comes on the table or the surface on which the document is
placed. However, this process of flattening is possible only if the margin in
the document is not of great importance and can be sacrificed.
In another technique, the document is placed on a piece of polythene
sheet and moistened with a brush. The relaxed object is covered with
another piece of polythene and pressed with a sponge. Separately, a
‘terylene’ cloth is pasted and spread flat over an acrylic sheet with a thin
paste. The document with the covering polythene film is transferred over
230
the ‘terylene’ cloth and flattened with a sponge. The covering polythene
sheet is removed and the document allowed to dry. The document is held in
position by the terylene cloth and so there is no need to apply the strips on
the document edges to hold them on the table top. Thus, in this process, the
edges are not damaged.
Resizing
Sometimes on account of the action of water or fungi, paper
becomes weak due to the decay of the sizing material. Paper becomes limp
and loses its crispness. When the sizing of the paper is lost, it gets easily
stained and is further damaged. Resizing is necessary after the document
has been cleaned, washed or de-acidified, a process in which the sizing
material is also lost. Before sizing is carried out, the ink of the manuscript
must be tested with water. Any ink, which bleeds with water, has to be
protected by the application of a solution of 3% polyvinyl acetate in
sulpher-free toluene or a solution of cellulose film in acetone. Such
documents have to be sized very carefully and with great care.
The papers which are highly brittle can not be resized without some
damage.
Resizing Process
a. Natural Sizing Materials
1. Glue
A 2.5 % solution of glue in water has been used as a sizing
solution. The solution heated to about 45 0 C is applied on the paper
to be resized or the paper sheet is passed through the hot glue
solution and after the excess solution is drained off, it is hung up to
dry.
231
2. Gelatin
A 3% solution of pure gelatin has also been used for sizing. A
clear solution is prepared by gently heating gelatin in the required
quantity of water. The solution after staining through muslin cloth is
used hot at a temperature between 43–45 0 C. The paper sheet is
passed through the gelatin bath and hung up to dry on a cord.
3. Parchment Pieces
Pieces of parchment are also used to prepare the sizing
solution. The application method is the same as far the gelatin.
a. Synthetic Sizing Materials
In certain cases when the paper document is too weak to be treated
with water or if ink is susceptible to water, certain synthetic chemicals can
be used as a size. The idea is that these synthetic chemicals dissolve in
organic solvents and do not effect the ink.
Some of the synthetic chemicals useful for sizing are mentioned
below :
i. Methyle Cellulose
Unlike glue and gelatin, methyl cellulose is soluble in cold water. It
is also soluble in some organic solvents such as dimethyl formamide and
dimethyl sulphoxide. A 1% solution in a solvent according to need is
applied on the document with a stiff flat brush. One great advantage of
methyl cellulose is its resistance to the growth of fungus.
232
ii. Soluble Nylon
A form of Nylon called methyl methoxynylon has been found useful
for sizing paper. This chemical is soluble in methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol
or methylated spirit, hence the name ‘soluble nylon’. A 1.5% solution is
sprayed or brushed on to the document. Work must be carried out in a fume
cupboard or in a room in which effective exhaust fans are fitted.
iii. Polyvinyl Alcohol
Polyvinyl alcohol has also been used for sizing of paper.
iv. Methyl Hydroxy Ethyl Cellulose
1% solution of Methyl Hydroxy ethyl cellulose dissolved in water
has also been used as a sizing material. It possesses some very desirable
properties.
It has been suggested that sizing and de-acidification may be done in
one step rather than in two steps. It gives excellent results. In fact it has
been found that simultaneous sizing and de-acidification improves the
mechanical strength of paper. The tensile strength of paper sometimes
becomes two or even four times its initial value[93].
Minor Repairs
Some documents which are only slightly damaged may need only
minor repairs. For instance sometimes there may be a small tear on a corner
missing or small holes in the sheet, for example insect holes or some
missing parts which can be easily repaired without requiring any special
equipment. Such small damages can be restored readily by minor repairs[94].
233
a. Mending of Tears
Torn pages probably mark the first injury to a book, and they may be
mended in any of the following ways :
If the tear does not affect the printing, cut a strip of thin but tough
paper half an inch wide, a little longer than the tear. Cover the strip with
paste and then lay it carefully on the paper over the tear, being sure to see
that both edges of the tear have been brought together evenly. The strip
should project slightly beyond the tear on the sound side of the paper and
slightly beyond the edge also; trim the overhang along the edge with a pair
of shears or scissors. A good way to paste mending strips is to spread the
paste evenly on a piece of glass and lay the strip on it. Lift the strip and
enough paste should adhere to it just enough, not too much or too little.
When the tear extends into the print, put a small bit of paste on the torn
edge and place them together. Then take a piece of soft mending tissue and
rub it gently over the tear in a way to make the tissue adhere to the torn
edges. Then put the paper into the book press or under a weight until it is
dry. Tear off the superfluous tissue, taking care always to pull towards the
tear from both sides. The delicate, soft fibres of the tissues act as binder,
and when the task has been well done, it is almost impossible to see how
the mend has been accomplished. Impregnated tissue paper strips can also
be used for repair of tears in documents. The impregnated tissue paper is
prepared by applying a mixture of polyvinyl acetate emulsion, water and
ethyl alcohol. To prepare the sheet, it is placed over a glass plate and the
solution is applied over the paper either by spray or with a brush. The tissue
paper is then allowed to dry. After it is dried, the glass plate along with the
tissue paper is kept in water for a few minutes. After which the tissue paper
can be easily peeled off the glass plate and hung on a cord to dry.
Whenever a tear is to be repaired, this impregnated tissue is cut and applied
234
on the tear and pressed with a slightly warm iron, first of all covering the
tissue with silicon paper. The impregnating adhesive softens with heat and
gets attached to the document. Whenever necessary, the repair can be
undone with a dab of ethyl alcohol[95].
Repairing Corners
A page that has been dogeared and lost a corner, can be repaired in
following ways :
i. Cut out a piece of handmade paper of a similar thickness as
the original.
ii. Slightly reduce the thickness of the document as well as of
the repair paper at the edges to be joined[96].
iii. Apply a thin paste on the edge of the document.
iv. Place the repair paper in position and press[97].
Filling Holes
The small holes in a document are filled with paper fibres. The paper
for preparing the fibre suspension is selected carefully, so that it matches
with that of the original. For this operation of filling the holes, a light table
in which light is passed through the frosted glass is useful. A small strip of
tissue paper is placed on a glass sheet, made wet and a drop of paste is also
applied on that spot. The paper fibres are separated with the help of a
scalpel from the strips and mixed with the paste on the glass and a few
fibres are taken out with a tweezer and filled inside the hole. More fibres
are filled in till it reaches slightly above the level of document. The volume
of the filled fibres decreases on drying. When it is semi dried, the filled in
hole is smoothened from both the sides with a spatula and allowed to dry.
In the same manner, other holes in the document are also filled in[98].
235
A machine known as Leaf-Casting machine has been developed for
filling small holes and torn edges at a rapid speed [99]. Depending upon the
size of the machine, several sheets can be repaired in one operation. The
basic principle of leaf casting is sucking paper pulp suspension through the
document placed over the bed of the machine, thereby filling holes in the
document[100]. The first experiment in leaf casting as a mechanical method
of infilling missing areas in damaged papers were carried out by Nyuksha
in late 1950s[101].
Reinforcement of Weak Paper
A document, which has become fragile or brittle due to different
causes is to be reinforced physically so that it is strengthened for study,
storage or display. In such a case, minor repairs will not suffice[102].
Preparation of the Document before Reinforcement
A document is reinforced only when it has lost its strength and no
other technique will succeed. Before reinforcing, all the steps of cleaning,
removal of stains, de-acidification etc. are completed. The document is then
thoroughly examined for any patches of old repair, which might have been
used earlier for repair of any tears or holes. The old repairs are generally of
the following types :
1. Small strips to mend the tears
2. Sellotape to repair torn document
3. Cellulose acetate foil lamination
4. Chiffon repair
Such repairs are removed by using suitable solvents. Sellotape can
be removed with the application of dicholoro ethylene. The solvent is
236
applied on the strip and an attempt is made to seep it below the sellotape.
When it is loosened, it is lifted off with a pointed tweezer. Although it is
said that cellulose acetate lamination is reversible, in practice, removal of
old cellulose acetate foils, poses several problems. For removal of cellulose
acetate, the document is placed in the acetone bath in an enamel tray. By
this treatment, the cellulose acetate becomes like a gel and sticky but is not
completely dissolved out of paper.
A technique of removing cellulose acetate foil has been evolved at
the Indian Conservation Institute, Lucknow. In this technique, acetone is
first of all chilled in a refrigerator, and then poured in a enamel tray. The
document is placed in cool acetone. At low temperature, the evaporation of
acetone is retarded. In cool acetone, cellulose acetate is not dissolved but
gets separated from the document and can be lifted almost like a leaf. Using
this method, very good results have been achieved in a number of cases. It
is now in regular use at ICI. For removal of chiffon from a document, the
document is moistened by applying water with a flat brush. The brush must
be barely humid and not too humid. In recent times, enzymes have been
used in many laboratories for removal of old repairs by reacting with
adhesive of the repair[103]. Enzymes are natural proteins having a capacity to
act as catalyst in many chemical reactions[104].
Reinforcement by Full Lining
Those documents which have writing only on one side of the paper
and the other side is blank can be reinforced by lining a tissue paper from
the back, using a paste. A good tissue paper is used for this purpose[105].
Napalese tissue paper or Japanese tissue paper have been found of great use
for lining. They have certain characteristics which other papers do not
possess. If they are not available, hand-made rag paper which should have a
237
good spreading power can be used. In India, a tissue paper prepared with
banana fibres has been developed which is as good as Japanese tissue
paper[106].
Both Sides Lamination by Pasting
A paper document that has become very fragile and has writing on
both the sides can only be reinforced by pasting a very thin Japanese tissue
paper or chiffon on both sides of the paper to give it a support[107]. In India,
a transparent paper called “Kela Paper’ of 9 GSM has been produced which
is equally good. The objective of this procedure is to provide as transparent
support to the document as possible. Success of the lamination will mostly
depend on the quality of the Japanese tissue paper or chiffon. It also
depends on the skill of the restorer. This technique of repair should be used
only when the document can not be saved by any other method, because
there is some loss of transparency and certainly of the texture of the
paper[108].
Inlay Process
Those documents which are otherwise strong and are written on both
sides are repaired by the process known as “Inlaying” which means framing
of the document in new sheets of handmade paper. The method is also used
in those cases in which the edges have been damaged and it is required to
bring some uniformity to the documents[109].
Lamination with Cellulose Acetate
Sometimes, paper documents which are written on both sides and are
in a bad state may be repaired by laminating between two sheets of a
synthetic film. This technique, once very popular, is slowly being given up,
because long term effect of this film has not been found to be beneficial.
238
The film mostly used for lamination is cellulose acetate film of 23 micron
thickness and Japanese tissue paper of 9 GSM. The film is fixed to the
document with heat applied in a laminating machine or by acetone
lamination[110].
Encapsulation
Encapsulation of documents is now widely used. It can however be
used for unbound documents to which it provides a very good physical
protection. It is carried out without any expensive equipment, although for
neat results, a polyester sealing machine is now available. This treatment is
stable, causing no damage to the document.
In this process, the document is placed between two polyester sheets,
which keep the manuscript in position with electrostatic charge of the
polyster. The edges of the envelope are sealed by using either a double-
sided adhesive tape or with the polyster sealing machines[111].
Paper – Splitting Technique
Another method which has been suggested and is in use in Germany
is known as paper-splitting[112]. In this method, the paper is split into two, a
very thin tissue paper is inserted in between to reinforce the sheet in the
middle. Since tissue paper is inserted into the middle of the two layers of
the paper, it is not visible on either side of the document. Thus, it is
different than the other techniques. If there are any missing areas, the
method can be combined with leaf casting[113].
Removal of Backings
239
Sometimes, it becomes necessary to remove a board or a paper
earlier used as support for a document. There may be several reasons for
the removal of the paper or board used as backing. Some of these are :
1. Alteration in the original documents through transfer of
deteriorating agencies from the poor quality board or paper.
2. Too weak mount-board incapable of supporting the original
document any more.
3. The supporting board gets deformed.
4. When the repair of the original document is possible only by
removing the supporting board and relining with a new one.
5. When the characteristics of the board and the original documents
are dissimilar.
Removal Technique
The process of removal can be categorised as :
Mechanical
Using Solvents
Using Steam
Mechanical Methods
Mechanical method, if feasible is the best method because it does
not introduce any chemical in the documents. When the adhesive used for
pasting the document on the board becomes weak, mechanical process of
removal of the board works best. A spatula, preferably made of bamboo or
plastic, with a blunt point is inserted between the document and the mount-
board, simultaneously attempting to separate them. If there is no harm in
sacrificing the old mount-board, and if the board is composed of several
layers, it is better to remove the board layer by layer.
240
By use of Solvents
Whenever, mechanical removal is not possible, or is too dangerous,
some solvents which will dissolve or swell the adhesive is introduced with
a dropper or with a cotton swab, while the board is being loosened from the
original document with the help of a spatula. The most common solvent is
water, which is always applied with a blotting paper or cotton swab. In
recent times, enzymes have been used to remove old backing papers and
boards. Before using enzyme solution their likely effect on inks, sizing and
pigments must be taken into account.
By Steam
Steam can also be used for removing backing boards. Its great
advantage is that the moisture – effect is very little. As a result wrinkling or
the risk of stain formation is minimized. Steam, hot or cold as the need may
be is directed at the back of the board. When it is slightly humidified,
removal is easier. An ultrasonic steam generator is extremely useful. The
ultrasonic steam generator can emit cold steam or hot steam if required. The
steam is directed towards the papers and when they are slightly loose, a
blunt plastic spatula is inserted inside, trying to loosen the paper. It should
be ensured that too much force is not applied, otherwise the document may
be torn. If the old repair is not affected by cold steam, hot steam can be
tried[114].
10. CONSERVATION/ PRESERVATION ACTIVITIES AT NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVEL
Conservation of organic materials, which are bound to decay with
the passage of time and exhaust because of use, has become an important
aspect of the modern society. Efforts are being made at international and
241
national level to save the cultural property of the nation. Many
organizations and institutes have been developed to discuss the problems
related to conservation and to suggest techniques and measures to solve the
problem. At international level, UNESCO, ICCROM, AIC (American
Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works), IIC
(International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works) are
engaged in saving the cultural property of the nations. These organizations
are doing commendable job by providing training and conducting
workshops in conservation. They also provide financial assistance to the
institutions which are not self sufficient in saving their cultural heritage on
their own. The activities of such organizations and institutes have been
described here in the following paragraphs.
1. UNESCO
UNESCO was established in November 1954 with headquarters in
Paris. It is financed by contributions from members of the United Nations.
UNESCO operates through its sovereign body, the General Assembly and
by conferences, committees, publications, grants, scholarships and where
necessary by representatives of the Director General being appointed to
undertake missions abroad to advice, report and even to take executive
action within the terms of the contract.
In order to meet ever-increasing demands, UNESCO encouraged the
creation of two non-governmental organizations, first ICOM (The
International Council of Museum) which concentrates on the problems of
museums and galleries and more recently ICOMOS (The International
Council on Monuments and Sites), specializing in the matter of monuments
and sites of interest to architects, planners and engineers. These two non-
242
governmental organizations are complementary to each other, each
promoting the interests of UNESCO.
UNESCO has become a kind of umbrella organization for all major
enterprises in the conservation of cultural property, but there were still
demands that UNESCO could not meet, problems involving technical
training, especially in the developing countries, establishment of regional
laboratories and setting up of permanent advisory panel of experienced
museum scientific experts in all types of conservation work. To overcome
these deficiencies, the solution found by UNESCO was to create an entirely
new organization modelled basically on its own structure.
Accordingly in 1959, a new institution was established viz. the
International Centre for the Study of Preservation and the Restoration of
Cultural Property. As this title was found to be much too cumbersome, the
centre was rechristened ICCROM, signifying, the International Centre for
Conservation, ROME. Following an agreement negotiated with the Italian
Government, the new centre was to be based in Rome and it came into
operation officially when five nations had joined to form the original
nucleus.
Its income was to come from any nations (already members of
UNESCO) who elected to become member, the annual donation for
membership amounting to 1% of their annual donation to UNESCO.
UNESCO itself giving additional financial support during the formative
years. The centre was managed by a Council – consisting of a number of
permanent members and other elected members. The permanent members
were representative from UNESCO, the Directors of ICOM and ICOMOS,
the Director of the Istituto centrale del Restauro in Rome and the Director
of IRPA in Brussels. The elected members were from the different
243
countries adhering to the centre. The council met each year and arranged
the programme of work.
Apart from the regular growth in membership, the most important
event in the life of the centre took place in 1970 when the Government
generously offered new headquarters in a wing of the 17th century historic
building called Ospizio di San Michele, which lies on the south bank of the
Tiber. The centre is now housed in this wing[115].
2. ICCROM (International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property)
ICCROM is an inter-governmental organization with its
headquarters in Rome. It was created by UNESCO in 1956 at the 9 th
General Conference in New Delhi and established in Rome in 1959. It is
the only institution of its kind with a world-wide mandate dealing with the
conservation of all types of cultural heritage. It currently has 95 member
states and 53 worlds leading conservation institutions as Associate
members.
Collection Programme
Since its inception, ICCROM has been active in the field of
conservation of collections. In order to respond better to the growing and
diversified demands of its member states, for 2000-2005 ICCROM has built
a concentrated and strengthened collections programme. Museums, libraries
and archives have always faced the double challenge of conserving
collections for future generations while at the same time, making those
collections available for enjoyment and education of the community. The
collection programme will explore ways to reconcile these conflicting
priorities, highlighting the importance of an integrated approach to heritage
care.
244
Structure
The programme is organized in five inter-related lines of action and
includes a regular review component.
1. Professional Development
With key institutions involved in mid-career training at national,
regional or international level, ICCROM will engage in formulating and
implementing education and training activities for professional
development.
2. Institutional Projects
The aim is to stimulate and support institutions to analyse,
experiment with and improve the way in which conservation is integrated in
their activities and services to the community.
3. Debates on Directions
The aim is to foster the development of appropriate new attitudes
and knowledge. Controversial fields at the current ‘margins’ of
conservation activity will be debated, through the web page, international
panels or publications.
4. Support Service
ICCROM will continue to provide ad hoc and tailored support to
institutional requests concerned with the implementation of integrated
conservation. The support will range from making reference materials
available to providing advice on specific problems, orientations and
guidance on specific research or project etc.
245
5. Participating Building
ICCROM will support and advise its partners on their respective
strategies for integrated conservation. All networks (regional or thematic)
will be incorporated to ensure the growth of as many links and points of
contact worldwide as possible.
6. Biennial Review Process
Partners and people involved in the design and implementation of
collections programme will also participate in its regular review. The
review process will also involve beneficiaries.
ICCROM seeks to increase the awareness and support of
conservation of everyone from school children to decision makers in every
continent. It aspires through conservation, to make cultural heritage
meaningful and useful to the benefit of people in every part of the globe[116].
3. The American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC)
AIC is the national membership organization of conservation
professionals dedicated to preserving the art and historic artifacts of our
cultural heritage for future generations. AIC advances the practice and
promotes the importance of the preservation of cultural property by
establishing and upholding professional standards and coordinating the
exchange of knowledge, research and publications[117]. AIC also publishes
directory for the use of AIC members.
246
4. The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC, London)
The object is to provide a permanent organization to coordinate and
improve the knowledge methods and working standards needed to protect
and preserve and to maintain the condition and the integrity of any objects
or structures which because of their history, significance, rarity or
workmanship have a commonly accepted value and importance for the
common goal, to take any action conducive to the bettering of the condition
of Historic and Artistic works, to take any action necessary to further
understanding and controlling of the causes of deterioration of Historic and
Artistic works, to maintain standards in the practice of conservation and to
combat any influences which would tend to lower such standards, to
provide facilities for consultation and to supervise and direct the conduct of
activities of conservation, to provide facilities for the interchange of ideas
between the members of the Institute, to do all such other things as are
incidental or conducive to the attainment of the above objects[118].
5. Institute of Paper Conservation
Until the spring of 1976 no international specialist organization
existed to address the situation faced by conservator. At that time, British
paper conservators decided to respond by forming a paper group as a
section of the United Kingdom. Group of the International Institute for
Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works. In December 1977, this
became the independent Institute of Paper Conservation, functioning as the
principal international body representing those concerned with paper and
related conservation matters and preserving close links with other
conservation organizations. Its intention is to provide a forum for the
exchange of information and ideas in the main field of paper conservation
and a focus for professional awareness that will be helpful to conservation
247
craftsmen and scientists as well as to curators of cultural institutions,
collectors and commercial entities involved with conservation. Its annual
journal is the Paper Conservator.
6. The Cambridge 1980 Conference
Preceding the formation of the Institute of Paper Conservation, the
society of Archivists (a British body whose members belonged to the realm
of professional activists) formed a Technical Committee in 1959 which
concerned itself with conservation.
In 1973, the society instituted an In-Service Training Scheme for
Archive Conservators working within its member institutions. Since 1959,
the society has organized an annual meeting for archive conservators which
over the years has become the most important venue of any duration in the
British Isles for the exchange of information relating not solely to archives
but to a wide range of paper conservation matters. As the institute become
established as a functioning part of the conservation world, there was an
increasing volume of requests that it hold an international conference to
consolidate much that was being achieved. This International Conference
was held from Sept. 22 – 26, 1980 with over 500 participants from 38
countries[119].
Conservation Movement in India
India is one of those very few countries which took the initiative of
preserving her cultural heritage on a scientific basis at a very early date.
Today, there are several conservation laboratories and departments to look
after the nation’s cultural property, although it must be admitted that even
these are not sufficient in number.
248
1. National Archives of India
National Archives of India at New Delhi is the premier institution in
the country for records storage and archival work. It has its genesis in the
Imperial Record Department (IRD) which was established in 1891 with its
main objective of maintaining the records of the Government of India. The
Imperial Record Department after independence, with increased scope and
responsibilities was reorganized in 1947 as National Archives of India[120].
Functions of National Archives of India
The main functions of NAI are :
1. To appraise the current and non-current records which are 25
years old of the Central Government Offices;
2. To acquire the public and private records of permanent and
historical importance.
3. To rehabilitate and restore the brittle records.
4. To prepare the reference media.
5. To render technical advice to the Central Government
Department and State Archives.
6. To keep contacts with the national and international archives
association.
Resources of National Archives of India
The NAI has in its custody mainly non-current records, which
include public records, private papers, maps, microfilms, and books. The
total holdings of the NAI are estimated to be around 1,10,000 bound
volumes, 6,00,000 loose documents, 18,000 maps and thousands of
authenticated copies of Bills passed by the various State Legislatures and
accepted by the President of India.
249
The NAI has also embarked upon a major programme for obtaining
microfilm copies of documents of Indian interest from various repositories
the world over. These are acquired from a number of countries, viz., the
United States, USSR, Netherlands, France, Australia, Brazil, Federal
Republic of Germany and Czechoslovakia. These are acquired through
exchange agreements with individual archives as well as under cultural
exchange programmes of the Government of India with other countries.
There is also an ongoing exchange programme with individual archives and
libraries, such as the India office library etc. for exchange of microfilms.
Library
The library of the NAI emphasizes in its collection mainly on rare
books and documents. Many of these documents date back to the 18th
century. The collection of documents includes books, reports, parliamentary
papers, gazettes, etc. It has a rich collection of publications in various
languages. At present, the library has about 20,000 books and periodicals.
Some of the notable collections in the library are Fort William College
Collection (1,000 titles in Arabic and Persian), prescribed literature,
complete files of Persian and Urdu newspapers of early 19th century, British
Parliamentary Papers and the Bibliotheca India series. The library currently
subscribes to about 66 journals dealing mainly with modern history. The
library has embarked upon a major programme of acquiring backfiles of
Indian journals and newspapers. Some of the notable titles in its collection
are : Calcutta Gazette, Daily Gazette (1860), Journal of Asiatic Society of
Bengal (1844), Statistics at Large (1814), Calcutta Review (1844), Asiatic
Quarterly Review (1791) etc.
250
Research and Reference Services
The NAI has provided a Research Room where bonafide research
scholars can sit and consult documents. Personnel assistance is provided in
this room to scholars for use of reference aids and in locating particular
records, etc.
Reprographic Services
The NAI realised the importance of photo-duplication in archival
work right from early 1950s. Hence, a reprographic unit was started. The
unit initially started mainly with microfilming equipment and later on
reprographic facilities were also added. Presently, it has one of the largest
and the best microfilming laboratory in the country. It has also set up a
mobile microfilm unit, which is normally used for microfilming valuable
and rare material which can not be brought physically to the NAI. This
facility is often used by various State Archives for meeting their needs also.
Conservation Laboratory
The NAI has built up an excellent conservation laboratory and other
allied facilities in the area of conservation, repairs and rehabilitation of
records. The laboratory undertakes the following activities over the years :
1. Conducting research in all areas connected with conservation.
Some of its notable achievements are the development of a
special process for manual lamination, the development of a new
process for repairing palm leaf in birch bark manuscripts. The
other major investigations of this Research Laboratory include
the modification of liquid – glue solutions with a view to
developing a better adhesive in binding. The de-acidification of
251
documents written in water-soluble inks and the determination of
physical and chemical characteristics of indigenous paper.
2. Providing testing facilities to other organizations in the area of
testing various preservative materials like chiffon, hand made
paper, wax paper, acetate foils, etc. This facility has been utilised
by a number of outside organizations.
3. Providing technical service to a number of institutions and
individuals in respect of preservation and rehabilitation of
documents.
4. Providing technical information on various aspects of
conservation of cultural property against specific technical
inquiries received from individuals and institutions. A substantial
number of such queries are received each year, e.g. about thirty
queries were answered during 1981.
5. Collaborates in research with international agencies e.g. with
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation of Cultural
Property (Rome) and the International Council of Museums.
6. Collaborating with the Indian Standard Institution on various
items connected with the conservation of manuscripts and its
documentation.
7. Publication of a number of valuable studies in this area.
In addition to the conservation laboratory, the NAI has built up
excellent facilities which include installation of a modern hydraulic
lamination press capable of undertaking large scale repair of old and brittle
documents. It has also installed a vacuum fumigatorium chamber capable of
fumigating 300 cubic feet of records at a time, and the setting of a modern
society.
252
School of Archival Studies
At the behest of the Indian Historical Records Commission, the
Government of India introduced in 1943 a training scheme at the NAI. The
training was originally envisaged as a combined Archival and Library
Course of two-year duration. The school aims at providing India and other
countries in Asia and Africa with trained personnel at the post-graduate
level to maintain their archive repositories, and record centres. The
programme covers the entire range of archive administration, record
management consultancy, techniques, reprography, information retrieval
system and other specialized topics unique to archives profession. The
school of Archival Studies is a premier institution for imparting training in
various disciplines of archival science. Besides students from India, some
students from African and Asian countries are also admitted for training
every year. It is financed by Government of India and is assisted by the
UNESCO. The school conducts the following courses :
1. For professionals :
i. One year Diploma Course in Archival Studies
ii. Short Term courses each of eight-week duration on Archival Administration, record management, conservation and reprography.
2. For sub-professionals – eight week course in servicing and repair of records.
This organization has turned out more than 2,000 archivists so far
who are serving various archival institutions in India and their respective
governments, such as Afghanistan, Burma, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Malaysia,
Phillipines, Nigeria, Kenya and Singapore.
253
Promotional Activities
As a part of an ambitious programme for creating a sense of archival
awareness among people, the NAI has been organizing Archives Week and
a series of exhibition/ lectures, seminars, radio talks and panel discussions
are arranged on wide ranging subjects and open house days.
Archive Week
Since 1978, the NAI has been celebrating regularly National Archive
Week with a view to informing the general public of its activities. During
this week, an earnest effort is made to publicize widely the importance of
archives through seminars, symposia, workshops, panel discussions, film-
shows, TV and radio broadcasts, special brochures, souvenirs, and press-
interviews etc.
Publications
An elaborate publication programme was initiated and conceived by
the NAI as early as 1942 when Dr. Sen was the head of NAI. A twenty-year
programme for publishing a large number of valuable historical records was
approved by the Government of India. A large part of the publication
programme is executed in collaboration with other academic bodies in the
country[121].
2. Uttar Pradesh State Archives, Lucknow
State Archives was established on 2nd May, 1949 in Allahabad as
Central Records Office. However, it was shifted to Lucknow to the building
newly constructed for this purpose in July, 1973. At present, it is governed
by U.P. Government.
254
Main Objectives
1. To determine the transfer of unpublished records of different
departments of U.P. Government which are not less than 30
years.
2. To determine the scientific conservation and use of transferred
records.
3. To help in the research work.
4. To provide required information to Government.
5. To provide photocopy facility for records of archives.
6. To procure the rare manuscripts and records from the possession
of individuals.
Record Room
State archives has a special record room which has about four lakhs
records and about 10 thousand volumes. These records are related to
different departments of Government like general administration, police,
forest, education, irrigation, home department, panchayati raj and
medicines. State Archives plays an important role by providing information
for research work and official purpose. These records are stored in carton
boxes.
Preservation of Records and Manuscripts
Preservation of records is a very important and necessary work.
Scientific techniques are being used for the preservation of old documents,
manuscripts, rare books and government records. All resources and
techniques are available in the state archive for the preservation of
documents. Handmade paper, tissue paper, chiffon and cellulose acetate
foils are used for the repair of mutilated documents. Lamination technique
is also being used for the reinforcing of weak and torn documents. Machine
255
lamination and manual lamination both are available in the Archives.
Laminated sheets are waterproof, and hence it saves documents from mites
etc. Infected documents are fumigated in airtight fumigation chamber by
using thymol and paradie cholorobenzene. Vacuum fumigatorium has been
installed in State Archives for this purpose.
Laboratories
There is also a chemical laboratory in the State Archive. The
purpose of this laboratory is to cure the infected records and documents and
find solutions for deteriorated materials. This laboratory has all modern
equipments like fogging machine, hot oven, pH meter, thermohygrograph,
microscope, ultraviolet lamp and automatic sprayer.
Reprographic Unit
This unit prepares microfilm of very rare and important documents.
This helps in the preservation of archival information for more than 100
years with less cost and less time. It also helps in the easy handling of
information. There is also microfilm reader which helps readers in reading
the microfilm. This helps in the preservation of original records. Microfilms
of about 68,500 original records have been prepared. This microfilm
facility has been extended to research scholars in the country and also
outside the India. This reprography unit has made available microfilm of
about 7,500 records to research scholars. This reprography unit also helps
in the exchange of information between different agencies like National
Archives, New Delhi and India Office Library, London.
Library
This institute also has a very rich library. It has about 14 thousand
books, rare journals and official reports on Indian history and culture which
256
helps research scholars in attaining facts and data. This library also has
books gifted by various Government Departments and autonomous bodies.
URDU Department
There is also Urdu Department which helps research scholars in their
research work regarding urdu language.
Private Archives
Besides official records, manuscripts records which are rare and in
the possession of individuals are purchased in form of gift and donation.
For this purpose, government has constituted a regional archival survey
committee which consists of experts of different subjects. This also serves
as an advisory committee to the Archive.
Documents which are procured from personnel possession includes :
personnel letters, manuscripts, rare books, photostate volume, photostate
documents, typed scripts, newspaper clippings, photographs, map album
and microfilm. These are as follows :
1. Personnel letters – 1119
2. Manuscripts – 60
3. Rare Books – 305
4. Photostate Volume – 17
5. Typed Script – 2
6. Photostate Documents – 73
7. Newspaper Clippings – 14
8. Photographs – 14
9. Map – 2
10. Album – 1
11. Microfilm – 2
257
Research Room
This archive has also one research room with microfilm facility.
Here microfilms of rare documents is made available to research scholars.
These research scholars read the microfilms with the help of microfilm
reader.
National Archive Register
U.P. State Archive traces the important letters and documents in the
possession of individual through survey, and details of these records are
noted in the National Register meant for non-official documents.
Advisory Committee
For the proper and smooth functioning of State Archive,
Government has constituted one Advisory Committee under which U.P.
Regional Advisory Committee and Purchase Committee has been
constituted. The main work of this Committee is to procure important
manuscripts especially historical records and letters and documents written
by some very important persons.
U.P. State Archives Regional Units
1. Regional Archive, 53 Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Allahabad (1973).
2. Regional Archive, O/22–23, Shashtri Nagar, Kashi VidyaPeeth
Road, Varanasi (1976).
3. Regional Archive, 2 a – b – Mewila Compound, Nanital (1977).
4. Regional Archive, 44/ 3, E-C Road, Dehradun (1980).
5. Regional Archive, 40 COD Colony, New Shahganj, Agra (1980).
6. Manuscript Library, Block no. 9, 10, 11, 12, Bhaghamabari Awas
Yojana, Allahpur, Allahabad (1973).
258
Training
State Archive provides training on Archive Arrangement and policy.
Publication of U.P. State Archives, Lucknow
1. A Calendar of Oriental Records, Vol. I.
2. A Calendar of Oriental Records, Vol. II.
3. A Calendar of Oriental Records, Vol. III.
4. A Catalogue of State Papers NWP, Part I, Judicial Series (1795–
1814)
5. An Alphabetical Index/ Persian, Arabic and Urdu Manuscripts in
the UP State Archives.
6. Administrative Reports of the Government Central Records
Office, U.P., Allahabad (1955–58)[122].
3. NRLC (National Research Laboratory for Conservation of Cultural Property), 1976
This institute was established in 1976. This is a UNDP project. The
advancement of science has resulted in the development of several
scientific aids for the technical study and conservation of cultural property.
In order to take full advantage of these methods, the Department of Culture,
the Government of India has established the National Research Laboratory
for Conservation of Cultural Property.
Objectives
i. Conduct research in the field of technical study of art,
archaeological, enthonographical and other cultural objects.
ii. Have research programmes for improvement of conservation
techniques.
259
iii. Give advice to cultural institutions, conservation laboratories,
and others on problems of conservation.
iv. Provide technical assistance to institutions not having
conservation facilities of their own.
v. Impart training in various aspects of conservation.
Grant
NRLC receives assistance from UNDP and UNESCO.
Main Objectives
1. Research programmes
2. Technical studies – this includes physical, chemical, geological
and other types of analysis of art, archaeological, ethnographical
objects, like :
Ancient metal objects
Ceramics
Stones and other materials used for monuments
Wooden objects and structures
Wall Paintings
Paper, palm-leaf and birch bark manuscripts
Textiles
Ethnological materials
These studies are conducted to understand the technique of
fabrication and to trace the history of technology of various types
of materials.
260
3. Improvement of conservation methods :
Many of the conservation techniques now in use are not
suitable for Indian materials and conditions. The attempt is to
improve these methods by constant research. Work is in progress
on metals, stone, woodwork, miniature paintings, palm-leaf and
birch bark manuscripts.
4. Bio-deterioration Studies
Bio-deterioration involves damage to materials by living
organisms like fungus and insects. Studies on the bio-
deterioration problems of museum objects and monuments have
been undertaken.
5. Technical Assistance and Advice
The laboratory gives, upon request, technical assistance to
institutions for preservation of their collections. This assistance
may be in various forms, such as technical advice by
correspondence, visit of experts, field studies, analysis of
materials at NRLC, treatment of important objects etc. NRLC
also assists in setting up new conservation laboratories and gives
technical support to them.
Training
The laboratory organizes the following training courses and
workshops :
i. 6 months training for specialization in conservation. This
course is conducted in collaboration with UNESCO (Ist Sept.
to 28th February).
261
ii. 10 days Refresher Course for trained and experienced
conservators to make them familiar with recent developments
in conservation.
iii. 10 days workshop on ‘Care and maintenance of museum
objects’ for curators and others in charge of collections.
iv. Workshops on specific topics.
v. Informal training in scientific methods for examination.
Library and Documentation
NRLC has a specialized Library and Documentation services
unit devolved to all aspects of conservation. A computer has been
installed in the library. Microfilm reading facility is also available.
The library offers a documentation service to scholars and students.
It holds a collection of more than 9000 books, 1000 reprints and
subscribes to about 125 journals.
Publications
The laboratory has a programme of publishing books and
pamphlets dealing with preservation and conservation. Some of them
are available free to institutions upon request.
Regional Conservation Laboratory
A Regional Conservation Laboratory (a unit of NRLC) has
been set up in Mysore. It caters to the conservation needs of
Southern States.
Equipment Available with NRLC
Following equipments are available in NRLC :
i. Advanced analytical equipment like emission spectrograph.
262
ii. X-ray Diffractrometer
iii. X-ray fluorescence spectrometer
iv. Metallurgical microscope
v. Infra-red spectrophotometer
vi. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
vii. UV-visible spectrophotometer, and
viii. Paper testing machines[123]
4. INTACH (Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage)
The INTACH was established in 1985. Dr. O.P. Agarwal was
appointed as Honorary Advisor and Poonam Agarwal was appointed as the
Programme Coordinator. From the very beginning it was clear in their mind
that the INTACH’s organisation would act more as a catalytic agent to
promote various centres, rather than do only conservation. Formerly,
INTACH was known as INTACH Conservation Centre.
Grants
INTACH is supported by its parent body the INTACH and from
some of its other benefactors like the INTACH (UK). Trust, Ford
Foundation and NORAD.
Objectives
The main objectives of ICI were defined as follows :
i. Conservation of art objects of all types, like manuscripts,
paintings, textiles, murals and other artifacts.
ii. Training in preventive conservation as well as curative
conservation.
263
iii. Technical Advice
iv. Publications.
Divisions
To fulfill these tasks, ICI now has the following divisions :
i. Paper Division
ii. Oil Paintings Division
iii. Wall Painting Division
iv. Textiles Division
v. Research and Analysis Division
vi. Photo Division
vii. Library
Attempt has been made to develop a network of conservation
centres.
Network of Centres
The first regional centre was set up in 1990 at New Delhi,
working under the guidance of well known restorer, Sukanta Basu. It
has been developed mainly as a centre of excellence for conservation
of oil paintings, but is equipped to take up restoration of all other
types of objects as well.
The next centre came up at Bangalore in 1993, with S.
Subbaraman, another noted conservator, as its Director. Its activities
are multifaceted to include restoration of different types of objects,
but mainly paintings.
ICI is an example of an institution which functions on a small
budget, meagre resources, very small staff, but with a large number
264
of ambitious projects and activities, accomplished with the help of a
devoted staff.
Conservation of Art Objects
During these years, ICI has restored a large number of objects
received from varied institutions – governmental as well as non-
governmental including museums, Bharat Kala Bhawan, Varanasi; State
Museum, Lucknow; Akhil Bhartiya Sanskrit Parishad, Lucknow; Allahabad
Museum; State Archives, Lucknow; Raj Bhawan, Calcutta, Paropkari
Sabha, Ajmer; Patna Museum; Kala Bhawan, Shanti Niketan; Government
Arts College, Madras; Lok Kala Sangrahalays, Lucknow and so on.
Training
Training at ICI have taken the following forms :
1. Short duration workshops on care and maintenance of Arts
objects.
2. Training Programmes for formation of conservators.
3. Intensive individual training programmes.
4. Short term workshops on individual subjects.
Short term workshops on care and preservation of art objects have
been arranged at various locations in the country which included Madras,
Bangalore, Hyderabad, Guwahati, Calcutta, Pune, Trichirapally,
Chandigarh. There has been a very enthusiastic response for all these
workshops.
All the training programmes have been arranged with the support of
Ford Foundation.
265
Benefactors of ICI
1. Govt. of India
2. INTACH (UK) Trust
3. Ford Foundation
4. NORAD (Norway)[124].
5. Vrindavan Research Institute (VRI)
The Vrindavan Research Institute was founded in 1968 by a public –
spirited philanthropist scholar, Dr. R.D. Gupta of the School of Indian and
African Studies, University of London. For about a decade since its
foundation, the Institute was financially supported and maintained through
the personal resources of Dr. R.D. Gupta. Susequently, realising the
significance of the aims and mission of the Institute and appreciating its
achievements, the Government of U.P. and the Central Government
provided recurring and ad-hoc grants for its activities. In addition, the
institute welcomes donations from individuals and institutions. It has thus
grown into a centre devoted to the cause of conservation and publication of
Indian culture in general and that of Braj in particular.
Activities
The primary aim of the Institute is to collect, preserve, study and
publish the manuscripts and other archival material and objects of folk arts
and Braj culture. The Institute is also a research centre affiliated to Agra
University for the award of Ph.D. in Hindi and Sanskrit. It is also
recognised as a museum of manuscripts and archival material by the
Museum Association of India. Fellowships are also awarded for research. It
organises lectures, seminars, exhibitions, film shows in India and abroad.
266
Conservation Laboratory
Most of the manuscripts are found damaged, burnt or eaten by moth
and insects. The Institute has developed a laboratory for their conservation
and making them available for research purpose. The specialists conserve
the manuscripts by fumigation, ink fixation, de-acidification, lamination,
binding etc. through latest scientific methods.
This department organises workshops and seminars on manuscripts
conservation for creating awareness of preservation techniques among the
general people and manuscript holders.
Manuscript Library
VRI has a rich collection of about 30,000 manuscripts in Sanskrit,
Hindi, Bengali, Oriya, Punjabi, 200 miniature paintings, images, coins,
portraits etc.
Reference Library
The VRI has a reference library for research scholars and students.
There are printed books on various subject, dictionaries, research articles,
thesis in the library Research scholars from India and abroad consult this
library for their research work.
Braj Culture Museum
The Braj Culture Museum is established to display rare, old and
important material, dresses, musical instruments, hand made paintings,
manuscripts written on palm and bamboo leaf etc.
Besides this, VRI has photography and microfilming unit. It makes
microfilms of rare manuscripts for Institute and provides them to the
research scholars.
267
Publications
The VRI has published a number of bulletins and critical editions.
The catalogues of Sanskrit manuscripts in 5 volumes, Hindi in 2 volumes,
Punjabi, Bangla and Microfilmed manuscripts each in one volume have
also been published by the Institute from collection of library, others are to
be published[125].
6. Indian Association for the Study of Conservation of Cultural Property
The Indian Association for the Study of Conservation of Cultural
Property was formed in the year 1966. The association was established with
aim to provide a professional centre devoted to the cause of conservation
and study of cultural property including historic, archaeological,
anthropological, ethnological, artistic, archival and other material in
libraries, manuscripts, depositories and museums.
The association is mainly financed by membership dues. However,
occasional grants are received from the Government for the running of the
associations journal and holding of annual conferences.
Activities
The broad activities of the Association include : organization of
seminars and conferences, exhibitions and textures, supporting publication
work and taking professional issues and problems with the Government.
One of the major activities of the Association has been the
organizing of annual seminars and conferences. In each seminar various
aspects of conservation are discussed each year with a focus on one
theme[126].
268
Association of Indian Archivists
The Association of Indian Archivists was established in 1977 with
the main aim of fulfilling the long felt need for a forum in India, where
specialists in the field of administration, management and preservation of
records could pool their expertise and help the various institutions and
organizations in safeguarding their records, not only as essential material
for their own reference, but also as a part of the country’s heritage.
The credit for bringing this association into being goes to Dr. P.
Basa, Dr. S.N. Prasad and Sri. S.A.I. Tirmize of National Archives and
several members namely Mr. J.K. Jain, T.S. Sinha, Dr. K.P. Srivastava and
M.L. Kachroo from the State Archives.
The membership of the Association consists of Institutional,
Individual, Associate and Memory Members.
Activities
One of the major activities of the Association has been organization
of seminars and workshops.
Active liaison of the Association has been established with number
of archival association in other countries. The Association has also been
admitted as a member of the section of Professional Associations of the
Indian Council of Archives.
Publication
In order to disseminate information and to provide a forum for
discussing the professional problems, the Association is bringing out two
serials. It brings out an annual journal entitled ‘Journal of Conservation of
269
Cultural Property in India’ since 1966. The Association also publishes an
annual newsletter entitled ‘Conservation of Cultural Property’ since 1977.
The Association keeps linkages with international professional
bodies in the areas such as International Centre for the study of
Conservation of Cultural Property, Rome etc.[127].
270
References
1. Studies in conservation. 28(3), 1983.
2. Prajapati, C.L. Archivo Library Materials. (N. Delhi : Mittal publication, 1997), p. 3–6.
3. Ibid, p 8–9.
4. Ibid, p 6–8.
5. Ibid, p 11–21.
6. Langwell, W.H. The Conservation of books and documents. (London and New York : Pitman, 1957), p. 45.
7. Prajapati, op.cit., p. 21–22.
8. Ibid, p 25.
9. Ibid, p 26.
10. Ibid, p 54–56.
11. Ibid, p 56–63.
12. Ibid, p 67.
13. Agarwal, O.P. Conservation of books, manuscripts and paper documents. (Lucknow: INTACH, ICI, 1997), p. 18.
14. Ibid, p 19–20.
15. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 74.
16. Agarwal, op.cit., p. 3–4.
17. Langwell, op.cit, p. 1.
18. Ibid, p 67.
19. Agarwal, op.cit., p. 6.
271
20. Langwell, op.cit., p. 8.
21. Ibid, p. 8.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid, p 9.
24. Ibid, p 9–10.
25. Prajapati, op.cit., p 45–52.
26. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 7.
27. Ibid, p 8–12.
28. Ibid, p 12–15.
29. Ibid, p 25–29.
30. Plumbe, W.J. The Preservation of books in tropical and sub-tropical countries (London : Oxford University Press, 1964), p 1–3.
31. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 102–107.
32. Mukherjee, B.B. Preservation of library materials, archives and documents. (Calcutta : The world press, 1973), p. 21.
33. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 32–33.
34. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 112.
35. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 32–35.
36. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 80–82.
37. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 43–44.
38. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 86–88.
39. Agarwal, op.cit, p.44.
40. Ibid, p 45.
272
41. Havermans, J. “Effects of air pollutants on the accelerated aging of cellulose based materials”. Restaurator. 16(4); 1995; 209–233.
42. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 88–96.
43. Ibid, p 97.
44. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 45–46.
45. Ibid, p 46–47.
46. Neeval, J.G. “Phytate : a potential conservation agent for the treatment of Ink Corrosion caused by iron gall inks”. Restaurator. 16(3); 1995; 143–160.
47. Ibid, p 47–48.
48. Feret, B.L. “Back to student rip offs point of sale”. Wilson Library Bulletin. 47; 1972; 46–7.
49. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 114.
50. Nyuksha, Yu P. “Conservation of Library Collections : a concept based on experience in the former Soviet Union”. 15(1); 1993; 55–63.
51. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 49.
52. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 120–121.
53. Slade, R.G. Protecting your collection. (New York : The Howorth Press, 1992), p. 87.
54. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 118–124.
55. Baynes – Cope, A.D. “Creating buildings for rare books and archival documents”. Restaurator. 17(1), 1996, 22–24.
56. Prajapati, op.cit, p.117–125.
57. Daniel, F. “A pollution chamber for the accelerated deterioration of materials”. Restaurator. 17(3); 1996; 193–202.
58. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 127.
273
59. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 55–57.
60. Ibid, p. 127–128.
61. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 128.
62. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 57–58.
63. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 140–142.
64. Plumbe, op.cit, p. 5.
65. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 58–59.
66. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 154–157.
67. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 61.
68. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 157–158.
69. Smith, R.D. “Fumigation dilemma : more overskill or common sense”. New Library Scene. 3; 1984; 1.
70. Walsh, T. “The danger of fumigation of archives with ethylene oxide”. Archives and Manuscripts. 8(1); 1980; 62–63.
71. Greenfield, Jane. The care of books (USA : Nick Lyons Books, 1988), p. 66–80.
72. Valetin, N. [et.al.] “Microbial control by low oxygen and low relative humidity environment”. Studies in Conservation – 35; 1990; 222–230.
73. Gilberg, M. “The effects of low oxygen atmosphere on museum pests”. Studies in Conservation. 36, 1991, 93–98.
74. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 62–63.
75. Greenfield, op.cit, p.69.
76. Agarwal, op.cit, p.66.
77. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 158–161.
274
78. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 67–68.
79. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 128–129.
80. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 68.
81. Lydenberg, H.M. The Care and Repair of Books (New York : R.R. Bowker, 1960), p. 110–151.
82. Hadgraft, N. “Storing and boxing the Parker Library manuscripts”. Paper Conservator. 18; 1994; 20–29.
83. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 129–133.
84. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 79–81.
85. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 142–154.
86. Nyuksha, op.cit, p. 55–63.
87. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 87–102.
88. Suryavanshi. D.G. [et.al.] “Evaluation of adhesive and supporting materials for the process of lamination of old documents”. Restaurator. 17(4); 1996; 229–237.
89. Durovic, and Zelinger, J. “Chemical processes in the bleaching of paper in library and archival collections”. Restaurator. 14(2); 1993; 78–99.
90. Lienardy, A. and Van Damme, P. “Practical deacidification”. Restaurator. 11(1); 1990; 1–21.
91. Agarwal, op.cit., p. 146–165.
92. Ibid, p. 177–178.
93. Ibid, p. 178–180.
94. Ibid, p. 187.
95. Ibid, p. 188–190.
275
96. Lydenberg, op.cit, p. 49.
97. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 190–192.
98. Ibid, p. 192.
99. Gast, Monica. “Paper splitting : a problematic but indispensable method in paper restoration”. Restaurator. 14(4); 1993; 234–254.
100. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 194.
101. Alkalay, E.B. “Leaf casting notes on the early development of leaf casting”. Restaurator. 14(4); 1993; 149.
102. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 197.
103. Blüher, A. [et.al.]. “A reappraisal of the enzyme lipase for removing drying oil stains on paper”. Paper Conservator. 21; 1997; p. 37–47.
104. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 198–203.
105. Gast, op.cit, p. 234–254.
106. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 203.
107. Gast, op.cit, p. 260.
108. Agarwal, p. 217.
109. Ibid, p. 219.
110. Ibid, p. 222–223.
111. Ibid, p. 229.
112. Wächter, W. [et.al.] “Paper splitting at the German Library … to full mechaization”. Restaurator. 17(1); 1996; 32–42.
113. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 236.
114. Ibid, p. 238–242.
276
115. Plenderleith, H.J. “A history of conservation”. Studies in Conservation. 43; 1998; 129–143.
116. http://www.iccrom.org
117. http://aic.stanford.edu
118. http://www.iiconservation.org
119. Petherbridge, Guy. Conservation of library and archive materials and the graphic arts. (London : Butterworths, 1987), p 7.
120. Dasgupta, Kalpana. Conservation of library materials. (Calcutta : National Library, 1985), p. 6.
121. Gupta, B.M. [Ed.], [et.al.] Handbook of Libraries, Archives and Information Centres in India. Vol. 2. (New Delhi : Information Industry, 1986), p. 387–404.
122. U.P. State Archives : Brochure, (U.P. Department of Culture, 2000).
123. National Research Laboratory for Conservation of Cultural Property : Brochure, (Govt. of India, Dept. of Culture, 2000).
124. INTACH, ICI : Brochure, (Lucknow : INTACH, 2001).
125. Vrindavan Research Institute : Brochure, (Vrindavan : VRI, 2001).
126. Gupta, op.cit, p. 72–74.
127. Ibid, p. 28–30.
277