consciousness and its variations. consciousness described as a stream or river by william james...
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Consciousness and Its Variations
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Consciousness
• Described as a stream or river by William James
• Introspection tried to capture the structure of consciousness
• Modern study includes roles of psychological, physiological, social, and cultural influences
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Circadian Rhythm• Any rhythmic change that continues at close
to a 24-hour cycle in the absence of 24-hour cues– body temperature
– cortisol secretion
– sleep and wakefulness
• In the absence of time cues, the cycle period will become somewhat longer than 24 hours
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The Body’s Clock
• Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)—cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus that governs the timing of circadian rhythms
• Melatonin—hormone of the pineal gland that produces sleepiness
• Bright light decreases production of melatonin; decreased light increases melatonin
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• Electrodes placed on the scalp provide a gross record of the electrical activity of the brain
• EEG recordings are a rough index of psychological states
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EEG Waves of Wakefulness
• Awake, but non-attentive: large, regular alpha waves
1 second
Alpha waves
Awake, nonattentive
1 second
Beta waves
Awake, attentive
• Awake and attentive: low amplitude, fast, irregular beta waves
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Stages of Sleep
• Awake but sleepy--relaxed. alpha waves seen in EEG
• Hypnogogic hallucinations--vivid sensory phenomena during onset of sleep
• Stage 1 NREM-- brief transition stage when first falling asleep--theta waves
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Stages of Sleep
• Stage 2 NREM--characterized by sleep spindles--brief spurts of activity
• Stages 3 and 4 NREM (slow-wave sleep): successively deeper stages of sleep
• Characterized by an increasing percentage of slow, irregular, high-amplitude delta waves
• Stage 4 NREM is very deep sleep
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Stages of Sleep
• Upon reaching stage 4 and after about 80 to 100 minutes of total sleep time, sleep lightens, returns through stages 3 and 2
• REM sleep emerges, characterized by EEG patterns that resemble beta waves of alert wakefulness– muscles most relaxed– rapid eye movements occur– dreams occur
• Four or five sleep cycles occur in a typical night’s sleep; less time is spent in slow-wave, more is spent in REM
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The 90-Minute Cycles of Sleep
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Sleep Changes Throughout Life
• Changes in quality and quantity are apparent
• Amount of time in deep (slow wave) and REM sleep decreases with age
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Functions of Sleep
• Restoration theory—body wears out during the day and sleep is necessary to put it back in shape
• Adaptive theory—sleep emerged in evolution to preserve energy and protect during the time of day when there is considerable danger
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Sleep Deprivation
• Microsleep--episodes lasting only a few seconds
• REM rebound--deprivation of REM sleep causes increase in time spent in REM sleep to “catch up”
• NREM rebound--catching up on Stages 3 and 4 sleep
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Individual Differences in Sleep Drive
• Some individuals need more and some less than the typical 8 hours per night
• Nonsomniacs—sleep far less than most, but do not feel tired during the day
• Insomniacs—have a normal desire for sleep, but are unable to and feel tired during the day
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Sleep Disorders
• Insomnia—inability to fall asleep or stay asleep
• Night terrors—sudden arousal from sleep and intense fear accompanied by physiological reactions (e.g., rapid heart rate, perspiration) that occur during slow-wave sleep
• Narcolepsy—overpowering urge to fall asleep that may occur while talking or standing up
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Sleep Disorders
• Restless Legs Syndrome--RLS unpleasant sensations in lower legs and urge to move legs disrupts sleep.
• Sleep apnea—failure to breathe when asleep
• REM sleep behavior disorder—sleeper acts out his or her dreams
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Dreams and REM Sleep
• True dream—vivid, detailed dreams consisting of sensory and motor sensations experienced during REM
• Sleep thinking—lacks vivid sensory and motor sensations, is more similar to daytime thinking, and occurs during slow-wave sleep
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Brain and REM Sleep
• Active areas during REM--amygdala and hippocampus
• Inactive areas during REM--frontal lobes and primary visual cortex
• REM sleep plays a role in memory consolidation
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Significance of Dreams
• Psychoanalytic Interpretation
• Activation Synthesis Model
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Psychoanalytic Interpretation
• Manifest content—elements of the dream that are consciously experienced and remembered
• Latent content—the unconscious wishes that are concealed in the manifest content
• Dreams as “wish fulfillments”
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Activation Synthesis Model
• Brain activity during sleep produces dream images (activation) which are combined by the brain into a dream story (synthesis). Meaning is to be found by analyzing the way the dreamer makes sense of the progression of chaotic dream images.
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Hypnosis
• State of awareness• Highly focused attention• Increased responsiveness to suggestion• Vivid imagery• Willingness to accept distortions of
logic• Alteration of sensation and perception
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Hypnosis and Memory
• Posthypnotic suggestion--during hypnosis a suggestion is made for the person to carry out some behavior after hypnosis is over
• Posthypnotic amnesia--inability to remember specific information because of a posthypnotic suggestion
• Hypermnesia--enhancement of memory because of posthypnotic suggestion
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Meditation
• Sustained concentration that focuses attention and heightens awareness
• Lowered physiological arousal– decreased heart rate– decreased BP
• Predominance of alpha brain waves
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Meditation Techniques
• Concentration techniques--control attention by focusing awareness on a visual image, word, or phrase
• Opening-up techniques--control attention by focusing on the “here and now”
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Psychoactive Drugs
• Depressants—inhibit brain activity
• Opiates—produce pain relief and euphoria
• Stimulants—increase brain activity
• Psychedelics—distort sensory perceptions
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Common Properties
• Physical dependence
• Tolerance
• Withdrawal symptoms
• Drug rebound effect
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Drug Abuse
Recurrent drug use that results in disruption of academic, social, or occupational functioning or in legal or psychological problems
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Depressants• Alcohol—CNS depressant
• Barbiturates—induce sleep but can cause dependence and as a result serious withdrawal symptoms
• Tranquilizers—relieve anxiety but can be addictive
• Effects are additive
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Areas of the brain that may be affected by FAS
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Opiates
Chemically similar to morphine and have strong pain-relieving properties, can be addictive
• Mimic the brain’s endorphins• Heroin, methadone• Percodan, Demerol
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Stimulants
• Caffeine
• Nicotine
• Amphetamines
• Cocaine
• Stimulant induced psychosis
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Psychedelics
• Create perceptual distortions• Mescaline• LSD• Marijuana
• Flashback reactions and psychotic episodes
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“Club” Drugs
• Ecstasy (MDMA)—feelings of euphoria, increased well-being
• Side effects—dehydration, hyperthermia, tremor, rapid heartbeat
• Dissociative anesthetics—include PCP and Ketamine. Deaden pain, produce stupor or coma, and may induce hallucinations.