IMPACT OF INTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME ON RURAL TRANSFORMATION

IN TRANS-GHAGHARA PLAIN

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE DEGREE OF

M^^ttv of ^J)ilos;op{)p IN

GEOGRAPHY

BY

ABU TALIB

Under the supervision of

Prof. M. F a r o o q Siddiqi

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY,

ALIGARH 1989

CI

-« •-' i : -

DS1591

- 1 -

A C K N 0 W_L__£ b 2 _ ± _ - - - ~ - ' £

I wish t o e x p r e s s my s m c e i e t h a n k s t o my s u p e r v i s o r

P r o f . M.Farooq S i d d i q i , Cha i rman , Depar tmen t of oeo^raphy ,

A.M.U. A l i g a r h , f o r h i s g u i d a n c e , i n t e r e s t and encouragement

i n c a r r y i n g o u t t h i s r e s e a r c h work.

I am e x t r e m e l y t h a n k f u l t o F r o r . flehdi Kaza and

P r o f . Abdul A z i z , fo rmer Cha i rmen , Depar tmen t c t Geography,

f o r e n c o u r a g i n g and p r o v i d i n g n e c e s s a r y f a c i l i t i e s t o

c o n t i n u e my r e s e a r c h .

My s i n c e r e t h a n k s a r e a l s o due t o Dr . Amar S i n g h ,

Head of t h e D e p a r t m e n t , D . S . C o l l e j e , A l i g a r h and

D r . H i f z u r Rahman, R e a d e r , Depar tmen t of 3eograpiiy, A.M.U.

A l i g a r h , f o r t h e i r v a l u a b l e j u i d a n c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e

c o m p l e t i o n of t h i s work .

I s h a l l be f a i l i n g i n my d u t i e s i f I do no t e x p r e s s

my g r a t e f u l n e s s t o my t e a c h e r s , t e l l o v ; r e s e a r c h s c h o l a r s

f o r a s s i s t i n g me a t e v e r y s t a j e , t o I'Jr. Najmuddir. and

Ms.Rana A s k a r i f o r p r o v d i n j l i b r a r y f a c i l i c e s and t o

Mr. M.Javed f o r r e n d e r i n g C a r t o j r a p h i c a s s i s t a n c e .

At l a s t b u t no t t h e l e a s t I aia h i j h l y j r a t e t u l and

i n d e b t e d t o my p a r e n t s f o r t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n and e n c o u r a g e m e n t s

from t h e m .

( ABU TA-.IB )

C 0 K T ii: N T S

Pacfe

Acknowledgement

Lis t of Maps

List of Tables

I n t r o d u c t i o n

a) Definit ion

b) Objectives

c) Factors of Integrated Rural Development

i

iv V

1 s 12

is

CHAPTER-I i

CHAPTER-II

Review of Viork re la t ing to Rural Dvelopment

History and Aspects of Integrated Rural Development

History of Rural Development in India!

B. Aspects of fiural Development:

a) Agricultural Extension and Development,

b) Land Reform,

c) I r r iga t iona l F a c i l i t i e s , d) Improved in Animal Husbandary, ' e) Rural S l e c t r i f i c a t i o n , f) Rural Indus t r i a l i za t ion , g) Kural Finance, Co-operation

and Marketing, h) Rural Transport and

Communicational Development i ) Problems of rtural Unemployment,'

Poverty and Indebtendness, j). Rural Saniation, Disease

control and Health Piogrammes,

k) Rural Education and women welfare,

1) Rural Development Adininistra- • - t i o n .

42

64

64

79

79

84

^ ^

too lo2

109

112

114

lis

-iii-CHAFTER-III

CHAPTER-IV

Integrated Uural Developrnent in India ,

Trans~Shajhara Plain5 Location and Physical se t t ing

a) Structure and Kelief b) Climate c) I 'atuial Vegetation d ) S o i i

e) Drainage

327

145

145

15-1

1^3

CHAPTER-V Tran-3haghara Plains Impact of Ir<DPJ a case study of Basti District ,

i60

CHAPTER-VI Conclusion m

APPENlilx 180

L I S T of__M_A_P_S

Pa^e

146 1. Trans-Ghaghara Plain insiocation

2. Trans-Ghaghara Plain JRelief — •14-9

3. Trans-Ghaghara Plain -.Drainage — l - -

L I S T OF T A B

Page

1 . Income-wise BreaX-up of l J-Respondents of Semriyanwan and Bankati Block of B a s t i D i s t r i c t .

2 , D i s t r i b u t i o n of Loans and i(>S S u b s i d i e r y i n d i f f e r e n t s e c t o r i n 1 9 8 8 - 8 9 .

B l o c k - w i s e Break-up of 170 number of B e n e f i c i a r i e s and amount g i v e n as s u b s i d i e r y i n Bas t i D i s t r i c t from 1985-86 t o 1988-8 9

4 . Total number of B e n e f i c i a r i e s 171 prov ided i n t h r e e b l o c k s of B a s t i D i s t r i c t , 1985 t o 1 9 8 8 - 8 9 .

Total Number of Fa rmers and X75 the average amount of s u b s i d i e r y r e c e i v e d by t h e farmers i n t h r e e b l o c k s of B a s t i D i s t r i c t .

6 . Progres s Report under I K D P Scheme from O c t o b e r , ' 1 9 8 0 t o March, ' 1 9 8 9 .

i ) Bast Sadar Block l77

i i ) Semriyanwan Block 1 7 9

I t i s r igh t ly said that India l ives in vi l lages

because nearly 77 per-cent of her t o t a l population, acc­

ording to 1981 census, l ives in rural areas in 5.76 lakh

v i l l a g e s . Agriculture and other a l l i ed a c t i v i t i e s are the

dominant occupation of the rural population. In 1981, t h i s

sector d i r ec t ly or ind i rec t ly engaged 66.5 per-cent of

the country 's workers - 41,6 per-cent cu l t iva to r s ana

24.9 per-cent agr icu l tura l labourers . Agriculture and

a l l i e d a c t i v i t i e s contr ibute about 37 per-cent of net domestic

product. Rural sector contr ibutes to the economic

development of the country by providing ( i ) product

contr ibut ion in the form of expanding flow of increased

food suppl ies ; ( i i ) factor contr ibution in the form of

labour force, raw mater ia l s , foreign exchange by export

of primary products, and ( i i i ) market contr ibut ion i . e .

domestic market for the indus t r i a l products which i s possible

through a rapid increase in agr icu l tura l output and

product ivi ty resul t ing in high income generation of the

rural population.

Development i s a process cf change aiming at the

socio-economic transformation of a t r ad i t i ona l society i n to

a modern one which i s great ly influenced by human being.

Activi ty re la ted to the development i s generally directed

towards nation building and her socio-economic transformation.

Rural development is an important dimension of

development, without it the objectives of the Government

in relation to development cannot be achieved. It is

allround development of traditional rural society into

modern society by bringing about socio-economic reforms

and planned change. The overall development cannot

be achieved unless villages are developed where bulk of 2

our population lives.

Over the years, rural development has emerged as

'a strategy designed to improve the economic and social

life of a specific group of people - the rural poor. It

involves extending the benefits of development to the

poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural 3

areas. Rural development involves optimum utilization

of the natural and human resources of a given rural area

for the enrichment of the quality of life of its population,

There is a need of integrating objectives namely mote

production, more employment and more equitable distribution

of income. Rural development also aims at integrating

the low income segements with the rest of the rural

community by ensuring them a better participation in the

production process and a more equitable share in the

benefits of development.

Hural development is a process of developing and

utilizing natural and human resources, uechnoiogies,

infrastructural facilities, institutions and organisations,

government policies and programme to encourage and speed

up economic growth in rural areas, to provide jobs, and

to improve the quality of rural life towards self-sustenance,

Rural development in India is very old concept

as it started in 1889 but the development under

systematic plan started with the Comjriunity Development

Programme (CDP) in 1952,the basic Objective of this

programme was to "secure the fullest development of the

material and human resources on an area basis and thereby

raise the rural community to higher levels of living

with the active participation and on the initiative of the

people themselves".

Panchayati Kaj, which was introduced in 1959, is

a three tier structure of local self-government at the

village, block and district level. The t-anchayats are

responsible for agricultural production, rural industries,

medical relief, child welfare, common grazing grounds,

village roads, tanks and wells and maintenance of

sanitation.

Several schemes were also introduced by the Central

and S t a t e Government under 3 a r i b i Hatao Programme.

Some of t h e s e were* I n t e n s i v e Agr i cu l t u r e Development

Programme (lADP) i n 1966, Small Farmers Development

Agencies (SFDA - 1969), Marginal Farmers and Agr i cu l t u r a l

Labourers Agencies (MFAL - 1971), Drough Prove Axeas

Programme (DPAP - 1970), H i l l Area Development Piogramn^e

(HADP - 1972), Canmond Area Development Programixie (CADP-1974),

Spec ia l Line Stock Product ion Programme (3LPP-1975),

Food for work Programme (FFWP-1977). In Apri l 1978 an

I n t e g r a t e d Rural Development Programme (IRDP) was s t a r t e d

i n 2 300 blocks covered by 3FDA, DPAP and CADP, with the

o b j e c t i v e s of l i f t i n g the poores t f ami l i e s i n the r u r a l

a reas - small fa rmers , marginal farmers , a g r i c u l t u r a l

l a b o u r e r s , r u r a l a r t i s a n s , e t c . above the poverty l i v e

on a l a s t i n g b a s i s by provid ing them with p roduc t ive

a s s e t s and employment.

There are some of t h e a n t i - p o v e r t y programmes, i . e .

I n t e g r a t e d Rural Development Programme (IRDP) and Tra in ing

of Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TKYSEM) d i r e c t e d t o

self-employment and Nat ional Rural Employment Progra­

mme (NREP) and Rural Landless Employment Guarantee

Programme (RLEGP) d i r e c t e d towards wage employment. Now

the Government, has renamed a l l the r u r a l development

and ant i -poveir ty programmes as "Jawahar Rozgar Yojna(JRY)" ,

CONCEPTUAL DISTINCTION ^

Before describing the conceptual framework of

"Integrated Rural Developi\ent" in a large context, it

would definitely be worth defining the different terms

forming the concept*

Integrated*

The simple dictionary meaning of the term

"Integrated" refers to "ending the regregation of,

and bringing into a common organisation". Another

Interpretation of the term is'coordination of mental

processes into a normal effective personality or with

the individual's environment'. Taking note of the above

meaning, it can easily be gathered that the term

"Integrated" implies a unified and coordinated action

by a central agency, synchronising a number of the factors

which are operating in the environment.

Rural*

Similarly, the tenn 'rural' suggests - "Open country

and farming" which obviously implies an agrarian settle­

ment. Another meaning of the word 'rural' is 'rustic'

which suggests more clearly a contrast with city life

and sophistication. As an area, the definition of the

term * rural* ik residuary because ail over the world what

is defined is an urban area and what ever is not urban,

is rural,

6 In India, an urban area i s :

a) All places with a municipal corporation, cantonment

board or notified town area committee,

b) All other places which have: ( i ) a minimum population

of 5,000 ; ( i i ) a t l ea s t 75 per-cent of male

working population i s engaged in non-agricultural

pursui ts ; and ( i i i ) a density of population

of a t l e a s t 400 person per square kilometre.

Hence, places which do not sa t i s fy e i the r of

(A) or (B) above may be termed as " rura l a reas" . Therefore,

the term " rura l" e s sen t i a l ly means an area which i s

charactef ised by non-urban fea tu res . Occupationally,

farming. Plantat ion and animal husbandary may be

pre-dominantly accepted a c t i v i t i e s of rural l i f e .

Developmenti

The word "development" meant in the context of

economic development. The term has been used to convey

the movement of the whole system towards an ever large

measure of power to the people for concicus participation

in building their own future, a higher production,

equitable distribution, maximum possible enjoyment to

the producers and aesthetically and ecologically sound 4 environment.

According to Charles F.Kindle berger and Bruce Herrick,

"Economic development is generally detined to include

improvements in material welfare, especially for persons

with the lowest income, the eradilation of mass poverty

with its correlates of illiteracy, disease and early

death, changes in the composition of inputs and outputs

that generally include shift in the underlying structure

of production away fran agricultural towards industrial

activities, the organisation of the economy in such

a way that productive employment is general among the

working age population rather than the situation of a

privileged minority; and the correspondingly greater

participation of broadly based groups in making decision

about the direction, economic and otherwise in which they

should more to improve their welfare.

Dudley Seers posed the basic question about the

meaning of development in the right perspective when he

asserted, "The questions to ask about a Country" development

are J what has been happening to poverty ? what has been

happening to unemployment 7 and what has been happening

to inequalities ? If all these three have declined from

high levels, then beyond doubt this has been a period of

development for the country concerned. If one or two

of these central problems have been growing worse, especially

if all three have, it would be strange to call the result,

'development' even if per capita income doubled.^

Traditionally speaking economic development is a

8

process whereby an econany's xeal national incorue increase

over a long period of t ime, and if the r a t e of development

i s grea ter than the ra t e of population, the per Capita

real income will inc rease .

I t was often assumed tha t once economic growth was

accomplished, other objec t ives , such as el imination of

unemployment, income inequa l i t i e s and poverty would be

rea l i sed .automatically. In India, income inequa l i t i e s

are s t i l l as gigantic as they were some t h i r t y five years

ago when they had embarked upon the path of economic

development. In a society where 'Social Security System*

i s a far cry the measures for those who f a i l to get

employment, the unemployed, invariably lead to poverty

and deprivat ion. 'Denis Goulet* had very r igh t ly pointed

out tha t - "Chronic poverty tha t ex i s t in the developing

countr ies i s a kind of he l l and one can not understand

how cruel that hel l i s merely by gazing upon poverty o

as an objectivet".

A Pakistani economist had also remarked that

"The problem of development must be defined as a selective

attack on the worst form of poverty. Developnent goals

must be defined in terms of progressive reduction and

eventual elimination of malnutrition, disease, illiteracy,

squalor, unemployment and inequalities.

8

9

Hence the concept of development based on poverty,

equality and employment criteria is detinitely superior

to the traditional view of development in terms of tjrovrt.h

in SNP, as a leading economist asserted - "Developnent

must be concieved as a multidimensional process, involving

major changes in social str\ictures, popular attitudes and

national institutions as well as the acceleration of

economic growth the reduction of inequalities and the

eradiction of absolute poverty. Development in its

essence, must represent the entire 3overnment of change

by which an entire social system turned to the diverse

basic needs and desires of individuals and social group

within that system, moves away from a condition of wife

widely percieved an insatisfactory and towards a situation

or condition of life regarded as materially and spritually

better': °

"Rural Development" over the year has emerged as

a strategy designed to improve the 'economic and social

life of a specific group of people - the rural poor.

It involves extending the benefits of development to the

poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural

areas.

Historically, the term "rural development" formerly

called 'Cai\munity development' emerged during the second

world war as a technique for development of under-developed

agra$ian economy based Countries. It was adopted as an

10

alternative to class struggle and people's violent

12 demand of their own well bean^.

Conceptually Integrated Rural Development should

meant multi-faced developaient of rural economy by

exploiting to the optimum the local resources in men,

material, land and water. It has to be mainly on the

basis of local initiative and drive. The Government

should act as a catalyst to bring about this change but

it is the intrinsic strength of the economy itself which

should support the services, the rising standards and

sectoral economic activity in consonance with the local

13 resources.

Integrated rural development, as a synergistic

approach aims at local development of the area and the

people by bringing about the necessary institutional and

attitudinal changes and by delivering a package of

services through extension methods to encompass not only

the economic field but also the establishment to the

required special infrastructure and service in the area

of health and nutrition, education and literacy, basic

civic amenities, family planning etc, with the ultimate

objective of Improving the quality of life in the rural 14

areas. Thus, for the development like India, integrated

irural development means a strategy to improve the

economic and social life of the rural poor and the rural

11

15 weak in the overall spectrum of development and growth.

The conceptual framework of intejrated rural

development aims at removal of poverty, inequality and

unemployment by area planning with two wayss (a) by

differentiating rural areas as diffeient units for spatial

planning on the basis of their socio-economic activities

of development at importance; and (b) by integrating

these activities in the operational process of development

in space, so that the pressure of dependence on agriculture

is reduced by creating additional sources of income in

secondary and tertiary sectors.

According to Professor Najundappa, an economist - "In

the use of concept - integrated rural development, there

is in essence, an attempt to highlight the linkages amongh

the multi-sectoral activities that raise the incomes and

employment of the rural poor. In a more fundamental sense,

it reflects a unified approach which aims at integrating

or bringing the rural poor into the econanic, social,

political and the Cultural life of the country. Thus, the

concept of integrated rural aeveiopment tries to suggest

that in the absence of unification and synchronisation of

various sectoral activities, the Process of development

may not become self-sustaining.

However, some economist like Reiner Wulf has criticised

Rural Development of Integrated Rural Development on the

ground that it lacks operational applicability. It can

12 i'

not be disputed that there are severe constraints in

putting the various components in a neatly synchronising

or sequential manner in the field. This is because of

not only the poor understanding, often even incorrect, of

the rural life on the past of the planners, let alone a

vision for future. There is also red herring of the

bureaucratic compartmentalisations. The values of

bureclMcracy are such that if given the hierarchy and a

set of rules, their concern is more for ensuring their

"technical fulfilment" no matter what happens to the plan

objective of removal of poverty. Area planning offers

the instrximent to translate rural development into reality

and fulfil the objectives of planning for growth with social

justice.

Alms and Objectives of iRPPt

The main aim of the Integrated Kural Development

Programme is to raise the level of living of the poorest

families in the x'ural areas above che poverty line on a

lasting basis by giving them income generating assets

and access to credit and other inputs. The target group

includes small and marginal farmers, agricultural and

non-agricultural labourers, rural craftmen and artisans,

scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and virtually alj.

families of about 5 persons with an annual income level

of below Ri, 6,400/- . The thrust of the programme is

13

13

on raising incomes and generating opportunities for

employment through schemes pertaining to agriculture and

ancillary activities, cottage and small scale industries

as well as any other viable forms of economic activities,

suiting the target group of families. As bulk of the

irural poor are landless suitable type of activities in

the secondary and tetiary sectors have also been included

to benefit this group of target families. Support to

these families in the form of supply of rawmaterials,

marketing facilities, training and upgradtion of skills

17 has also been emphasised m the prograirune.

Aims and objectives of the present study are

as underJ

a) to critically analysis the national policy for

Integrated rural development;

b) to study planning process;

c) to study organisational setup;

d) to study the approaches to the implementation of

the rural development programmes;

e) to suggest suitable measures for improving the

planning and management process of rural development.

As the main aims and objective will fully be covered

in the doctoral work, the writer in the present dissertation

has limited the study to critically assess the literature

14 14

avai lable in th i s f i e ld and has introduced the area

and highlighted the problems which may be faced in bringing

above a general in tegrated development of the area. The

problera has been analysed by examining the s i t ua t ion in

one d i s t r i c t , namely Basti and latex on the study wil l

be expanded t o incorporate other d i s t r i c t s of Trans-3haghara

p l a in .

The present work spreads over five chaptars. The

first chapter reviews the work relating to rural development.

The second chapter deals with the history and certain

aspects of Integrated Rural Development. These aspects

are described in detail taking every phase of rural life.

Each aspect forms a sub~chapter of this main

chapter.

Chapter third assesses the performance of

Rural Development Programme in India.

Chapter four introduces the physical basis of the

Trans-Ghaghara Plain. The last chapter i.e. Chapter

five tries to analyse the problems of Basti district

as a test case and evaluates the Impact of IRDP on

the poverty eradiction and the level of economic

development of the rural people in this district.

Chapter six.highlights the various aspects covered

in the dissertation in the form of conclusion.

15

Prorootlon Factor For Integrated Rural Development,

Problems And Safeguards t-

A number of factors stimulate the Integrated Rural

Development and make such type of development click, by

which the villages go steadily on the path of economic

and social progress. These factors are as follows »-

(1) Political Commitment

(2) Comprehensive planning

(3) Economic Incentives

(4) Creation of Institutions for Rural Development

(5) Social Re-structuring of the rural areas.

Problems And Safeguards :

Various problems may arise in the imple-mention

of rural development programme under certain situations

and the prospects of such a programme may come across

some difficulties. Success depends upon certain safeguards

which can over come these difficulties. These various

problems and safeguards are discussed below :-

(1) All techniques adopted in the western countries

to increase agricultural production can not be

suitable in our country because of the varying

sociO-edonomlc and physical conditions. The far­

mers in India should adopt the new techniques only

if they are convinced of its suitability under the

prevailing ecological situation and if they are

16

sure that the application of new technology will

benefit them*

(2) In India, the possibilities of extensive cultiva-18

tlon are limited and therefore, the final solu -

tion of her agricultural problems lies in Inten -

sive agriculture, and in raising the level of

yield per hectare. The uncultivated land must also

be used for cultivation.

(3) The question of rich fanners becoming richer and

of growing income disparities in rural areas,can

not be solved soon in the existing background of

techniques which favour these groups that have

adequate land with complementory physical and fi­

nancial resources. The small land holders can,

therefore, be assisted through development of

technique more suited to their circumstances,

and the process can be assisted if the large far­

mers can be made to share the cost of development,

(4) Due to the small size of holdings, agriculture

could not be developed on scienflflc lines. Roads

and irrigation systems have been designated to ad­

just to the excentrlclties of private land owner -

ship, resulting in an Irrigational pattern of re­

source use which we can it afford from a long term

point of view. It is this basic melody that any

17

programme of •'land reform*• in the real sense of

tena« should come to grips with and rectify. It

cannot be confined only to simple redistribution

19 of land from bigger farmers to small farmers.

(5) India has a varying topography and soils with the

result that nature of crop land use differs from

place to place. The methods of rural land use pla­

nning of other countries, therefore, may not be

applied in Indian conditior?,*^Moreover, the statis­

tics on rural land use and agriculture in India

have been collected in considerable detail but

they are very often unreliable. All this make lo­

cal full to field observation necessary for chal­

king out our own rural development programme,

(6) The financi-ng of irural development programmes

must be done by local agencies rather than by non­

local sources. This, however, is a difficult task.

First, because there is lack of political will and

social awakening at the village level. Secondly,

becftus« the sources of local finance are too mea­

gre for the purpose. These bad tendencies can be

checked if the Government takes the initiative,

(7) Indian society is divided into hundred of castes

and subcastes. Mostly, villagers are illiterate

18

and superstition. Socio-e<ionomic studies conduc­

ted on many of the rural development projects

have revealed that their fruits have mostly gone

to the rural elite, and not to leaving the vast

low caste landless, agricultural labourers and 21

untouchables. Efforts should be made to make the

villagers conclous and reasonable to share the

benlfits of such plans,

(8) Rural youth, after availing some primary education

are no longer satisfied with rural life or with

cultivation as the only means of gainful employ-22

ment. To them cities are not only exiciting but

they also offer a variety of choice. Hence, there

is always a shift of rural population to uiban

centres which is a great bottle-neck on the path

of rural development. This tendency should be sol­

ved and efforts should be made to encourage the

rural youth to settle in their own villages and

to make the best use of their intelligence and

education there,

(9) The lion's share of Gross National Produce and

Gross National Income Is usurped by the urbanites

leaving the ruralites to fend for themselves.

Even in fixing ration quantity discrimination is

19

23 made between urban and rural sector. Therefore,

these factors should be taken more seriously for

solution by the Government»

(10) The major implication of area development Is that

within each areas, action for development should

be related directly to its own conditions and

problems and the resources of the area and its

requirement* But this factor is ignored. There­

fore, this fact must be main base of technique

for Integrated Rural Development©

With all the problems in their path, the develop­

ment programme have provided a new dimension to the rural

development and introduced a structural change of consi­

derable importance at district, block and village level.

Improvement of agriculture has remained in the fore

front through out. If effectively and efficiently done,

it will also arrest the exodus of surplus population to

the urban labour market in search of work. But the di­

fficulties are formidable and call for cru^der's zeal

on the part of all concerned. As observed by the world

Bank, ••rural development*' does not come easy'* none­

theless, there is reason to feel encourage by the pro­

gress made thus far.

20

(c) yools And Techniques For I n t e g r a t e d Rural Develop-

roent t-

During the last few years there has been a marked

Increase in interest in tools and techniques of planning

for the Integrated Rural Development in our country* One

remarkable feature has been a wide variety of studies

produced in this field. Therefore, it becoines essential

to know »-

(1) What factors make the Integrated Rural Develop -

ment planning necessary ?

(2) What is its political importance ?

(3) What are the approaches intended to achieve and

what are the pitfalls which these approaches may

have ?

(4) Which aspects have been neglected in planning and

where do critical weakness exist ?

(5) What will be the desired approadh to the Integra­

ted Rural Development Planning and in what manner

it should be implemented ?

Experience indicates that a strong commitment

to rural development at the national level is necessary

if the impact is to be effective and broad basedo Tech­

niques aimed to ensuring a flow of new, field tested tech­

nological knowledge are essential for the success of In­

tegrated Rural Development Planning. Research and d«nons-

21

tration facilitate the Implementation of development

techniques in all rural areas.

Fundamentally^ the Integfated Rural Development

is focused on the resources and population of rural areas.

To harness together all the possibilities of the natural

and human resouces in the rural areas is the crux of de -24

veloi^ent* The outlook^ attitudes and the skills of the

rural people and their capacity to use the natural and

economic potentials lying within their grasp are the sin­

gle most factor for the Integrated Rural Development,

All the different components of Integrated Rural

Development are closely inter - related and must be built

up togather to the greater extent possible. The compo -

nents and phasing must be formulated both to remove con­

straints and to support those forces prevailing in rural

25

areas which are favourable to Rural Development. The fo­

llowing components make the Rural Develppment Planning

essential!

(a) Strengthening the physical base;

(b) Strengthening the edonomlc infrastructure;

(c) Accellerating the technological development;

(d) Strengthening the social base; and

(e) Community effort and utilization of man power.

22

Planning for the Integrated Rural Development has

political importance because it reflect on the success

or failure of Government in the country. Hence Govern -

ment plays large roles in planning for the rural deve -

lopment. In this effort, the role of different popular

institutions and administrative agencies functioning at

the village level is seen as being one of the responsi­

ble partnership.

Strong co-ordination at the centre is increas -

ingly regarded as essential to the succesful implemen­

tation of the Integrated Rural Development programme

while co-ordination at the local level is emphasized

because local control provides the flexibility needed

for the proper integration and timing of activities,

and for modification of programmes in response to

changing conditions.

Like any other branch of science and techno­

logy, the principles and practices in rural planning

are based on broadly accepted concepts, theories and

experiments* Various approaches to rural development

have been formulated which differ considerably. One

of them is Growth centre Approach, It refers to appro­

priate location of social and economic activities over

the physical space. It is contended that a frame work

for decentralising econcamic and social activities can

23

be provided by lcx:ating specific functions at appropri­

ate places; such a net work of Growth centre can provi­

de a meaningful infrastructure which can attract fcnd

26

sustain diversified growing economic activity,, The iden­

tification of the Growth Centres and the provision of

requisite socio-economic infrastructure is considered

to be the crucial valriable in Rural Area Development.

However, there .are certain critical points in this app­

roach which are as follows »-

(1) There has not been proper relection of centres;

they have failed to stimulate growth in rural

areas*

(2) The approach does not elaborate the mechanism

through which the growth centres would continue

to grow, attracting new industries and other non-

agricultural activities to the backward rural

areas when side by side the presently developed

centres are conpeting,

(3) And even If the centres develop, the process

through which such implanted centres will trans­

mit economic growth to the hinterland is not

spelled out. In fact if the complementaries bet­

ween the centres and the hinterland are weak,

there will not be any spread effect but instead

an unfavourable polarization effect will be manifest.

24

A more comprehensive approach to Integrated Rural

Development has been propounded where in the basic vari­

ables^ viz, factors of production and their interactions,

have been considered. The areal unit accepted varies from

a single village, a group of villages, say* around a 'man-

dl* centre to an entire district. Where a village is acce­

pted as a unlt« inventory of resources is made, develo -

pinent potential assessed, anployment needs measured and

on the basis of the existing situation, deveopment schemes

are suggested so as to increase the productive activity

and to enlarge the employment base. Such schemes rooted in

local problems can help in improvement of the local situ­

ation. However, they have certain limitations t

(1) Such schemes have a limited general applicability

and the implications of such schemes applied on

wide scale may be quite different from those when

they are applied in a few isolated places,

(2) Alth-ough villages can be appropriate unit for de­

tailed physical land use planning. Yet for draw -

ing the total development frame work in which trans­

port and communication system, industrial locations,

agricultural specialization etc, form an integral

part, a wider canvas is necessary.

In district development planning, the district is

considered as the basic unit of planning. Within the given

25

socio-economic set up the production plans are to be wor­

ked out to ensure that the Interests of various classes

are harmoniously integrated in the plan. But this approach

has several short comingst

(a) The experience so far reveals that so long as there

are basic contradictions in the interests of the

different classes* the production plan worked out

by the planning agency cannot serve in interests

of all classes and is more likely to safeguard

the interests of the group who formulate the plan,

neglecting the backward and oppressed classes of

the society,

(b) The Interests of the weaker sections do not figure

as an integral part of the development planning but

come only in the form of ad-hoc schemes as appen -

dages with little chance of success since the basic

socio-econcxnic power structure reamains undisturbed,

(c) The district planning though comprehensive and in­

tegrated in approach, reamins partial in the sense

that it can r^ach limited sections of society and

cannot be an effective instrxmient for the trans -

portation of rural society that alone can put the

rural areas on the path of continuous development.

Another approach to rural development is the Mi -

nimum Package Approach, This aims to provide generally

•6

modest but broad based improvements in the levels of

living through increased agricultural output. However,

under some critical conditions, provision of Minimum

Package facilities tends to result in relatively few

direct beneficiaries among the rural poor#

A more comprehensive approach to rural develop­

ment consists of Area Development Schemes, Under these

schemes^ an emphasis on area development is conuwon for

agriculture as well as for Rural Development projcts.

Area Development projects on the needs of the rural

poo-r through diversified crops and integrated farming

systems. But there are perhaps two major dangers in

such schemes t

(1) The Scheme may concentrate a dlsproprotlonate

share of rtsources on providing benefits to a

group that are relatively small in relation to

the over all size of the rural target group,

(2) The schemes tend to suffer from a programme

design that is too ambitious and complex,

calling for exceptional leadership that can not

always be made available on a sustained basis.

Sector and special Programmes are un-usually or­

ganized on a nation wide basis. They meet the specific

needs of the rural poor. These Programmes are Rural

Public Works, Education and Training Programmes, and

27

credit Schemes^ However such programmes can rarely deve­

lop their full potential because their designs and im -

plementation has certain limitations t

(a) Projects may be poorly selected and designed, re­

sulting in high cost investment and low effici -

ency in terms of income supplements to the needy.

(b) Influential groups may alter programmes so as

to increase their own benefits at the cost of the

poor,

(c) The appropriate blend of local initiative and

decision making with central control is diffi­

cult to achieve.

The above mentioned approaches to rural develop­

ment planning, though appropriate in some manner,

have some limitations because no approach takes

into consideration all aspects of rural develop­

ment. Hence there are certain difticulties which

arise in planning for rural development such as :

(1) The Pinners do mot have a thorough knowledge of

the characteristics and proper background of

planning situation while it is very necessary

for the sucessful handling of the concept. Is

it any wonder that Dame Barbara Ward groaned,

•• what irritates me about the situation in

India is the so - called experts who do not know

the nation's priorities'•,

28

(2) In many cases some aspects or the others of di­

fferent concepts are conciously and subconcious-

ly incorporated in one solution without visua -

lising the implications of such an approach.

Such failures can be attributed to the lack of

basic studies for identifying the significant

characteristic of diffemt planning situations

and deep analyses of each concept,

(3) Huge amounts are being spent on the organisation

of planning activities and constructional projects

but hardly any planned researches are initiated

to provide pertinent and essential date ,

(4) Although different planning authorities have

been conducting many ad«^oc surveys and studies,

yet due to the lack of co herence in these in -

vestigations very little of the enormous data

available could be readily used and converted

into useful cvimulative knowledge for the growth

of planning sciences,

(5) In the apparent attempt to gain quick results,

often insufficient attention is given to mea -

sure to strengthen the resources base in rural

areas, first, by making more efficient use of

existing assests and subsequently by creating

new physical assets.

'9

(6) Village studies, representing the micro - aapro-

ach have, by and large, gone into a static rou -

tine and have became, in many cases, a mere ma -28

pping exercise,

(7) Most of our set backs in setting rural economy

on its legs have arisen on account of our try -

ing to apply readymade methods, which have been

devised for other lands and people. Some planners

directly import and implant many of the growth

inducing innovations experienced by the contem­

porary developed countries, which cannot be de­

sirable, and also not feasible in Indian condi­

tions because of her demographic characteristics

and the imbalances between the sectors,

(8) Rural planning is like bridge - building, so

long as it remains a theory it does not get us

any where so long as it is only partially com­

pleted it does not get us any where. It has to

be comprehensive and implemented. But in our

country a number of plans and schemes are thought

out but few are implemented with all care and effort,

(9) Planning for rural develoj^nent also fails if the

wishes of rural people are not taken into account.

Less obiously, perhaps, but with equal certainly.

30

it fails unless the planners ihake positive arran­

gements to take those wishes fully into their cal­

culations and to see that tl:ie resulting plans re­

flect, them,

(10) Past experience about academic research regarding

plan - formulation indicates how specifically

the non recognition of the value orientation of

the Innovators has failed to achieve the required

hegemony of the planners in their task of indue -

ing social change. The whole process of develop­

ment of Indian economy is arrested because of the

domination of monopoly capital and foreign inte­

rests in industry and semi-feudal economic rela­

tions in agriculture. In the absence of radical

change in the policy and and technique orienta­

tion at the national level, all the districts

or other rural area development schenes, nearly

worked out , can achieve very little to help

placing the irural ecoonmy of the path of self -

sustained growth,

(11) The paucity of initial means or of education in

the case of rural people and the various ins -

titutional and administrative hurdles are apt to

leave a •* gulf between acceptance (of planning) 30

which is easy and adoption which is difficult.

31

(12) there is also the lack of adequate knowledge

about production potentialities and capacity

of different states to implement which could

also depend upon the varying level of develop­

ment mindedness of farmers affecting the adop-

tion of programme,

(13) It is always dubious to make broad generaliza­

tions about economic and social ahange on the

basis of a few selected district studies. It

is all the more risky with respect to India*

where conditions differ not only from the dis­

trict to district but also from block to block

and even from village to village.

But what should be desired approach to Rural

Area Planning so that the rural economy can

reach the stage of self sustained growth ? A

rural region can be set on the path of deve­

lopment if there is better utilization of na -

tural resources which would not be possible in

the case of agriculture unless the land relations

are radically altered. Under the existing con­

ditions large sections of rural population do

not have adequate productive rescw rces to match

the human resources available. At the other ex-

a 2

treme the possibility of extensive cultivation

in the case of large land lords make for a sub-

optJmal use of land. For proper use of other re­

sources avilable within the region such as pas­

ture land; forest/ etc., it would be necessary

to draw up a common programme taking case of

the needs of a large section of the rural com­

munity. This would facilitate enlisting par -

ticipation of the local community which is a

precondition for the conservation and develop­

ment of resources. This in turn would create

a base for expansion of non-agricultural work.

Consequently the creation of large quantum em­

ployed and increased incomes will expand the market

activities. Such an expansion of the domestic market

would create scope for the growth of local industry

provided it is not threatened by the national indus­

try. If the local industry adopts labour intensive

technology, there would be further scope for expansion

of non-agricultural employment. Thus, the areal deve­

lopment of rural region can be possible on the basis

of its internal dynamics.

This is necessary for success that the plann­

ing for rural development must aim at a natural balance

;Ui

amongst the resources and their exploitation and thus

implies the existence of necessary organization which

will increase the efficiency of utilization of the

resources in rural areas.

In rural development planning how a thing is

done is more important than what is done and that if

the 'process* is taken care of, the 'Product* takes

care of it-self.

Effective rural planning calls for enoarmous

effort-s. It shouid be based on well stablished stand­

ards and standerds can be reliably fixed only after ex­

tensive research in this regard. Research studies should

be under taken to evolve simple techniques for conduc­

ting such surveys and presenting thdir observations.

Analyses of survey data also calls for specialized back

ground and it would be of considerable value of pro -

perly co-ordinated programmes of planning surveys can

be initiated and their analysis could be centrally or­

ganized.

When the planner comes to the second phase of

work, a vast background of different concepts, theories

and planning approaches are needed to guide his think­

ing. Here too through investigation into the current

practices and critical review of new thoughts in plann­

ing are very essential.

;vit

The plan formulations can be successful in their

implementation when the innovation is necessarily vi -

llager because the villager is accustomed to his own

style of adoptation of his physical» economic Sc social

environment and is also not necessarily prepared to 32

think beyond his own viability. He can not be made to

act for innovation not meaningful to his culture even

if these are derived from the most sophisticated, mo­

dern and computerised research methodology. The point*

therefore,is to formulate the plans having meaning or

relevance to the culture of the ruralsociety. The via­

bility of the individual farmer should be given due pre­

mium so that he may fulfil the planner's ambition by

transforming himself within his own conceptual frame

as contributery to the process of attaining viability

at the sub-regional, regional or national level. Mean­

ingful research on rural development is proveable if

points are kept in mind, the first of these is related

to recognition of the dominant role of physical, eco­

logical constraints in agricultural production. Low

technological base, tiny scale of operation, and high

incidence of consumption of form product by the pro­

ducers are the basic factors which permit the dominance

of nature over human social organisation. The selection

of right technology involving minimal innovation in a

a 5

culturally meaningful way can be identified more easily

through skill of the academic researcher than by the be-

havorial traps that the original political elites set

for thanselves.

The second point relates to the recognition of

the impact of monetization upon the rural economic scene,

the expression of which is found through temporal incre­

ment of incidence of cash-wage, peasant preference for

cash crops, preparedness of the farmers to buy ancillary

services by cash-payment etc,This phenomenon of moneti-

za^on is an exteitial expression of increasing metropo-

litanization of the rural economy. However, it is nece­

ssary to remember that the policies of monetization when

not related to the poliferation of the productive capa -

city of the society often leads to struggle for narrow

economism between the contending social groups with no

appreciation for the need of achieving hegemony in the

task of inducing social changes* If the academic resear

chers can not combat such politics of narrow economism

idealogically, they can atleast reduce the possibility

of such games within the planning schedules formulated

by them.

The third point concerns recognition of an over

all importance of the bureaucratic machinery in the

;{G

game of Induced innovation for economic development.

This is necessary, therefore, to prevent fusion of

conservatism and liberalism through inevilable co­

llaboration between the bureaucrats and mandarins

elites of the establishment. The essential point in

research for Rural development is the concious par­

ticipation of the rural society.

1 5

R E F f i R i i N C E S a?

1) Varshneya, J.3

2) Kashyap, C.L.,

—"What banks have done for

rural development",

Yojna, vol. 32, No.13,July

16-31, 19SB, p. 5.

—"Management and Planning of

Kural Development in India"

Aish Publishing House, New

Delhi, 1989, p.l.

3) International Labour Organisation, Human Resources

Developxient, Objectives, Problems and Policies,

Geneva, 1986, p.56.

4) Refer I.P. Desai and E.Choudhary, History of Rural

Development in Modern India (India 1977) Vol.11,

pp. 188-89. Also International Development strategy

for the second Development Decade, 1970.

Charles P. Kindleberger and Bruce Herrick, op.Cit,,

P.I.

Dudley Seers, "The Heaninj of Development" Eleventh

world conference of the Society for Internation

Development (New Delhi) 1969, p.3.

7) T.W.Schuitz, Economic Organisation of Agriculture;

M.C. Grawttiel Book Co., New York, 1953^ p.3.

8) Denis Goulet, The Cruel Choice: A new concept in the

Theory of Development, New York, 1971, p-2 3.

5)

6)

16

as 9) Mehbub Haq, "Employment and Inccme D i s t r i b u t i o n

i n the 1970 ' s ; A New pe r spec t ive" Pak i s tan econoniic

and s o c i a l Keview June-December, 1971 . p - 6 .

10) Michael P.Todars , "Economic Development i n the

Third World", New York, 1983. p - 7 .

11) World Bank - The Assaul t on World Pover ty ,

Ba l t imore , John Hopkins Un ive r s i t y P r e s s , 1975,

p - 3 .

12) Bhat tacharya , S.N; Community Development: An

Analys is of t he Programme i n I n d i a , Academic,

C a l c u t t a , 1970, p - 1 .

13) Arora , R,C» I n t e g r a t e d Rural Development,

S.Chand & Co. L t d . , 1978, p . 4 .

14) Refer I . P . Desai and B.Chaudhary, His to ry of Rural

Development i n Modern I n d i a , ( Ind ia 1977) Vol .11

pp . 188-89, Also I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development S t r a t egy

for t h e second Development Decade, 1970.

15) Report of t he Seminar i n Kural Development Concept

March 19-22, 1976, Sponsored by L e s l i e Sawhney,

Programme of Tra in ing for Democracy,

16) Najundappa D.M., Area Planning and Kural Development,

Associa ted Publ ishing House, New Delhi 1981, p . 5 .

17) Eva lua t ion Report on I n t e g r a t e d Rural Development

Programme, 3ovt . of I n d i a , May 1985, p - 2 .

REFERENCES a 9

18 Patel, S. T.,

19^ Subramaniam, C,*

20 . Chlurldule, P .B, ,

21. .shetty, V.T.R,

22 . Ghosh, B« and

Kulshrestha, S,K«,

23. Kaul, N. K.,

24. Singh, T.,

The India We want t Its Economic

Transition, P.C, Manaktala and

Sons Pvt. Ltd. Bombay, 1966,P.102.

•A Strategy for Rural Development',

Science and Integrated Rural Deve­

lopment , Focal Theme Discussed at

63rd Indian Science Congress, Jan,

3 - 7 , 1976, P.12.

'Rural Land Use t A Study in Me­

thods ', The Deccan Geographer,

vol. XIII, No.l, Jan.1975,P.173,

'Rural Development Strategy for

Asia', The Indian Express, Dec, 1,

1977, Col. 8, P.9.

• A Development Plan for Chhatera

village', Urband and Rural Planning

Thought, Vol. XVI, No.3 July,1973,

P.122.

'Cake and Crumbs' The Indian Ex­

press, October 27, 1977, col,2,

P.9.

Towards on Integrated Society^Ori­

ent Long mans Publication, Bombay,

1969, P.313.

25 Rural Development j

26

27 ,

28

29

30.

Brahme, Sulabha,

Datta« K,L,«

Sector Policy Paper< Published

by the World Bank, February,

1975, P.4.

'An Approach to Rural Area Deve­

lopment, • Indian Journal of Regi­

onal Science, vol, IV, No.l

1972, P.8.

Research Areas and Techniques in

Physical Planning,' Urban and Ru­

ral Planning Thought, vol.XIV,

No.3, July 1971, P,129«

•Regional Geography: A Trend Re­

port •, A Survey of Research in

Geography t A Project Sponsored

by the Indian Council of Social

science. Bombay, 1972, P.279,

'The Administrative Structure

of the Planning', Journal of the

Planning Institute, vol,55, No,7,

July-August 1969, P.291.

Evaluation Report of Second Year's Working of Community

Projects^ vol.1, P.E.O., 1955, P.60.

Deshpande, C,D«,

Ashworth, G,*

41

31. Singh, S.P. gentre « state Relations in Ag­

ricultural Development, Vikas

Publishing House, Delhi, 197 3,

P.78.

32, Chakraborty, S»C«,, 'Some considerations on the Re­

search Objectives for Rural Area

Development', Indian Journal of

Regional science, vol,IV, No.l

1972, P.2.

i2

CHAPTER - I

REVIEW OF WORK RELATING TO RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Integrated Rural Development Prograinirie (IRDP) was

originally visua-lised in the Draft Sixth Five Year Plan

(1978-79) as a block level resource based total develop­

ment plan with specific beneficiary - oriented schemes for

poverty alleviation. The IRDP initialed from 1978-79 to cover

2300 blocks of the country and from October 2, 1980 it was

extended to cover all of the 5,011 blocks of the country

and was incorporated as the component of 20-Point Programme

Later on.

Since the inception of IRDP in the country, a number

of persons engaged in different disciplines like agriculture

agriculture, economics/ other social sciences and geography

have studied various aspects of IRDP in special as well as

temporal perspectives. Moreover, they have measured the per­

formance of IRDP in the respective areas of their interest

and suggested a large number of methods for realising better

results of this programme.

Subramaniam (1976) in his study of 'A Strategy for

Rural Development* has analysed that a strategy of Rural

Development based an a comprehensive survey o£ natural

resources, their exploitation based on technologies appro­

priate to the local environment, mass mobilisation through

a process of education, all with a view to a scientific

utilization and equitable sharing of available resource.".

It is aimed at to improve the efficiency of vtiJization

of the physical resources, and facilitatu an intemive use

of available labour, whether it be in strengthening trans-

portf Lnproving irrigation, and drdinage, conserving soil

or rationalising land and water use.

His study shows thet the Integrated Rural Develop­

ment should have villages plans. A village plan provide-;,

^irstly, for those activities which the people of the village

can themselves undertake, using their own man power and other

resources to the maximum extent and, secondly for supplies

and credit and technical help which the village needs from

out side.

Kang (1978-79) in her study with reference to Ferozpur

district has focussed the nature of development through

integrated rural develo|)ment programme in Punjab. Subsequently,

she has realised the need for integrating all the programmes,

for tot^l development of the area i.e., agriculture, educa­

tion has led a concept of integrated rural development, A

nun ber of programmes have been planned with a view to deve­

lop the irural areas. Under this scheme she selected a cluster

of five contiguous villages representing each block of the

district.

44

She has also attempted to measure the achievements

of different departments engaged in rural development work-

Finally^ it has been stated that people's participation in

integrated rural development programme and knowledge of

villager as regard the integrated rural development pro­

grammes are essential to implement the programme in a 2

successful manner.

Sinha (1979) in his study on the aspects of Develop­

ment of Foodgrain Production Policies in India,' has initia­

ted a comcern about the emerging food situation in the

dountry to make proper programmes and policies to deal with

that situation. The study has taken into consideration,

that the states efforts in providing inputs like, fertili­

sers/ improved seeds, irrigation water, credit, power and

researdh have rather been tardy, and adequate attention

does not seem to have been paid to land reforms. As regards

for required pricing policy, the study has indicated a Govern­

ment's support rather than of incentives.

The study finally confines to the arguments that

for policy making is hthe political executive and power

has been frequently exercised irrespective of bureaucratic 3 exercises.

Gi l l (1980) in h i s s tudy of 'Role of Small Farmers

Developtr.ent Agency in I n t e g r a t e d Rural Development Programme

45

has taken into consideration the Small Farmers Development

Agency as the sole largest reserve for improving the econo­

mic conditions of the rural poor. The present study examines

the role of the above agency in the district of Sirmaur of

Himachal Pradesh, The study shows that a vast amount of

investment of the score economic resources has gone into

the creation of infrastructure for agriculture development

to help mainly the big farmers. Small Farmers Development

Agency and their similar agencies in the field of rural

development are not only helpful but are considered as

essential to generate rural income and to increase ps^

capita productivity. The central and State Governments have

evolved various strategies to streamline such agencies,

Basu (1981) in his study on Tribal Development Pro­

gramme especially in the tribal belt of Bharrr.our and Pangi

Sub-Division of chamba District in Himachal Pradesh, has

pointedout that no adequate efforts have been made to solve

the basic problems of tribals like poverty, malnutrition

and exploitation.

The study has further highlighted the development

programmes which have failed to elicit popular support and

participation of the local persons. He has argued that the

approach should be to harness the minimum potentials for

decentralised development of villages and small scale

industries for maximising the output.

4G

Singh (1982) in his study on 'Rural Modernisation

contradiction and Change' has advocated that it is the

development factor that primarily determine the level of

modernisation of villages. The main focus of the study is

on to explicate the nature and process of modernisation

of Individual and social structure in the rural setting.

At the individual level the work tends to measure the

trends of development and to find out its major resources

in each sector. At societal level, it analyses the process

of modernisation of different individual families, caste,

relation of production and power structure but also focuses

upon their inter-relations too.

Sundaram (1984) in his study on Anti-poverty Rural

Development in India, has identified the incidence of rural

poverty and unemployment in the countries of developing

world. He has enumerated various strategies which were

adopted to streamline the process of rural development in

different areas of the country. Under the Community Deve­

lopment Programme efforts were concentrated to increase the

agriculture production in selected areas. Some of the experi­

ences gaining through that approach revealed a further need

to integrate the programmes for the development of weaker

sections by areawise planning.

He has observed in his study, that an encouraging

feature of rural development is that, the rural poor do

47

not resist change. They desire to make the full use of the

opportunities provided to them.

He has further assessed, that there is a need f^t

strengthening the administrative machinery to help the rural

poors. People's participation will lead to proper selection

of assets, programme and evaluation of projects. To him the

best solution for minimizing the rural unemployment and

poverty lies in proper area planning. By this way the use of 7

natural and human resources can properly be done,

Gaur (1984) in her study of Aligarh District has

analysed that the strategy for Integrated Rural Area Deve­

lopment may be useful and rewarding to all those who are

interested in co-ordinated rural development planning of

other districts. In her opinion, a higher production of

agriculture to meet an ever increasing demand can be achi­

eved only, if the resources are put to optimum use, to achieve

this goal it is essential to have a detailed inventory of

natural and human resources of the whole district and to

locate, identify and fix targets achieveable through their

optimal utilization.

Accordingly, the revitaiization of the national

economy depends upon the Integrated Rural Area Development

and thus a flourishing rural economy would certainly change

the face of the country and this will form a part of history

48

in rural development in India. The roots of national life g

would then be strengthened.

Breman (1985) in his study on 'Peasant, Migrants

and Paupers'. Rural Labour Circulation and Capitalist

Production in West Asia has analysed the reduction of the

poor persons below the poverty line. To him the eradication

of absolute poverty seems to have been frequently accompanied

by increasing relative poverty, i.e., by deterioration of 9

the relative position of the poor I

Maheswari (1985) has reviewed the major strategies

and approaches for rural development launched since indepen­

dence, A nximber of poverty alleviation programmes for rural

development have mord or less benefited the farmers, those

who are possessing land. He has also reviewed the performance

of the Panchayati Raj Institutions, Ashok Mehta Committee's

Report, Function and Personnel, Financial Resources and Ins­

titutional Safeguards for the weaker sections ,

Singh (1985) has studied the possible development

and administration of tribal areas with special reference

to Lahaul and Spiti Districts of Himachal Pradesh. He has

also discussed the performance of various departments on

the Department of Animal Husbandry. Agriculture, Horticul­

ture, Education, Health etc., for the rural development pro-

granunes in the districto After making an assessment he has

49

observed that the living standard of the people was 'niise-

rable* in the district. But with the Government efforts and

developmental work taken into consideration, the living

standard and socio-economic conditions of some of the per­

sons have been changed ,

Rath (1985) evaluated the Role of Poverty Alleviation

Progr^Tune, i.e., IRDP, NREP, RLEGP AND TRYSEM, and comes

with a view that by the end of seven years of total period

of its operation, IRDP has been able to help only 3 per cent

of the poor households in rural areas of India to raise them

12 above poverty line ,

Singh (1986) in his study of Rural Development in

India attempted to evaluate the meaning, objectives, measeres

hypotheses and determinants of rurual development. To him,

planning can make a positive contribution only if it facili­

tates the achievement of development objectives more rapidly

and more efficiently. It is now becoming apparent that the

development efforts should not be left to the Government

alone, they must be shared by the private organisations

and agencies and above all by the people the mselves» Planning

efforts of the Government should be complimented and supple­

mented by the efforts of individuals and non-governmental

organisation. A design of an appropriate strategy for in­

creasing agricultural productivity requires a high degree

50

of Judgement and intimate knowledge of physical resources

and agricultural characteristices of a particular region.

Further he dealt with for rural development policies, policy

model, policy instruments and related rural development pro­

grammes followed in India, To ens-ure the balanced growth

of all sections of the society and all areas, a special

policy for rural poor people and backward areas is needed.

The theory of economic policy and policy models can be the

1 3 important tools to the policy makers ,

Arputharaj and Rajayan (1986) in their study on

•National Rural Employment Programme in Tamil Nadu', have

shown that the schemes like construction and repairs of

rural roads; construction and repairs of school buildings

and construction of Harijan Colony, have generated adequate

employment opportunities to the workers.

Further they have stressed the need of construction

of roads and their proper maintenance as they link the chain

of future development and create an incremental benefit to

the society,

Awasthi etal (1986) have evaluated the impact of

IRDP on the econibmic status of rural people in jabalpur

district of Madhya Pradesh, In their study/ they have shown

that small and marginal fanners accepted village level busi­

ness and intensified their agricultural business. Agricultural

c: 1

labourers are engaged in animal husbandry to earn their

livelihood and rural artisans intensified their business

and took up village level business. The finance assistance

provided under IRDP scheme to the beneficiaries has raised

their income significantly.

Bhattacharjee and Mondal (1986) have studied the

Evaluation of IRDP in Sikkim and Darjeeling, They have

attempted to evaluate the performance of IRDP schisme opera­

ting in Sikkim and Darjeeling. In Darjeeling, the IRD pro­

grammes are mainly confined to animal husbandry and tertiery

sector but in Darjeeling the IRDP Schemes under animal hus­

bandry have failed to achieve the satisfactory results ins-

pite of an extended access to the marketing facilities.

The study reveals that very recently certain improve­

ments are visible as regards to beneficiaries in response

to more effective measures taken in sikkim than that of its

counterpart in Darjeeling, They have argued that a successful

implementation for backward regions should be favoured with

special rate of subsidy, linkage of marketing. Decentralised

planning authority and machinery should be provided for

successful implementation of IRDP.

Dhanasekaran etal (1986) in their study on 'Diversi­

fication of Income And Employment Through IRDP in Periyar

District of Tamil Nadu, have shown the nature and extent

of the variation in Income before and after the Introduction

of IRDP.

According to them, there was diversification of

sources of Income from crop and agricultural wages to dairying.

52

pouttry, secondary and tertiery sector and non-agricultural

wages. The diversification is comparatively higher in kuglar

village than in Ayalur. Their study have shown that there

was a positive realtionship between the percentage of people

lifted above poverty line and diversification of sources of

income and employment,

Ghadolia (1986) has based his study on 120 household

surveys on 'Awareness, Benefit and opinion About Special

Programme' like IRDP and KREP in 6 villages of three tehsils

of Udaipur district of Rajasthan,

His study reveals that one-fourth of the eligible

households actually have derived benefits from the above

programmes. The results under the progra-nmes have proved

to be beneficial but he points out that efforts should be

made to create awareness among the rural masses.

Guliani and Singh (1986) in the study show the pattern

of loan provided under the IRDP in Hisar district of Har-

yana. The study reveals that under IRDP the major emphasis

interms of advancement of loans was given to the marginal

farmers and agricultural labourers. As regards the purpose

wise distribution of loans for the purchase of buffalo,

sheeps and bullock pairs and carts by the small farmers,

marginal farmers and agricultural labourers and artisans,

it was found that the loans advanced for all of the above

purpose were not sufficient to meet the actual reguirements.

53

Hirway (1986) in his study on 'The Next Stage in

Rural Development, Direct Attack on Poverty' has revealed

that the growth with equity should be the major goals of

planning in India. The study shows that the efforts in

Indian economy are not very much successful in achieving

either the goals of poverty eradication or the objective

of high growth rates.

The study further throwslight that without reducing

the number of persons below poverty line, it can be said

that planning has not achieved much in eradicating the

poverty of the poorest groups of the people. The first

major problem in bring down the poverty line is the non-

involvement of the real needy poor in the anti-poverty

programmes,

Jain (1986) while evaluating the 'Impact of IRDP

on Agricultural sector of Jabalpur District in Madhya

Pradesh, has shown that productivity of crops has increased

due to the expansion of irrigation which led to an increase

in cropping intensity,

V , Kaur etal, (1986) in their study of Haryana findout

the factors hindering the achievements of the objectives

envisaged in the IRDP,

According to them^ the major obstacles found for

the effective implementation of the programmes were: the

r 4

irrational criterion adopted for the selection of benefici-

«ri«8 which resulted in a large number of pseudo-benefIci-

arieS/ lack of awareness among the rural poor responsible

for their not taking advantage of the scheme; absense of

any linkages to provide institutional support for the supply

of raw material and marketing facilities; lack of follow-up

action after the delivery of the assets; existence of credit

gap between the loan disbursed and the actual cost of the

asset and absence of schemes suited to different areas.

Khatkar# et alt (1986) have studied 'An Impact study

of IRDP in Mahendragarh District of Haryana* with a view to

examine the process of identification of beneficiaries, the

economic viability of scheme, impact of IRDP assistance,

proportion of beneficiaries crossing the poverty line and

the strategy of uplift the rem-aining above the poverty line©

They have reviewed the number of schemes who have

assisted a largest number of beneficiaries to bring them

confortably above the poverty line. Among them the minor

irrigation works followed by the assistance provided for

purchasing buffaloes, camels, and carts to the small, mar­

ginal farmers and landless labourers. They are in opinion

that the desirable impact of IRDP can be realised if it is

integrated not only with other poverty alleviation programmes

but also with the pverall development of the programmes of

the area.

Misra (1986) in his study on 'Rural Developtnentj A

Challenge Before IRDP t A Fresh Work, took a view that as

IRDP accounts for about 49 per cent of thfe total seventh

plan rural development investment but it has failed to

bring tham above the poverty line. The IRDP is associated

with many problem of Identification of beneficiaries, to

coverage of beneficiaries due to decentralised planning,

due to linking of subsidy with loans, target oriented

approach, lack of co-ordination between the IRDP agencies

and other institutions, cumbersome loaning procedure, and

Inadequate supervision mechanism*

Mohsin (1986) in his study on 'IRDP i Needs For

Follow-Up* outlines the objectives of IRDP, to raise the

status of the poor and to bring them above poverty line.

He is in opinon that IRDP should be linked with other

developmental programmes, if poverty alleviation is the

main aim. He has emphasises the need of infrastructural

development.

Rai and Singh (1986) have examined the Impact of IRDP

on agricxiltural development in Sultanpur and Fatehpur dis -

tricta of Uttar Pradesh.

According to them, the income and opportunities of

employment can be enhanced in a crop enterprise and poultry

farming by transfering appropriate technology and input

56

msslstance to the poors. The strategy for efficient imple­

mentation of IRDP should include an appropriate package of

policy measure to assist the rural poor to improve their

economic conditions,

Rao (1986) while commenting on IRDP has pointed out

its many weaknesses as t

(i) Allocation of outlays under IRDP were not made on

an uniform basis for each block in the country,

(ii) The chain of intermediaries between the Government

and beneficiaries is very longone and needs to be

reduced*

(iii) In the choice of programmes and their implementation

local institution have to be evolved to ensure that

the activities are not of standardised nature but

are meeping with the factor endowments and resource

potential of the local. Further the activities/ pro­

grammes need to be so designed and promoted that a

group or co-operative effort on the part of the be­

neficiaries gets encouraged only group effort can

offer great returns through better access to and

use of available resources and skills, reduction

in production risk and provision of better bargaining

power in the market.

He has also examined, the new approaches and methods

which have been adopted in the implementation of the IRDP

in the context of recent experience in some districts of

Andhra Pradesh. The prograimie needs to be strengthened

and should be linked more integrally with the local level

planning to improve its effectiveness. The project/cluster

approach and a more objective identification of benefici­

aries, also need to be btiiilt into the system,

Satyanarayana and Peter (1986) in their study on

•integrated Rural Development Vis-A-Vis Agricultural Deve­

lopment' have shown that several agro-based schemes have

been formulated under IRDP to alleviate the economic con­

ditions of the landless^ small and marginal farmers. These

schemes have not yielded Impressive results and infrastruc-

tural facilities.

They have emphasized that the assistance should be

carefully planned with an inbuilt follow-up facility. Other­

wise, the beneficiaries will be sliding back into the poverty

pool. The present poverty alleviation programmes of IRDP

are found less effective in bridging the gap in rural deve­

lopment and, on the other hand, proved to be an economic

burden to the banking industry.

For better performance of IRDP schemes, it is suggested

to have a single window multipurpose approach through well

equipped autonomous Rural Development Institutes, established

in each development blocks.

58

Saxena (1986) in his study on 'Credit Finance for

IRDP in Ballia District of East Uttar Pradesh* has shown

that the Impact of financial assistance on agricultural

development. The study aims to evaluate the benefits of

bank finance disbursed to rural inhabiltants under IRDP

in Ballia district.

The study reveals, that the IRDP loans have bene­

fited the small and marginal farmers by enhancing their

income by persuing some gainful employment. However,the

procedure for the sanctioning of loans and idenfification

of households needs to be changed so as to minimise the

time taken in the sanction of loans and to reduce the cost

of loaning. The result of their study confirms that farm

and non-farm enterprises should be diversified through

effective implementation of IRDP.

Singh (1986) has made an attempt to analyse and

evaluate the planning and implementation process of IRD

Programmes in two blocks, namely Chitrakut and Barokhar

Khurd of Banda district of Uttar Pradesh, While commenting

on the programme, he has pointed out that the selection

of the beneficiary households was improper, no significant

impact of IRDP is seen on the income of the beneficiaries.

He has further pointedout, that the schemes financed

under the IRDP had no link with the local resources potential

59

and the requirements of the beneficiaries. The amount of

loan granted to the beneficiaries was in-sufficient to

create new assets. The beneficiaries did not get any support

from the institutions for the purchase of rawmaterials.

The provision for marketing and availability of inputs

were not adequate in this district. In the implementation

of IRDP schemes^ the local people should be involved actively,

Singh (1986) in his study on 'Strategies For Growth

With Equity i Lesson of IRDP Experience* has shown that the «

strategy of IRDP can meet both the goals of growth and

equity simultaneously. He has also shown that although the

performance of IRDP has varied widely and there have been

many short - comings in its implementation, in a balance

manner, for a successful promoting of growth and equity

simultaneously.

Sinha, A.K. et al. (1986) have studied the people's

involvement in IRDP in the eastern Uttar Pradesh forming

a part of Indo-Gangetic Plain, They have emphasized that

a Gaon-Sabha Level IRDP Committee consisting of Gram Pra-

dhan, special interest like small farmers, marginal far­

mers, landless labourers, artisans and scheduled castes,

VDO land Lekhpal should be entrusted with the responsibility

of beneficiary identification and asset supervision and

should be involved in the process of project identification

to check-over saturation and multiplicity of similar projects.

GO

REFERENCES :

(1) Subramanlam, C», Strategy for Integrated Rural Deve-

lopanent, Mauto, 1976. See V.K.R. V.Rao, »An Integrated App­

roach to Rural Developments Yojna, Vol,41, No.2, Feb. 15,

1977.

(2) Kang, H.K., 'Integrated Rural Development in Punjab

With Special Reference to Ferozpur District', M.Phil, Di­

ssertation, Submitted to Punjab University* Chandigarh,

1978-78.

(3) Sinha, A.K., Development of Foodgrain Production

Policies in India and the Role of Central Department of

Food*, 1979, Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Punjab University,

Chandigarh*

(4) Gill, P.S., 'Role of Small Farmers Development

Agency in Integrated Rural Development With Special Re­

ference to Shirala and sirmaur District', M.Phil. Disser­

tation submitted to Punjab University, Chandigarh, 1980,

(5) Basu, A.P., Tribal Development Programmes in Hima-

chal Pradesh : A Study of Bharmaur and Pangi Sub-Division

of Chamba District, Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Punjab Uni­

versity, Chandigarh, 1981.

(6) Singh, G.S., Rural Modernisation Contradiction and

Change Intellectual Publishing House, New Delhi, 1982.

61

(7) Sundaram, I.S., Anti-Poverty Rural Development in

India, D.K. Publication*, 1984.

(8) Gaur, Archana, 'Resource Based Integrated Area Deve­

lopment of Aligarh District, M.Phil,, Dissertation submitted

to Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 1984,

(9) Breman, J,, 'Of Peasant, Migrants and Paupers :

Rural Labour Circulation and Capitalist Production in West

Asia, Oxford University Press, London, 1985,

(10) Maheshwari, S.R,, 'Rural Development in India'. A

Public Policy Approach, sage Publication, New Delhi,1985,

(11) Singh, S,# Tribal Area Development Administration',

A Public Policy Approach, Sage Publication, New Delhi,1985.

(12) Rath, Nilakanth, Garibi Hatao : Can IRDP do it i

Economic and Political Weekly, Vol,20, No,6, Feb,9, 1985,

(13) Singh, Katar, 'Rural Development Principles, Policies

and Managotnent, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1986,

(14) PankaJ, V,, Administration of Rural Development in

Hiroachal Pradesh, M.Phil, Dissertation submitted to Punjab

University, Chandigarh, 1986o

(15) Arputharaj, C, and Rajayan, E,C, (1986), National

Rural B Bnployment Progranune in Tamil Nadu, Indian Journal

of Agricultural Economic, Vol.41, No,4, P.674,

62

(16) Awasthl, P.K., et al (1986), 'Integrated Rural Deve­

lopment Programme : Receptivity and Reaction', ibid, P.670,

(17) Bhattacharjee, s. and Mondal, R.C, 'Evaluation of

IRDP t A case Study in Sikkim and Darjeeling', ibid,P.660,

(18) Dhanasekaran, etal. (1986) Diversification of Income

and Employment Through IRDP x A Case Study in Periyar Dis­

trict of Tamil Nadu, ibid, P.664.

(19) (2iadoliya, M.K., Awareness, Benefits and Opinion

About Special Programmes', A Case Study of Udaipur District

ibid, PP.655-656.

(20) Guliani, S.S. and Singh, I.P. (1986), A Study on

Pattern of loans Awarded Under IRDP in Hisar District of

Haryana', ibid, P.661,

(21) Hlrway, I, (1986), 'Organising Rural Workers s

Gujrat Government Experiment', ibid, P,649.

(22) Jain, H.C. (1986), 'A Critical Study on the Impact

of IRDP on Agricultural sector of Jabalpur District, ibid.

Page 673,

(23) Kaur, M. etal, (1986), 'Poverty Alleviation Prograrrane

in Haryana - Need For A New strategy', ibid, P.662.

(24) Khatkar, R.K., etal, (1986), 'An Impact Study of IRDP

in Mahendragarh District of Haryana, ibid, PP.658-659,

63

(25) Misra, S. (1986), 'Rural Development i A Challenge

Before IRDP i A Fresh Look', ibid, PP.656-657.

(26) Mohsln, N. (1986), IRDP t Needs For Follow-Up',

Ibid, P.677.

(27) Rai, J, and Singh, D., (1986), *Re-orienting Inte­

grated Rural Development Programme - An Analysis', ibid.

Page 675.

(28) Rao, C.H.H., (1986), 'Planning For the Removal of

Poverty i some Issues Concerning Approach And Strategy -

Moving Technology*. CART, New Delhi, June, 1986,

(29) Satyanarayana, T. and Peter, Y. (1986), 'Integrated

Rural Development Vis-a-Vis Agricultural Development',

Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.41, No.4,

Page 661.

(30) Saxena, H.K. (1986), 'Credit Finance For IRDP in

Ballia District of East Uttar Pradesh : An Analysis Approach',

ibid, P.659.

(31) Singh, D.K. (1986), 'An Appraisal of IRDP in Banda

District of Uttar Pradesh', ibid, P.663.

(32) Singh, K, (1986), 'strategies for Growth With Equity:

Lesson of IRDP Experience', ibid, P.680,

(33) Sinha, A.K, etal. (1986), 'People's Involvement in

IRDP t A Study in Indo-Gangetic Plain - East Uttar Pradesh',

ibid. Page 657.

G4

CHAPTER - II

HISTORY AND ASPECTS OF THE INTEGRATED RURAL

DEVELOPMENT.

(A) History of Rural Development In India :

Asian countries that emerged as politically Inde­

pendent nations during past three decades adopted diffe­

rent developmental strategies but these attempts genera­

lly side - tracked rural development. Later on the impor-keenly felt

tance of rural sector was/,..,, and planning experts and

policy makers advocated the 'Rural Development' strategy

for such nations which were on burdened by and large are

growing population! India also incorporated thlsstrategy

in her developmental plans. This strategy was not new to

India as she has a long history interms of period and al­

so variety of efforts were different historical circums­

tances in the rural development,

A rural development experiment was made as far

back as 1885 at Baroda to bring immediate relief and de­

velopment in the area under its control. But this pro -

Ject was not sufficient for a wider application of eco­

nomic and social development because it covered only a

small area,

A Royal Commission/Agriculture was established

in 1926 to examine and report on the conditions of rural

economy in general and of agriculture in particular and

Gr3

to make recommendations for the promotion of welfare and

prosperity of the rural population.

In 1935, rural reconstruction centres were re-or­

ganised at several places, but the second world war broke

out in September 1939 and the hindered the progress.

In 1943, the 'Grow More Food Compaign' was initia­

ted for raising food production by adopting short - tdrm

and long term improvement programme in agriculture. But

there was an-over emphasis on food production activities,

only and this restricted the areas under cotton and jute.

During this period a number of projects embodying

important approaches of community development were intro­

duced in almost all parts of the country by Provincial

Government and Native States,

Inspired by the ideas of Mahatma Gandhi several

states initiated programmes for rural development. In

1947, for the purpose of resetting the displaced person

West Pakistan, land adjoining Niiokheri village in the

Karnal district of Punjab was acquired which was a mar­

shy Jungle. On this site Mr.Dey Planned a more or less

self sufficient township, to be integrated with the su­

rrounding glllages economically. He aimed at the organi­

zation of industries and craft predominantly on co-opera­

tive lines or under public ownership^

66

In last quarter of 1946, an important scheme of

rural development was initiated in 34 Firkas. The pur­

pose of this scheme was 'to organize the villages for a

happier, fuller and more prosperous life in which the

individual villagers will have the opportunity to deve­

lop both as an individual and as a member of well in -

tegrated society.

In September 1948, the Etawah Pilot Project was

introduced in 64 villages Alber Mayer, an American ar­

chitect, was the leader and chief source of inspiration

for this project?

In 1949, there was again a move for 'Grow More

Food Compa-ign* with a view to attain self sufficiency

in food grains by 1952, This did mot achieve the expec-Q

ted result.

On 18th April 1957, the Bhoodan Movement was star­

ted under the leadership of Vinoba Bhave. The aim was to

collect land and distribute it fairly among the villagers.

Closely allied to this movement were the Gramdan and Sha-

ramdan Movements,

Since the inception of planning in 1951-5 2, the

main rural dev«iopment programmes lannched by the Govern­

ment of India are as follows t-

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAI iE : India started an integrated approach to rural de-

G7

velopment as early as 1952 with the launching of the mul­

ti-purpose community development programme and setting

up of the National Extension Service 'to initiate a Pro­

cess of trawnsformation of social and economic life of

the villages. There are various changes in the basic struc­

ture of a community life in the process of community de­

velopment. These are t-

(a) Habitual changes especially related to use of land.

(b) Change in the quality of population i.e. balance

in land/labour, male/female^literate/illeterate

ratio etc,

(c) Changes in the socio-cultural setup at the level

of application of new tools and technology.

The International Co-operative Alliance stressed

on three basic attributes of the process of Community

Development.

(i) Democratic participation in initiating social ac­

tion,

(ii) Self reliance to the maximum possible degree, and

(iii) Participation of the governmental and non-govern -

mental agencies out side the community to supple­

ment its resources with required service and mate­

rial assistance.

Consequently community development blocks numbering

G8

about 5^100 were constituted as primary units of rural

development. Each of these blocks covered nearly a hun­

dred villages with a population of 80,000 to 1,00,000.

These blocks were further subdivided into group of five

villages each. In this programme various development

fields like agriculture, animal husbandry, industry, so­

cial education etc. were covered. In each district about

15 to 16 blocks covered and the entire country was to be

covered in a phased manner over a ten year period. Sub -

sequently by 1963, almost entire country was covered by

these conununity development blocks.

Area Of Community Development :

The areas which had been given priority in the

plans for developwnent under Community Development pro -

gramme were as follows :

(i) Agriculture and Allied Activities.

(li) Irrigation

(ill) Communication

(iv) Education

(v) Health

(vl) Housing

(vii) Supplementary Employment

(viii) Social and Economic Welfare and

(ix) T«alning,

GO

Thus* C D . programme aimed at the development of

all the spheres of a village life specification of vari­

ous areas was merely for the fixing priorities according

to local needs.

The result of Community development programme was

that It did help in creating awareness about the need

for improved agricultural practices and for betterment

of the socio-economic standard of life in the country

side.

INTENSIVE AGRICULTURAL PROGRAMME :

For improving agricultural production in the areas

of optimum potentialities. Intensive Agricultural District

Programme (lADP) or 'Package Programme* was introduced in

the country in 1960-61 in 16 selected districts.

It was an intensive approach to boost up agricul­

tural production having maximum potentiality with mini -

mum of natural hazards. The concepts of package of prac -

tices and form production plans were very much emphasised

in the programme. The programme undoubtly hel-rped in in -

creasing agricultural production in selected districts.

However, it was felt that though the programme

was very useful and result-oriented, it could not be ex­

tended to the entire country for lack of needed men and

material resources. Moreover, it was only one or two crops

70

that were important for a district and hence instead of

taking entire agriculture into the development spectrum,

the objective could be achieved by confining the progra»»

rome to a limited number of crops which were commonly ra­

ised in that particular areas. Accordingly, Intensive

Agriculture Area Programme (lAAP) was introduced in March

1964 covering 117 districts in the country while the nu­

mber of VLWs was doubled in lADP, there were no such de­

veloped units at the district levels. Thus^ it is obvi­

ously that rural development strategy .shifted from mul -

tipurpose genera-lised approach to mono-purpose specia -

lised area approach.

This strategy of concentrating efforts in areas

with optimvim potentialities of agricultural growth was

as the 'New Strategy of Agricultural Development*. The

salient features of this new strategy were }

(i) Stress on high yielding varieties.

(li) Optimum utilisation of production in areas with

assured irrigation and rainfall by higher inputs

through the intensive agricultural programme.

(iii) Introduction of short duration crops^and

(iv) Effective utilisation of the irrigation potentials.

The introduction of Mexican dwarf wheat variety

opened new vistas.for raising yield level of wheat. Three

71

sub-systems i.e.# technology production, technology trans-

fer and technology use, were delineated and elements with­

in each subsystem were also identified. The H.Y.V. pro -

gramme was mainly applicable in case of dwarf wheat, rice

and hybrid varieties of maize, jo war and bajra. Consequen­

tly, the programme brought about a revolution in agricul­

tural production resulting in doubling the food production

in the country, compared to 1950-51 level.

However, it was soon realised that the New Strategy

of Intensive Agricultural Development led to the concen -

tration of incomes In well developed areas and resulted

in the major gains going to the relatively big fanners.

Thus, while it led to definite growth in agricultural

production, it did not help to achieve the objectives of

social justice and hence endangered further tensions in

the rural society. The task of rural development became

more complex due to be slow realisation of the differen­

tiated nature of the village community, with it fejdal

power nexus where the 'rural poor* and the 'rural weak*

including the scheduled castes and tribes, are hardly in

a position to participate or conjribute significantly to ;

or even derive any benefit from the programme schemes or

agencies as they were then operating.

As the benefits of the programme were acc-uring

72

mostly to those better endowed with land resources, more

was required to be done to help the landless, the rural

unemployed and economically and socially disadvantages

sections of the rural society,

SPECIAL PROGRAMMES FOR WEAKER SECTIONS AND BACK -

VfARD AREAS i-

Subsequently, All India Rural Credit Review Co -

mmittee (1969) pointed out that specific measures be ta­

ken to concentrate the development efforts on the weaker

sections of farming community in order to improve their

lot and to rectify these discrepancies. Hence, to tackle

the problem of this target group in particular and also

for the development of backward areas., some steps were

taken during the Fourth Plan and were further intensi -

fied and strengthened during the Fifth Plan in the form

of special programmes for backward areas and weaker sec­

tion of the rural society . These were :

(1) Resource/Problem Based Area Programmes ;

(1) Drought Prone Area Programn.e (DPAP) in launched

in mid seventies;

(il) Commend Area Development Programme (CADP - launched

during 5th Five year plan),

(iii) Hill Area Development

(Iv) Desert Development Prograrrjiie (launched in late

seventies).

73

(2) Target Group Programmes :

(i) Small Fanners Development Agency and Marginal Far­

mers and Agricultural Labourer (SFDA and MFAL laun­

ched in 1970-71,

(li) Tribal Development Agency Project (launched in early

seventies),

(3) Area Specific Intentive Programmes ;

(i) Concessional Finance ,

(ii) Investment subsidy and transport subsidy schemes

(4) Comprehensive Area Development Programmes :

(i) Sub - plans for the Hill and Tribal Areas.

The Pood for Work Programme (Later developed into

National Employment Programme) was launched in 1977 so

as to provide work for rural poor particularly during

the period of slack employment of the year and at the

ocuuC t.iz?.° ^ry create durable community assets.

Besides, a host of other programmes were also

launched from time to time. They were :

- National Demonstration Programme (NDP)

- Fanner's Training and Education Programme (FTEP)

- Multiple Co-operation Programme (MCP)

- Special Programmes for Commerical Crops (Tobacco,

Sugarcane, cotton, jute, oilseed, fruits crops)

(SPCC).

74

- Intensive Ca t t l e Development Programme (ICDP)

- Whole Vil lage Development (WVD)

- Crash Schemes for Rural Employment (CSRE)

- P i l o t In tens ive Rural Employment Project (PIREP)

small Farmers Development Agency And Marginal

Farmers And Agricul tura l Labourers (SFDA anc3KFAL) J -

During Fourth Five Year Plan, 46 SFDA and 41 MFAL

Projec ts were s t a r t e d as reg i s te red s o c i e t i e s . These p r o ­

j e c t s were t o benef i t 50,000 small farmers and 15,000 mar­

ginal farmers and 5,000 ag r i cu l t u r a l l aboure r s . The Prin -

c ipa l objec t ive of the SFDA was t o enable Po ten t i a l ly v i ­

able small farmers to adopt improved technique on the bas i s

of support interms of supp l i e s , i r r i g a t i o n e t c . and make

them surplus producers .

During Fif th Five Year Plan, the number of p ro jec t s

rose t o 168 covering 1818 blocks a l l over the country.

According t o a cen t ra l government's study, near ly one -

t h i r d of the non b e n e f i c i a r i e s ^ 80,9 percent p ro jec t

areas a t t r ibuted to the cumbersome procedures for non -

p a r t i c i p a t i o n in SFDA b e n e f i t s . And about 31 percent of

the respondent in 70 percent of the p ro j ec t s a t t r i b u t e d

t h e i r non-par t ic ipa t ion t o unawareness of f a c i l i t i e s 3

offered by the SFDA ,

During the period 1978-7 9 out of SOOO blocks, about

i r J a i n r L T G r ' a n r o t h e r r r ' r ' s s ' w tu .oot.s-Rural Develop ^ont ^r^^er Govt. Auspices, pp. 41-42. , ^. i ,9Q ' o

2. Rerort of the m n i s t r y ut r.ur-,i Ko-m - t ruc ta - - . 1 »79_. ), Mew Delhi , p-26.

1.- ''Ovt. o^ India, Kepor^ 'n .->lu-^ti-r r/ -.-ai: ^>rn)orr Karqinal Farmpr^ and -> —-^ ^ jral ' MP- rs, u 74-7 ., New Delhi , 1979, p--4.

75

3000 blocks were covered by one or more of the special

projects like SFDA, CAD^ and DPAP. Later during the

year 1980-81, SFDA was merged with IRDP .

Desert Development Programme :-

The Desert Development Programme was started in

1977 - 78, with the objectives of controling desertifica­

tion and creation of conditions for raising the level of

production, income and employment of people of the de -

sert areas. This was sought to be achieved by :

(a) Afforestation, grassland development and sand -

dune stabilisation,

(b) Groundwater development and utilisation,

(c) Construction of water harneshing structure,

(d) Rural electrification for energising tubeweils,

pumpsets and

(e) Development of agriculture/horticulture and animal

husbandary.

Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP):

It was formulated in 1970 - 71, with the aims and

objectives, reducing the severity of the impact of drou­

ght, stabilising the income of people, particularly wea­

ker section of the society and restoration of ecological

balance.

76

Commond Area Development Progranune :-

The Command Area Development Programme was intro­

duced during the Fifth Five Year Plan as a centrally

sponsored scheme. The Principal objective of the progra­

mme was to increase the utilisation of the irrigation

potential below the outlet command thereby increasing pro­

ductivity per unit of land and water. This was to be achi­

eved through an integrated system of effective water dis­

tribution and efficient soil crop-water management practices.

Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) :

The concept of MNP was introduced for the first

time in the Fifth Five Year Plan where the concept was

concieved as providing a measure of social justice by way

of guaranteeing some minimum social consumption especially

to the poorest section of the population. It aimed to es­

tablish through-out the country a network of certain ser­

vices on a guaranteed and integrated basis given certain

predetermined criteria of uniformity and quality. In th-e

Fifth Plan, MNP comprised drinking water supply, rural

roads, provision of house sites for the homeless, village

access roads, elementary education for the rural poor,

provision of rural health service, rural electrification,

environmental improvement of slums and nutrition for un­

dernourished. The draft plan for 1978-83 enlarged the list

77

of basic needs to include adult education.^

National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) j-

The NREP was launched in October, 1980 as a cen­

trally sponsored scheme on 50:50 sharing basis between

centre and the Stejte with three fold objectives of ge -

neratlng additional gainful employment opportunities,

creating durable community assets and raising the nutri­

tional standard of the rural poor.

The Programme is implemented through DRDAs. Funds

to the states were allocated earlier on the basis of for­

mula by giving 75 per cent weightage to the number of ag­

ricultural - labourers and marginal farmers, and 25 per

cent to the incidence of rural poverty. This criteria has

since been revised to giving 50 per cent weight-age to the

number of agricultural - labourers, marginal fanners, mar­

ginal workers, 50 per cent weight-age to the incidence

of poverty in the rural areas. Similar type criteria to

the district wise allocation.

Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme(RLEGF)

It was decided to launch a scheme known as RLEGP

frcOT 1983-84 onwards.

The programme has two basic objectives :

(1) To improve, theemployment opportunities for the rural

78

landless with a view to providing guarantee of

employment to aMeast one member of every land­

less labour household upto 100 days in a year and

(2) To creat durable assets for strengthening of the

rural infrastructikre which will lead to rapid gro­

wth of rural economy.

Training Of Rural Youth For Self - Employment t

(TRYSEM)

The TRYSEM was launched on 15 August, 1979, with

the main objectives of training of rural youth in the

18-35 age group from the target group of families in the

rural areas having income less than Rs.3,500 per annum.

The training in provided in technical skills to enable

them to take - up self employir.ent in different vacation.

One by one jcural youth per eligible family is to be se -

lected for training in the field of agriculture, Indus -

try, services, and business activities etc,^^

79

(B) Aspects Of Rural Development ;

Rural development involves round certain sectors

which should be taken care of because all of them co -

llectivdly reflect on rur^l problems. Important segments

which require special attentions are :

(a) Agricultural extension and development,

(b) Land reforms

(c) Irrigation facilities

(d) Animal husbandary

(e) Rural electrification

(f) Rural industrialization

(g) Rural finance co-operation and marketing

(h) Rural ternsport and communication development

(1) Rural employment poverty and indebtedness

(J) Rural sanitation disease control and health

(k) Rural education and woman welfare and

(1) Rural development adniinistration.

Xa) Agricultural Extension And Development i-

Agriculture is the main occupation in India as

it directly and indirectly engages about 69 per cent of

her population in 1980;'Any development pian^therefore^

should first of all try to concentrate on improvement of

agriculture. The improvement may be brought about by in­

creasing the already Saturated area or by increasing the

80

productivity of land. Both can be achieved by the appli­

cation of modern technology and scientific farm manage -

12

ment. In fact rapid growth of agricultre lies in the con­

tinuous adjustment of farm organisation by absorbing im­

proved technological Innovation and institutional co-op-13

eration on a profitable basiSo The development in agri -

culture may be attempted on the following points :-

(i) Extension In Cultivated Area :-

The extension of cultivated area has been largely

taken-up in recent year, when the grant of un-cultivated

land for cultivation to particular classes of the people

or to all the applicants in general has been speeded up

the rules of disposal liberalised and very large areas

have come under cultivation.

(11) Seed :-

It is necessary in the interest of better agrl -

culture that arrange-ments should be made for tne sys -

tematlc testing, multiplication and distribution of im­

proved seeds* The farmers should sow the best seed be -

cause the quality and quantum of crops depend on seeds.

The National Seed Corporation is spreading Its network

nation-wide both in production and marketing of good

seed. World Bank has approved a project of over Rs,120

crore for the growth of the seed industry in our country.

81

(ill) Fertilizer :-

The use of fertilizer is an IndtEx of adoption of

modern technology in rural areas. With the introduction

of high yielding varieties programme^ fertilizer consum­

ption showed a remarkable increase. From almost zero le­

vel per hectare consumption in 1950-51, the consumption

in 1986-87 was estimated to have gone up to 48.44 kg, per

hectare.

But several problems arise in the context of fer­

tilizer. For example, there are imbalances in fertili­

zer consumption in the country. To check this tendency

the agencies dealing with fertilizer promotion should

becone more and more conelous and able to educate the far-

14 mers the proper methods of using soil nutrients*

(Iv) Crop Protection :-

The most obvious form through which the losses

occur are consiimption by pests, spillage, faulty form

operations, poor storage and transportation facilities,

improper grading and lack of knowledge about preservation

techniques. It is a fact that six field rats eat the food 1 C

of one man. Therefore, adequate arrangement should be made

in this direction. This will aid the increase in grain

available for consumption »

(v) Agricultural Machinery And Implements ;-

The cultivation of high yielding varieties and

82

multiple cropping programme involves a tight schedule

of various farm operations and makes more demand for

motive power. As a result, the use of tractors and

power tillers has registered an increase. Adequate capa­

city has been created for the manufacture of hand opera­

ted tools and Improved animal and power - driven imple­

ments. The number of tractors in use for cultivation in

the country is now estimated to be more than 2 lakhs.

The main problem in the fabrication of indigenous im -

plements is that the sizes and shapes of their parts are

not according to any standard. Therefore, the work of

improvement, development and standardization of indige­

nous implements should be carried out in a co-ordinated

manner with due regard to the different soils, climatic

conditions and cultural practices in the various regions 16

in the country.

Green Revolution :-

From 1966-67, a new strategy for agricultural de­

velopment was formulated and put into action. The new

strategy emphasized the increasing application of science

and technology to agriculture and included among its key

elements the cultivation of high yielding varieties of

seeds, soil and water management, multiple cropping, use

of adequate guantities of fertilizers, plant protection

83

ure , measures and building up necessary infrastruc/ liJ«« cre-

17 dit, marketing, farmer's training and research. This led

to remarkable change in agricultural production and deve­

lopment about a green revolution in some parts of the

country.

However, this new strategy accumulated dispari -

ties between the large land owners and the majority of

small farmers, tenants and agricultural labourers. The

gains of the new technology have been very unevenly dis-18

tributed.

As the rich farmers have become richer and small

ones, engaged in out moded farming, have become poorer,

it would be necessary to evolve out not only for raising

the productivity of agricultural crops in general but al­

so to forroulate schemes for amelioration of the economic

status of small and marginal farmers and even landless IQ

labourers. The main thrust of the new agricultural stra­

tegy must be on extending the scope of area planning and

on maximising the content of area development scheme.

Bolstering Agriculture j-

The agricultre can be firstly developed by provi­

ding credit facilities to the farmers on a large scale

by chalking out such agricultural development plans which

are labour intensive, and by achieving land distribution

84

among fanners owning economic holdings.

Agricultural Development Programme i-

Agriculture, as main part of the Integrated Rural

Development/ is getting a big boost in several states in

our country.

Inspite of many problems* Indian agriculture is

progressively switching over from the traditional to the

modern method of cultivation. As a result* the produc* and

tion has increased/old time exhortation - 'Two ears of

corn in place of one * - has now become a reality because

the scientists have now given the farmers several species

yielding many more ears than two. However, there are new

peaks to be scaled in agricultre before the country's

need can be adequately met,

(b) Land Reform i-

The land reform programmes have a place of speci­

al significance in a balanced and combined approach to

the problem of rural development and social justice. The

problem of land reform in India is basically a problem

of reorganizing the structure of holding, and thereby cre­

ating an agrarian economy with high levels of efficiency

and productivity. The average holding in the country is

very small, the population is growing rapidly, while the

area available for cultivation is limited. Therefore, the

Sf)

immediate task to which agrarian refoi-m have to address

themselves are the reduction of disparities in the owner

ship of land# checking of fragmentation, consolidation

of existing holding tenancy reform and ceiling on land

holding*

The Background Of Indian Land Reforms And Their

Effects »-

The intermediary tenure such as Zamindari, jagir-

dari and Inamdari prevailed in about 40 per cent of the

area at the time of independence in 1947, Over 70 per

cent of our agricultural population had no rights to

land; two-fifth of it were landless labourers and one-

third dwarf holding labourers both of therri wo^ed under

self-like conditions on land owned by relatively small

numbers of land owners. This large body has no fixity

of tenure or rent, or of incomeo

The first Five year plan abolished the interme -

diary rights, protected tenants and made an attempt for

the development of the production of small and middle

owners. In making its recommendation on land policy in

the First Five year plan,the Planning Commission drew

attention to the inadequate information available re -

2 2 garding the distribution and size of the holdings.

Therefore, efforts were made in this direction. In the

8G

eight - round of National Sample Survey during July, 1954

to March 1955, an all India survey of ownership holding

was conducted on a sample basis on 1704 villages. The sur­

vey revealed that a little over one-fifth of house holds

did not own any land and about one-fourth of all rural

households had a small parcel of land less than one acre

in area.

For fixing a maximum limit on the holding of the

individual, the Planning Commission setup a pannel of

land reform in 1955 and one of the sub-coinmittees appo-24

inted by it wentinto the issue of size of holdings.

The proposal for the land reform in the Second

Five Year Plan related to the complete abolition of int­

ermediaries, tenancy reform ceiling on land holdings

and consolidation of holdings.

Imposition of ceiling on agricultural holdings

has been considered to be an important instrument to mi­

nimize the concentration of land ownership and to bring

about a more egalitarian distribution of land. The issue

of ceiling as a whole was considered at the chief Minis­

ter's conference on land reforms held on September, 26,

1970, The 34th Amendment of the constitution passed in

1974, insulated land ceiling and land tenure reform laws

against litigation and removed legal hurdles.

87

In India most of the agricultural holdings are

very small and widely scattered. Consolidation of hol­

dings is# therefore, necessary pre-condition to the ra­

tionalization of agricultural operations in the country.

This is practically a re-arrangement of holdings in any

area between several tenure hoi ders in such a way as to 25

make the holdings held by them more compact. This is al­

so the most direct method of currin^ the evil s of the

fragmentation of holdings. In most of the States^ legis­

lation for consolidation of holdings, either compulsory 26

or voluntarily, has been enacted. Dilemma Of Land Reforms At Present And Its Solution

The present Government also has the anxiety to

get the long festering problem of land reforms out of

the way as early as possible but the follwing problems

arise in the implementation of the programme :-

(1) The land reform effected through ceiling laws will

benefit about 30 lakh famlies, but they will be

hardly a fraction of the vast and growing numbers

of our land hungry agricultural labourers and poor

peasants and will not bring about significant trans­

formation of land relations to the country side.

Also much of surplus land passed on for redistri­

bution under the ceiling laws is of poor quality

88

and the beneficiaries will find it extremely di­

fficult CO brin^ it under cultivation unless cre­

dit and other supporting facilities are extended

to them.

(2) Satisfying the stirred up land hunger of masses

lead to disintegration of the holdings and unpro-27

fitable farming. Therefore, this is a position

which clearly calls for a closer and a more cri -28

tical look at the whole question of land reform.

In short, we are rather playing a game of see -

saw. The kard fact, however, remains that food

production is not likely to be increased by the

blind distribution of land amongst those who par­

ticipate in cultivation but intensified food pro­

duction, therefore, calls for some other terms

also.

Fanners unable and unwilling to do the cultiva -29

tion work should be dispossessed straight away.

Changes in the legal frame-work should be consi­

dered where the jruling legal relations hamper a 30

fruitful approach to these matters,

(c) Irrigation Facilities :-

Irrigation is one of the most important aspect of

the Integrated Rural Development Programme, Its

83

application helps in maintaining proper moisture 33

In the soil and this helps the growth of cropso

However^ its improper use exert a damaging infact

32

and may spoil soil and crop both. There are vari­

ous defects in irrigational system inour country*

for which remedies can be suggested. These defects

and their remedies are as follows :-

(1) Though there are many rivers in India, which can

be used for irri-gation, precious little has been

done to channel them because of the political wran­

gles among the states. For example,harnessing of

water In Narmada Valley has been held up for years

because of a dispute about the sharing of the be -

nefits. Therefore, the progress in this direction

is now dependent more on a settlement of inter -

state conflict than on mere allocation of funds.

There must be a national policy on the sharing of

river waters depending upon irrigation needs and

intra-basis needs,

(2) The problem of irrigation can not be solved by

evolving grandiose plans. Reliance must be prima­

rily based on tubewell and small projects for the 3?

present,

(3) There should be urgent efforts for the conserva­

tion of water which -is lost through see page. The

90

Governments own canal and distributaries have been

lined in most cases to prevent seepage loss of wa­

ter as a result of which percolation and evapora -

tion is often as much as 40 percent •

(4) It is still more necessary to raise irrigation po­

tential capable of providing water at reasonable

rates to the entire sown area. The present use of

irrigation is generally waterful and the users

themselves pay the price later. The management of

Irrigation should, therefore, be left to local pan-

chayats and the rate of the irrigation water should

be proportional to the ability of farmers to pay,

(5) In the absence of adequate funds and the capital

intensive nature of irrigation projects, it is

necessary that a reasonable contribution from the

local man power is sought in the setting up of irri-34

gation projects. It is possible that peasants might

be induced to contribute voluntary labour in ex -

change for a certain amount of free water for a

number of years.

(6) In addition, much of the difficulty comes from the

lack of knowledge and therefore, it can be recti -

fied only by improved research. It is, therefore,

obvious that a many-sided approach has to be ado­

pted to achieve the speedy utilization of irrigation

91

3 6 facilities. The high quality of engineering tall-

ent which has been attracted by the high pay SCJ.-

les in Irrigation, should not be lost, Beisdes this

to establish a high efficient irrigation develop -

ment organisation, the planner or designer has to

be responsiable for all phases of irrigational de­

velopment.

Sources Of Irrigation :

The Indian Irrigation Commission, 1901-1903 has

classified the source of irrigation into canals, tanks,

wells and other sources which included mainly bunds for

storage of rainfall, lift irrigation from river etc. Tube-

wells are of recent origin. Canals, dams and reseroirs

constitute the major irrigation work and the minor irri­

gation includes all work that are completed within a short

period and do not require large financial out lay.

Major or medium irrigation shemes generally are

more capable for with .standing the severity of droughts.

The canals are the most important source of irrigation

because of their cheapness and the ease and certainty of

supply. Canals also help in reducing the intensity of

floods in the rivers, by opening up all their branches

and distributaries in flood time. Villages having the fa­

cility of Irrigation by this source are becoming more and

more prosperous.

G2

To make full utilization of irrigation potential,

minor schemes are also of paramount importance^ With the

initiation of the First Five Year Plan greater emphasis

was laid on minor irrigation works and finance were allo­

tted for extending them.

The authorities responsible for agricultural deve­

lopment have realized the importance of pumpsets and tube-

wells. Their attempts and hopes are bolstered with a ma -

ssive rural electrification programme that almost all the

States Governments have undertaken. This has made it po -

ssible to energise wells with electric motors and also to

replace oil engines. The Bambo Tubewell has brought the

tapping of Ground Water well within the means of small 38

cultivators. The material used are locally available in

villges and only skilled technician needed is the village

blacksmith.

Tanks are also the source of irrigation. About 18

percent of the total irrigated area of India is accounted 39

for tank irrigation. But tank irrigation suffers from un -

certainity of rainfall over most of the areas where tanks

are common.

In sprinkler irrigation water is sprayed through

sprinkler nozzles and allowed to fall on the land surface 40

in an uniform pattern. It has made a good begining in area

93

of undulating topography, shortage of water and cash crops,

A new method which has been recieving considerable

interest in Drip or Trickle irrgation which is the appli­

cation of water continuously to the plant in a desirable

41

amount. It can use small streams of irrgation water effi­

ciently but requires to be studied under Indian conditions

by irrigation research stations and water technology centres

here. It has ample scope in irrigation fruits free and ve­

getable crops in arid regions,

Irriqational Development :

Sustained and systematic programme for development

of irrigation facilities in the country was taken up with

the advent of planned development in 1951, The irrigation

potential created during the pre-plan period was 226 lakh

hectares, of which 97 lakh hectare was from major and me­

dium irrigation projects and 129 lakh hectares from minor

irrigation schemes. The cumulative irrigation potential

increased to about 675 lakh hectares by the end of 1984-

85 of which 300 lakh hectares was from major and medium

irrigation projectsand 375 lakh hectares from minor irri­

gation schemes.

The main thrust of the development policy for irri­

gation sector is towards achieveing the assessed target of

1,130 lakh hectares of gross irrigation potential in the

country based on convectional methods of diversion and

94

storage by 2010 A D or so. Of this, about 585 lakh hectare

are expected to be irrigated eventually from major and me­

dium projects and the balance by minor schemes. Irrigation

projects with a Culturable Command Area (CCA) of more than

10#000 hectares are classified as major projects and pro -

jects with a CCA of more than 2000 hectares and upto 10,000

hectares are categorised as medium projects.

Between 1951 and 1985, 246 major and 1059 medium

projects were taken up for execution. Among them, 65 major

and 626 medium projects were completed by 1985, During the

Seventh Plan, 18 new major and 66 new medium projects are

42 being taken up.

Because of the development of irrigation projects,

the irrigated area has been almost doubled from 1950 to

1974, It is a well known fact that a good system of irri­

gation imphes peace, prosperity and high standard of living

for the village life. Therefore, to take more steps on the

path of success and progress of rural areas, the extension

of electricity and plan provision of river lifts, obtaining

more surface reservoirs and torage and controlling rain water

are all the important measures that should be explored with

all means.

(d) Animal Husbandry :-

IndiaAs economy is largely agricultural and animal

95

husbandry is an integral part of agriculture because it

provides gainful employment particularly to small and

marginal farmers and agricultrual labourers. It is im -

possible, therefore, to think of improving agriculture in

India without having good cattle. They are dispensable for

the rural economy. The cattle population is also facing —

with certain problems which may be handled bringing about

improvements relating to the following aspects :-

Feeding :

The majority of the Indian cattle are under fed,

particularly the cows in rural areas. The amount available

for grazing is inadequate because the grass lands in the

country are hopelessly over stocked.

As a remedy to the scaricity of fodders, it. may be

suggested that an increase in the production of fodder an^

straw should be made. The State Governments must undertake

without delay the demarcation between lands for cultivation

on the one hand, and for pastures and meadows on the others,

and should entrust the supervision of the latter to the

43 village Panchayats,

The cultivable waste land may be utilized for the

purpose of fodder crops. Towards this end a massive affores­

tation programme in hilly areas should be undertaken with

emphasis on the planting of fodder trees instead of species

96

44 of trees which are commercially lucrative.

It is also necessary that a balanced agricultural

policy should be evolved in which the cultivation of fo­

dder crops finds an appropriate place in the crop rota -

tion programme.

Breeding :-

Good and selective breeding is the first and fore­

most requisite of the cattle improvement.. An important

cause for the dfeterioration of the quality of our cattle

is the lack of good bredding stock. There are village,

where no breeding bulls are to be found and the result is

that frequently the cultivators have to travel about 6 to

8 miles to take the advantage of good stud bull or a male

buffalo. Secondly, the method of scientific breeding are

unknown to Indian cultivators.

To solve the above mentioned problems, the thing

is to breed from the best cows and the best bulls. Good

breeding bulls should be kept in important villages, ca­

ttle feeds like oil cakes, cotton seeds, and the like

should be available for sale in agricultural depots or

co-operative stores and the cultivation of fodder crops 45

supplying green fodder should be encouraged. Artificial

insemination has many advantages over natural insemination,

We can increase the milk yield many fold in the first

97 46

generation progeny itself. Trained and staff may go about

the villages with necessary kit and inseminate the cows.•

Management i-

The poor quality of Indian Cattle is because of the

lack of adequate care. But proper management can go a long

way in increasing the efficiency of cattle. Better manage­

ment implies feeding, housing and efficient exploitation 47

of by products.

The co-operative cattle breeding societies are the

the necessary way to secure good cattle. They encourage

the breeding and rearing of cattle and solve many problems

related with improvements of cattle. 'If cattle breeding

and dairing,' observes Broyne, 'can be made profitable by

improved markets for good stock and pure produtts and good

prices for bulls, all efforts to improved stock will be -49

come very much easier.

The cattle policy should be such that there should

be scope also for promoting suitable rural insurance schemes

which enable the farmers to take care of their cattle with­

out carrying debts. However, with cattle policy, as with

every other aspect of our rural economic life, the first

need is to recognize the very basis upon which our agricul-50

ture is conducted.

G8

Disease Control :-

Disease among cattle is an economic loss. These di­

seases are responsible for decay in the quality of cattle.

In the Indian villages, cattle suffer from a number of fa­

tal diseases. Therefore, both the preventive and curative

measures should be adopted.

Live stock Development Schemes :

Live - stock development is stopped-up through spe­

cial schemes. These are key village scheme, Gosadan Scheme,

Stray and wild cattle- catching scheme,Fodder Development

scheme. Hide Flaying , Curring and cares utilization scheme

and Nomadic Cattle Breads Scheme,

It is acknowledged by all that an appreciable spurt

has been recorded in the milk production in the country 51

during the last few years. This has led to a rise in the

per capita consvunption of milk in comparision to previous

year. At present there are about 106 dairy plants in the

country© Rural dairy centres are 5 2, The role of Dairy de­

velopment Corporation and Agricultural corporation and the 52

development projects of Punjab can be cited in this context.

The dairy scientists in the Nutrition Division at the Na -

tional Dairy Research Institute have provided a guide line

53 to help dairy men the most efficient milk production.

Thus, it is obvious that it would be in the fitness

99

of things to realize the importance of the role of animal

husbandry in rural economy and make concentrated efforts

for development. This is a need of the time and the ear -

lier it is realised by all concerned, the better it is.

This will prosper the villages and lead to the accelera -

ted pace of development as a part of the Integrated Rural

Area Development giving the relief to the village economy.

(e) Rural Electrification :-

In a country like ours where agriculture constitute

a back bone of the national economy<, rural electrification

has a crucial role to play. Rural electrification provides

the very base of the Integrated Rural Area Development,

Rural Electrification Corporation And Financing To

Electrification :

Rural Electrification Corporation (REC) came into

beinfj in 1969* to cater to the need of massive programmes 54

of rural electrification. The objectives of REC are as follows:

(i) To subscribe to irural electrification scheme in the

country,

(ii) To subscribe to special rural electrification bonds

that may be issued by the State Electricity Board

on conditions stipulated from time to time.

(iii) To promote and finace the rural electric co-operative

in the country.

11.0

(IV) It is not only supplements the work of electricity

Boards but also imparts scientific orientation to 55

the entire programme of power supply,

REC has guarantee! loans of over Rs,800 crores and

sanctioned about 150 projects. These have covered 1<,4 lakh

villages/ energised 9 lakh pumpsets and provided power to

1.5 lakh industrial units, REC advanced a total loan Rs.12,81

crore to the Rural Electric Co-operatives,

The country has already acquired the necessary ex­

pertise and has achieved much in the field of rural elec­

trification and this is the reason that other developing

countries are looking to India today for know-how in this

field.

(f) Rural Industriali2atiQn :

Rural people from bulk of our population and their

emancipation from evil arising from economic imbalances 5',

would depend upon how-best we diversify our rural edonomy.

This can be achieved only by inducting industry in the

mral sector in a bit; way.

Industrialization of rural areas is not a new con-57

cept and was persued long before independence. At present,

however^ rural industrialization, in its broadest sense,

connotes an even spread of modem, viable small scale in­

dustries based on local raw material^, skills and demands

101

at as many growth centres and focal points in rural areas

as possible.

The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 still re-56

mains the basis of the current policy. Keeping in view the

pressing needs of rural development the present Government

has given a major shift of priorities within the industrial

sector with a view to substantially up grading thd role of

the small scale industries.

Also# the Government proposes to 'freeze* capacity

creation of capital intensive interprises till full employ­

ment is achieved. New capacities in these sphere will be

allowed only in the decentralized sector and the organised

sector will be diverted in a planned manner during the ten 53

years.

But before our economy gets a fillip through labour

intensive industries, there must be enough of farm surplus^

in other works, the availability of the capital must be 60

easier. Thus more and more emphasis may have to be laid

on agricultural development.

Rural Industrialization rejuvenates the rural eco­

nomy in the following va^s :

(a) Modemizatiibn of agricultre has created great demand

for agricultural inputs, good part of which has to

be met by establishing industrial units at rural

areas.

1(]2

(b) The small scale industrial plants established into

the rural areas have already led to a re-arrange -

inent of the economic and social pattern in the are-61

as in which they were introduced,

(c) Small scale and Cottage Industries solves the pro­

blem of landless workers by providing employment

to them at their own places.

(d) The process of rural industrialization evolves so-

62 cial adjustments.

Therefore, it is obvious that the Industrioalization

of rural India by the process of dispersal of industries

with the aid of cheap power is an urgent necessity. Several

studies and surveys should be under taken for different as­

pects of rural industrialization to collect reliable data 63

about the existing Industries of the States,

(g) Rural Finance, Co-Operation And Marketing t

It is a fact that the agriculturist can not carry

on his business without outside finance. Agricultural de­

velopment along with development of subsidiary occupations

requires substantial capital and short term finaces. One

stumbling block on the part of the small and poor farmers

in our country is the lack of money. However, this problem

has been over-come now with the opening of rural credit

banHs, This year the Reserve Bank has called for the open­

ing of at least 4,500 branches of Commercial Banks in

rurual areas.

1(]3

Finance also plays an important role in the agro-

industrial development. The State Bank, Industrial Finan­

ce Corporation, Land Mortages and State Co-operative Bank

provide loans to the small scale and agro-based industrial

concerns. Two suggestions can be made in connedtion with

rural finance s

(1) The money lenders, business should be licensed and

the rate of Interest should be limited,

(2) Agricultural credit should be granted a low rate of

interest and it should be placedin the hands of the

Directors which have recieved special training and

had actural banking experience.

The co-operative societies are best agencies for

rural development. They are the best agencies for helping

the farmers, small industrialists and artisans in general

weaker sections in particular. Farmer co-operatives have

been accepted and proven as one of the major classes of

business in distributing to farmers products required for

the operation of a farm.

In our country, today these societies are on road

to total revolution. They are to a large extent state par­

tnered and state managed and depend heavily on the financial

and personal resources of the state. But the movement must 66

grow to be self supporting. Caste feeling must be forgoten

101

and reorganizational skill and receptive should grow. Such

as co-operative enterprise will bring greater happiness

and prosperity to villages ajfid villagers.

An important system o£ marketing activities enables

each villages to become an organic unit in the total eco -

nomic structure of an area and a well balanced approach in

this direction may be useful for the Integrated Rural Area

Development,

Various defects are found in agricultural marketing

system in our country which are as follows :-

(a) Lack of organization,

(b) Forced sales,

(c) Superfluous middlemen,

(d) Un-regulated markets and multiplicity of market

charges,

(e) Lack of standard weights and measures,

(f) Lack of information regarding prices,

(g) Inadequate storage facilities and

(h) Un-developed transportation system.

The above mentioned defects can be removed by adop­

ting the following measures s

(i) Regulated markets,

(ii) Reduction and regulation of marketing charges,

(ill) Early provision of standard weights ,

> r: lOT)

(iv) Provision of market news,

(v) Provision of better transportational facilities/

(vi) Stabilization of agricultural prices.

Thus an improved system of agricutlural marketing

which will secure for the cultivator a large portion of

consumers price is essential for agricultural development

in India. Better dissemination of market news and informa-

tion might go a long way to help agricultural marketing.

(h) Rural Transport And Communicational Development:

Transportation is a measure of relations between 68

areas and is, therefore, an essential aspect of Geography.

The routes alongwhich me, materials and massages move bind

69 a society togather.

The importance of good and efficient means of rural

transport for a country like India need hardly be stressed.

Transport works as a catalyst to bring about agricultural

development as well as tnval industrial development.

Village Roads i-

The village roads meet the requirments of rural po­

pulation. They connect villages and groups of villages to

one another and to the nearest district road, highway,

railway or river ghat. An extensive system of road is a

pre-requisite function in the mod*, rn agricultural develop­

ment. They are the vital arteries for pumping in improved •

106

agrarian Inputs and scientific and agro nomic expertise

and syphoning out the marketable surplus.

Though the development of roads In India has been

the main cause of rural development, yet the village road

system is not well developed here. Most of the village roads

are 'fair weather roads*. With the arrival of monsoon, they

are turned into mud pools of dirty water and rendered un -

usable. For this, these 'fair weather roads* should be con­

verted into 'all weather roads' as and when finance permit.

Probably the most important aspect is the need for protect­

ing the surface by periodical effective repairs.

Railways :-

It must be admitted that the roads and railways are

alternative and competitive in some respects and in some

ways they are complementary and mutually helpful. The road

system links up the cultivators holding with the local mar­

kets and the nearest railway stations, while the railway

provides the connection between the area of production and

consximer at a distance and between the manufacturer in the

town and the cultivator, who purchases his ploughs, his

fertilizer or his clothes. Thus the villages which are near

the railway station have many conveniences and utilize rail­

way services.

11)7

Bullock - Cart x-

In most part of the country, the bulk of rural pro­

duce is transported to the mandis by bullock-carts. Bullock

cart is the major means of transportation among villages

and between villages and towns. Even in the inaccessible

villages and in places where there are no 'all-weather

roads', the bullock-cart patiently plodsalong, moving commo­

dities from village to nearest towns. This is the cheapest

mode of transport and helps to cater to the essential needs

of fanners. It does not create air pollution problem. It

is estimated that 13 million bullock-carts are operating

in the country, and the investment made is about Rs,3000

crore, an amount too far behind the total investment in 70

India Railways, About 20 million get direct or indirect

employment in this transportation systejm and an informed

gues puts the figure of the total quantum of goods carried

aa 10,000 million tonnes.

The Indian Institute of Management in Banglore

suggested some years ago the changes in the design of bullock

cart to ensure easier mobility and lower weight of the yoke.

Another improvement has been the introduction of rubber tyres

on a large scale. It has been estimated that an approved

bulloci-cart would cast any where between Rs,4500 to Rs,7000

but It should ensure a return of 20 or 30 per cent of investment,

.108

With the improved design/ transport capacity would double 71

as net earning treble.

Thus in order to make the life of our peasant gay,

healthy and bright, it is necessary that the rural areas

should be provided with efficient means of transportation.

Faster Rural Development can thus be assured.

By and large, communication means exchange of infor-72

mation through massage. When this massage has a mission,

it be comes mass communication which induces people to

action.

If the mass communication is to achieve significant

success, it must realize that its most important area of

operation is the rural sector. Different means of communi­

cation can bring about better knowledge and adoption of de­

sirable motivation in rural areas. These are as follows x-

(1) Radio Rural Broad casting and Forum,

(2) Film,

(3) Television ,

(4) Animation Treatment ,

(5) Literacy - reading programmer,

(6) Slogans ,

(7) Individual contact ,

(8) Propaganda Meetings ,

(9) Exhibition and Conferences,

109

"^e most important medium of mass communication, in

rural areas where majority of inhabitants are illiterate,

is radio. According to a study made by the Indian Institute

of Public opinion (June, 1964), about 42 percent villages

listen to rural programmes. But it is essential for the

success that the programme should be varied. What causes

violence, communal and caste tension should be discussed 74

Impartially,

Though each methods of communication has its vast

potential for rural development, it is a fact that no sin­

gle medium is self - sufficient to communication the rural

people; each has its own limitations. Therefore, a 'media

mix* consisting of Judicious assortment of Radio, Slide

shows and demonstrations can supplement the indigenous

channels of communication. This will be a mixture of old

and new and togather they can become a dynamic force for

socio-economic development of villages,

(1) Rural Un-employment. Poverty And Indebtedness i-

Un - employment is a familiar phenonmena. Most of

us know that there are large groups of men not at work and

that the number of these varies from season to season and 75

year to year. The problem of un-employment is much more

grave in rural areas.

The type of unemployment that prevail in rural areas

110

are Seasonal Un-employment and Disguised Un-employment.

Seasonal Unemployment may be defined as the lack of pro­

ductive work during some periods of the years or as just

seasonal Idleness, while disguised unemployment means that

a part of employed labour force is redundant/ in the sense

that it can be ranoved from the work in which it is engaged

without any adverse effect on total putput. Surplus man

power in agriculture is often described as disguised un -76

employment or under employment, and is also characterised 77

as 'over population'.

Today there are above 30 million jobless in India.

Therefore, it is essential for us to discover ways and means

of employing the idle labour force with a view to increas­

ing the pace of economic development. These wa$s are as

follows »-

(a) One of the measures, to generate employment, is the

promotion of small and cottage industries,

(b) A rational population policy should be adopted as

one aspect of 'reduction of un-employment* policy

should be the 'reduction of birth rate'o

(c) Basic Needs Programme ought to occupy a pre-eminent

place in an employment strategy,

(d) The employment must be an instrument rather than 7e

distant objective of development. For this the strong

organization and micro planning is essential.

I l l

The incidence of poverty in our Rural India is a

highly pervasive feature of the country. About 37 percent

of the rural population is living below the povetty line.

On the basis of the 32nd and 38th Round of National

Sample Survey, the percentage of rural population below

the poverty line has declined from 51,2 in 1977-78 to 40.4

percent in 1983-84. The seventh Five Year Plan started with

222,2 million persons below the poverty line who constituted

39,9 per cent of the rural population. The plan projects

that by 1990-91, the percentage of population below the

poverty line in rural areas will come down to 28»5 percent

and the long term objective is that by 1994-95, it would

be further brought lown to 10 percent and hopefully it will

be completely eliminated by 2000 A.D.

What an irony that a country which today boasts of

an acute ware-housing problem to stock its 22 million to­

nnage of surplus food grains should allow its people to 79 starve to death just because they can not buy it, '

During most of the year the poor people have to de­

pend upon coarse cereals. Their houses are congested and

demp structures made of bamboos and thatch. Clean drinking

water is available only in a few houses of the rich in the SO villages,^

Rural indebtedness and rural poverty are in^seperable

1. Yoina. Vol .33 , No, 9, f'.ay 1 6 - 3 1, 1989

112

The extension of rural indebtedness is estimated to be

^8,6000 crores* The local amount of indebtedness varies at

diiferent times of years« especially that it is higher be-

fore the rabi harvest than after,-^

It is# therefore, logical to attack the problems of

poverty and indebtedness taking the following steps j-

(1) A micro-level planning strategy can be adopted in

this direction to generate employment and'effective

demand in rural areas.

(2) Rural growth centres should be started in the villages,

(3) The primary purpose of industrial planning should

also be the bringing down of the prices of industrial

goods to rural consdmiers, thereby stiwulating addi-82

tional domestic demand.

Thus the present is the most congenial time for the

effective and vigo-rous implementation of the measures to

remove the rural poverty and indebtedness in India,

(i) Rural Sanitation, Disease Control And Health :-

'Health is wealth' is a hard fact of life. This is

also in the context of rural life. But it is no secret that

the rural people and their progeny presents a spectacle of

diseased poverty and far from them, a high infant mortality

malnutrition and infections diseases are all to common facts

of life. The better irony is that they have been the most

113

neglected in our system of health care. Even if the rural

poor can get to a doctor, the medicines remain beyond their

reach. Therefore, the need for providing medical relief

and preventive and promotive health care to our 80 percent

of the people living in rural India is as great as that of

urban population. Promotive steps should be taken in the

following fields :-

(a) Village sanitation ,

(b) Promotion of drinking water and housing impovement ,

(c) Restriction to the bogus physians in the rural areas

as they do not have any knowledge and thus play with

the life of patients.,

(d) Family planning and child welfare ,

(e) Growth of rural health services and centres,and

(f) Nutritional problems and their solution.

It must be noted that the health of rural commnity

depends upon the higher standard of living and education,

an organized rural health sexrvice and a number of health

schemes on the part of Government, but what is the most

necessary for the issue of measures is the hearty co-opera­

tion and willing assistance of the people themselves. Only

then the story of our country can be of a healthy nation

comparising healthy and prosperous rural masses.

114

(k) Rural Education And Women Welfare :-

One of the imperative necessities for rapid rural

development is a proper channelization of motive power

among the rural population because 'rapid economic growth

is impossible without certain social and psychological 84

change'. And this is possible only by educating the rural

masses.

Primary Education :-

The promotion of universal compulsory primary edu­

cation for children is the most important part of the ru­

ral education. But the teachers are relvetant to go the

villages. Therefore, the authorities should try to create

what may be called the pull factor reasonable salaries and

proper school building etc., to attract teachers to where

they are need the most.

Agriculture And Rural Education :

The subject of agriculture education has naturally

to take an Important place in the schemes of rural develop­

ment as agriculture forms the main occupation of the rural

people. Inspite of several difficulties in educating the

rural masses it Is appreciable that dumbs and mute in ru­

ral India have found their voice back and have begun to

recognize the values of reading and writing. Every where

i ^ IIT)

they were new hopes and aspirations; as rural India is see-85

king to built up a new life for itself.

Another important issue is that the education of

girls should be an Important as that of boys. For this wi­

dows should be engaged for training as teachers and the wo­

men's institutions certainly deserve publishing. The women

folk can thus revolutionize village life in India,

(L{I Rural Development Administration :-

Rural Development Administration is an important as­

pect of Government, The administrative structure occupies

a matter of highest importance in Integrated Rural Develop­

ment Programme (IRDP) as it is the machinary through which

various schemes and measures for rural development are ca­

rried out and assisted efficiently, smoothly and speedly*

In the country, there are 214,969 village Panchayats

covering 98 per cent of the villages, 3297 panchayati Samiti

and 254 Zila Parishad.

In order to construct India as peaceful and democra­

tic foundations and for sound Integrated Rural Area Deve­

lopment, it is desirable to modify these village panchayats

to suit the modern condition because they have assigned a

great importance in the constitutional structure of our

society.

R B F E K E /^ C^S, 116

(1) shetty, V.T.R,/ ':-<urdl Dtvelopment Strategy

for Asia'/ Ihe Indian Express^

Dec. 1, 1977, Col.6, P.9

(2) States in Birtish India were known as 'Provinces',

(3) Native States refer to thi-- territories administered by

the Indian princes during the Birtish rule.

(4) Goswami/ U.L. and Roy,

S.C.'India'. Approach to Community Deve­

lopment : A Symposium Intro­

ductory to Problems and Me­

thods of village VJelfare in

Under-developed Areas#

W«Van Holve Ltd,,, The Hague,

1953, P.310.

(5) Each district in the State of Madras is divided into

'Taluqas* which are in turn sub-divided into 'Firkas'

A Taluqa consists of 5-6 Firkas and a Firka consists

of 25 to 30 villages.

(6) Belshaw, H. and Grant,

«J» B, ,

(7) Kavoori, J.C. and Singh,

B.N.,

Report of The Mission on

Commumity Organization and

Development in South and

South-East Asia^United Na­

tions, 1953, P.118.

History of Rural Develop­

ment in M o d e m India.

Sponsored by Gandhian Insti­

tute of Studies Association of

Voluntary Agencies for Rural

Development, 1967, P.14,

117

(8) Das, B.N, and Sarkar^A.K, 'Rural Area Development,

Karnal Area, A case study',

Indian Journal of Regio­

nal Science, Vol,IV, NOo2,

1972, Page lob.

(9) Upadhyaya, Rakesh,

(10) India, 1986.

(11) Singh, M,

(12) Mohammad, N.,

(13) Rehman, H.,

(14) Shrivastawa, V.K.,

Integrated Rural Develop­

ment in India, Basic App­

roach in Policy, Chapter II,

Page 1-25. 1999

' North i:-astern Uttar Pra­

desh A Vast Developing slum'

The Deccan Geoqraph.:;j; Vol. V

Jan.-Decr 1967, No,122,P.98.

•Technological change and

Diffusion of Agricultural

Innovation*. The Geographer

Vol.XXIII, No.l. Jan.1976,

Page 4.

'Mechanization of Farming

and its Impact on Food

Crop Productivity in Uttar

Pradesh', the Geographer,

Vol.XXIII, No.2. Jan.1976,

Page 43,

'Imbalance in Fertilizer

Consumption'. The Indian

Express, June-13, 1978,

Col.8, Page 7.

118

(15) Shah, K., •Grain its Kot For Rats', the

Indian Express, ept, 1, 1978,

Cole 1, P. 7.

(16) Indigenous Agricultural Implements of India; An All

India Survey.Indian Council of Agricultural Research,

New Delhi, I960., P. 335.

(17) Thakur, D.S.

(18) Prankel, P.R,,

(19) Thakur, S.,

'New Approach to Rural Deve­

lopment* Acjriculturt & Agro

Industries Journal, Vol,6,

NOolO, Oct.,1973, P.25.

'Indian's Green Revolution'.

Econdmic Gains & Political

Costs/'Princeton University

Pr§ss, Princeton, New Jessay;

1971, P.191.

'Search For Economic Policy',

The Indian Express, Oct.,10,

1977, Col.5, P.9.

(20) India Since Independence, Published by the Director,

Publication Division, Ministery of information and

Broadcasting, Govt, of India , New Delhi, July 1971,

P.55o

(21) Patel, S.J.,

(22) Progress of Land

Reform,

'The India We Want* Popular Pra-

kashan, Bombay, 1966, P«92,

Published by Govt, of India,

Planning Commission, Delhi,

1963, P . m .

i jn

(23) Randhawa, M.S.,

(24) Shinde, A.P.,

(25) Tlwari, S.N.,

(26) Sinha, B.N.

(27) Paliisery, P.,

(28) Mehta, B.,

(29) sarkar, P.C,

(30) Samkalden, lo.

'Agriculture and Amimal Husbandry

in India, published by Indian

Council of AgriculturalResearch,

New Delhi, 1962, P.71.

•Land to the Landless', Agricul­

ture & Agro-Industries Journal,

Vol.6 No.3, March 1973, P.5

•Land Consolidation and its

Ir pact on Land Utilization'

The Deccan Geographer^ Vol.VIII,

No.l andn 2, Jan.-Dec,.1970.

P. 89

•Fragnentation of Holding in

Orissa', The Deccan Geographer,

Vol.1, NOo2^ Jan.1963, P.116

•Dilemma of Land Reform'. The

Indian Express, Dec.1977.Col.2,

Page 9.

'Whither Land fteform'. The Indian

Express,July 14, 1978, Col.3

Page 4,

-'•he Planning of Agriculture in

India, Rotterdam university

Press, Volo6, 1966, P.67.

'Land Tenure and Land Reform'.

Approaches To Community Deve-

lopment: A Symposium Introductory

To Problems and Methods of Village

Welfare in Under developed Areas.

W.Van Haevfc Ltd. The Hague<,1953,

Paoe 170.

1 0

(31) Clark, C,

(32) Mukerjee, R,,

(33) Srivatsa, 3.^

(34) Sethna, H.M,,

(35) Sarkar, P.C.,

(36) Singh, R,L.,

(37) Zimmerenan, J.D,,

(38) Dubey, RoN, and

Negi B.S.,

(39) Chattrapati, V.M,,

The Econonics of Irrigation,

Pergamon Press, London, 1970,P,l

The Rural Economy of India,

Longmans Geen & Co.Ltd,, London

1927, Pol63.

'bolstering Agriculture'• The

Indian Express, May,9,1978,

CO1B5, Page,9,

'Survey, Conservation and Uti­

lization of Resources', Focal

theme discussed at 64th session

of the Indian Science Congress,

Bhubaneswar, Jan.3-7, 1977.

The Planning of Agriculture in

India,Rotterdam University Press,

1966, Page 78.

•The Role of Applied Geography in

National Planning in India*. 21th

International Geographical Congress,

1972, Volo4, Page 178.

Irrigation, John wiley and Sons,

Ine, New York, 1966, P.28.

Economic Geography of India,

Kitab Mahal, Allahabad,1973,Pol39.

•The Bamboo Tubewell' Agriculture

and Aqro-Industries Journals Vole7

No.7, July 1974, Page 3.

1: 1

(40) Michael^ A.M.,Mohan, S.,

and Swami Nath, K.R.,

D<isj.qn,and Kvaluatlon of

Irrigation Methods, Water

Technology Centre^ Indian

Agricultural Research Ins-

titute<, New Delhi, 1972,

Page 1,

(41) Correia, JcPt

(42) Gupta^ M,f

(43) Dogra, B.,

(44) Aiyer, A,K., Y.N.,

(45) Kumar, K.,

(46) Beckett, W«H.,

•Drip Irrigation Ensures Rich

Crop of Potatoes*, Agriculture

and Agro-Industries Journal,

Volo7, No<,3 March 1974, P. 3,

Problems of Unemployment in

India, Institute of Social

Studies. The Hague, 1955, P.152,

•Himalyan Villagers are worse

off After All the Planning Effort'

The Indian Express, Dec,1,1977^

ColoS, P.9.

ViLlaqe Improvement and Agricul­

tural Extenssion, The Banglore

Painting and Publishing Co,Ltd.,

Banglore, 1954, P.70.

•Get Rich Quick VUth Dairy

Farming•<, The Indian Expresso

Aug, 31, 1978, Col.l, P,9,

'The Development of Peasant

Agriculture', Approaches to

Corrmunity Development : A

symposium Introductory to

Problems and Method of Village

Welfare in Underdeveloped Areas.

•W.Von Hoeve Ltd., The Hague, P. 139.

1: 2

(47) Sharib, 2.H.,

(48) Bryne, F.h,,

(49) Singh, T.,

(50) Sukekar, P.G,,

(51) Shah, K.,

Problems of Rural Reconstruc­

tion in India with Special

Reference to Uttar Pradesh, The

Local Self Govt, Institute Pub­

lication Bombay, P.140,

Better Villages, Oxford University

Press, 1929, P.94.

Towards An Integrated Society

Orient Longmans Publication,

Bombay, 1969, P.247.

'Buffalo : Indian Dairy Industry,

Hope Future'. Agriculture and

Agro-Industries Journal,Vol.4,

No,2, Feb.,March 1971, P.42.

'Crucial Issue Before Voluntary

Agencies in Rural Work', The

Indian Express, May 18, 1978,

Col.6, P.9.

(5 2) Feeding for More Milk is not costly. Agriculture and

Aqro-Industrias Journal,Vol.9^ No,6, June 1976, P,21,

(53) Kapadia, D.T,,

(54) Menon, M.S.N.,

'Rural Electrification*. Agri­

culture and Agro-Industries

Journal, Vol.7, No,6, June 197 9,

Page 4,

•Rural Electrification for

Industrialization'. The Indian

Express, Aggo26, 1978, Coi.1,

Page 9.

\'2^

(55) Puranik, V.G.,

(56) Nanjappa, K.L,,

(57) Thlagarajan, K.#

'Agro-Industries and Economic

Development'. Agro-Industries

in the Economy of Uttar Pradesh^

Seminar held under the Auspices

of Faculty of Commerce, A.r^.U,^

Aligarh, 1970, |>.3.

•Rural Industrialization,, Pro­

gress and Prospects'. Agricul­

ture and Agro-Industries Journal

Vol).6, No.5, May 1973, Page3.

•Curing Industrial Sickness*,

The Indian Express,July 29,

1978, Col.3, P.9.

(58) Pandey, A.,

(59) Krishna, S.,

(60) Kapadia, K,M,, and

Pillai, S.D.,

(61) U.N., Report,

•Developing Village Sector for

Prosperity', The Indian Express,

July 1, 1978, Col.3, P.9.

•industries to Rejuvenate Rural

Economy'. The Indian Express,

FSay 10, 1978, Col. 1, P.9.

Industrialigation and Rural

Society, Popular Prakashan

Bombay 1973, P. 20„

Process and Pr9blems of Indus­

trialization in Underdeveloped

Countries, P.19o

(62) Development of Industries in Uttar Pradesh; Progress

Review, Issued by the Director of Industries Commercial

Intelligence Section, U.P. Feb.29, 1956, P.89.

124

(63) Memoria, C,B,,

(64) Abrahamsen, M.A,,

and Scroggs, C.L.

(eds.)

(65) Pandey, H.K.,

(66) Ghonasgi, B.D.,

(67) Ullman, E.L.,

(68) Wagner, P.L.,

Agricultural Problems in India,

Kitab Mahal, Allahabad,1958,

Page 142.

Agricultural Co-Operatlon,Cen­

tral Book Depot, Allahabad,

1969, P.323.

'Glimpes of Co-Operative Move­

ment in India'. Agriculture

and Aqro-Industries Journal,

Vol.7, No.7, JulJ? 1974, P.9.

'Agricultural Marketing in India',

The Strategy of the Food and Agri­

culture in India, Lalvani Publi -

shing House, Bombay, 1969, P.156.

'Trans^.ortation Geography*.

American Geography Inventory

and Prospects, Syracuse, 1954,

Paye 311.

The Human Use of the Earth,

ILLI nois, 1962, PP.129-30.

(69) Taneja, D.S., and

Arora, S.K.,

(70) Ramaswamy, N.S.,

'Improved Design to the Bullock

Cart'. Agriculture and Agro-

Industries Journal, Vol, 9, No,7,

July 1976, P.11,

'^iOderni2ation of the Bullock Cart

Transportation System'. Science

and Integrated Rural Development,

Focal Theme discussed at 63rd Session

of Indian Science Congress, Jan.3-7

1976, P.149.

9^

(71) Bhattacharya, V.R,,

(72) Pradhan, H.C,

(73) Chowia, N.L,,

(74) Donglas, P.H,, and

Director, A.,

(75) Mazumdar, D.,

(76) oanghvi. P.,

(77) Verghese, B.G,,

(78) Jugal, B.N.,

(79) Dogra, B,,

CofTifTiunication jn a Global Village,

Chetaa Publication, New Delhi,

1976, P.l.

'x'oor Media Fare For Village' .

The Indian Express, Sept,7,

1976, Col.l. P.7o

"Public Access to aroadcasting'•

The Indian Express. May 31, 1978,

Col.7, P. 4.

The Problem of Unem^'loyinent,

The Macmll-an Company, New York,

1931, P.3.

•Marginal Productivity, Theory'

of Wages and Disguised Unemploy­

ment. The Review of Economic

Studies. June 1959, P.4.

.Surplus Man Power in Agriculture

and Economic Development, Asia

Publishing House, 1969, P.9.

•Maj.ing Capital of Labour' The

Indian Express, May 15, 1968,

Col,2^ P.3o

'Famine in Here', The Indian

Express, Oct.13, 1977, Col,3,

Page 9,

'Cake for the Rich and Crlmbs for

the Poor'. The Indian Eapress,

Oct.13, 1977, Coi.7, P.9.

126

(80) Nehru, S.S,, and

Mukerjee, R.#

Caste and Credit in Rural Areas,

ijongmans, Jreen Co.Ltd., Calcutta,

1932, P.94,

(81) Balasubramaniam<, V,^ 'Big Plus Small is Beautiful'.

The Hindustan Times, Aug»17,

1978, Col.2, P,7.

(82) Tripathl, S.,

(84) Sinha, D.,

(85) Krishnamachari, V.T,,

'The Health Care that India

Netds*. The Indian Express,

Aut)«4, 1978, Col.l^ P.8.

Indian Villages in Transition,

Associated Publishing House,

New Delhi, 1969, P.216.

Community Development in India,

Publication Division, Govt. Of

India, 1958, Page 2.

CHAPTER - III

INTEGRATED RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN IKDIA

The Integrated Rural Development Programme in

its present form was born in 1978-79, The programme

sought to remove the shortcoming of the Small Farmers

Development Agency Programme, The Integrated Rural De­

velopment Programme envisages identification of bene -

ficiaries by a very careful household survey by adop­

tion of the family as opposed to the individuals as the

unit of help and selection of a cluster of villages where

infrastnictural facilities are suitably developed to

absorb the input of the programme. The key note of the

programme is that family incomes have to be raised

above the poverty line and the amount of subsidy and

loan^as well as^ the schemes will have to be tailored

accordingly. Here it will be note worthy that the po­

verty has been fixed at an incOTie of ^s.6400,00 per

annum in an average family of five people and is con­

sidered enough to buy nutrition generating 2400 calo­

ries per capita in the rural areas. The scheme selec­

ted for assistance should be commercially viable, tech­

nically feasible and have short gestation period in

order to generate additional income quickly and thus

facilitate quick repayment of bank loans.

i;^8

It is not difficult to observe that the IRDp

draws the thinking and experiences of the entire de­

velopment pla-nning process of pre and post indepen­

dence era. Moreover, it also envisages development of

areas through its infrastructural component and thus

contains the ar^a development concept. It's benefici­

ary develpment content draws its strength from the

Small Farmers Development Agency programme in various

parts of the country and helping poorest of the poor

approach from Antyodya, Similarly, the milk route/

egg route concept in the livestock sector of the Inte­

grated Rural Development Programme is drawn from the

expodence of dairy and poultry development Programmes.

The resource inventory concept for block level plann­

ing was first visualised in the earlier IRD Programme,

Initially, the programme was started in 2300

blocks in the country. Of these, some 2000 blocks were

already covered by special programmes like Small Far­

mers Development ^ency (SFDA), Drought Prone Area

Development (DPAD) and Common Area Development (CAD)»

Every year the programme was to be extended to 300

new blocks. With the coverage of another 300 blocks

during 1978-79 the IRDP got extended to a total of

2600 blocks as on march 31,1980, Beside the small and

marginal farmers, the programme was specific in regard

to agricultural workers and landless labourers and add­

itionally brought within its purview the rural artisans.

In the year, 1980-81, the Government of India took a

major policy decision to extend the programme to all

the 5011 blocks in the country w.e.f, Oct,2,1980, With

effect from the sme date, the Small Farmers Development

Agency was merged with IRDP, The main objectives of the

IRDP was to raise the level of living of the poorest

families in the rural areas above the poverty line on the.,

a lasting basis by giving them / so called income

generating assets by facilitating access to credit and

other inputs.

The ''Target Group'* includes for this programme

include,

(1) Small and Marginal Farmers

(2) Agricultural and Non-agricultural labourers

(3) Rural craftmen and artisans

(4) Scheduled Castes and scheduled tribes and indi­

vidually all the families of about 5 persons

with an annual income level of below Rs»4800,00 ,

In order to ensure that the poorest of the poor

get the assistance, it was ensured that families with

an annual income level upto Rs,3500.00 are assisted first.

lao After all such families have been assisted in a block,

the B.D'0- reports to the DRDA that all the families

with an annual income upto Rs,3500,00 have been assis­

ted. The DRDA, then verifies the situation by issuing

public notice and gives sanction to the block to assist

the families in the Rs,3501 to 4800 income/brackets.

For the purpose of identifying, the target

group# different categories of beneficiaries have been

defined as follows i-

Small Farmers i-

A cultivator with a land holding of 12,45 hec­

tares or below is a small farmer - where a farmer who

has class I irrigated land, as defined in the State

land ceiling legislation, with 2,5 acres or less,

will be considered as small farmers/where the land is

irrigated but not of the class I category,a suitable

conversion ratio may be adopted by the state Govern­

ment with a ceiling of 12,45 hectares.

Marginal Farmers j-

A person with a land holding of 6,22 hectares

or below is a marginal farmers. In the case of class I

irrigated land, the ceiling will be 3,11 hectares^.

Agricultural Labourers :-

A person without any land (another than home-

lai

stead) and deriving more than 50 per cent of his income

from agricultural wages is an agricultural labourer.

Special Treatment To Certain Sections :-

(i) Scheduled Castes and scheduled Tribes:~

At district and State levels it has been envisa­

ged that atleast 30 per cent of the assisted families

should be drawn from this group. However, the targets

from the blocks should be determined as under :

(a) The percentage SC/ST beneficiaries should be

equal to its share in total population of the

block, in case percentage of SC/ST population

is above 50 per cent.

(b) Where ever percentage of SC/ST population is less

than 50, a mark upto 10 per cent should be given

to this population and the percentage of SC/ST

families assisted should be equal to the per

centage so arrived at.

(11) Women Beneficiaries :-

As stipulated, at least 30 percent of the total

beneficiaries should be women; priority should

be given to women heads of households and women

monbers of households.

The flow of financial investments to the above

categories should be commensurate with the proportion

of their physical coverage. The planning commission pro-

132

poses to bring the percentage of population below pover­

ty line to less than 10 by 1995, A uniform target of ass­

isting 3000 families per block at the rate of 600 fami­

lies per annum was laid down in the sixth plan. In view

of inter- state variations and disparities in the inci­

dence of poverty, the financial allocation and fixation

of targets for assisting the families in the seventh

plan are In consonance with the incidence of poverty

in the State. The States are required to ensure that

the quality is not sacrified for the quantity.

Second Dose Of Finance j-

Families which received inadequate assistance

in the sixth plan and were not able to cross the po -

verty line would be given supplementary assistance in

the 7th plan. The amount of subsidy calculated would

include the amount already given in the 6th plan.

All such families were required to be cc v»red

in the first three years of the seventh plan.

Identification Of Beneficiaries :*

As the target group has been defined interrns of

annual income of the families, the identification of

the eligible families calls for a detailed household

survey to assess the income. Therefore, a household

survey for this purpose has to be carried out.The sur-

133

vey families would be then classified into three in -

come groups t

(i) Upto Rs.2,250,00

(il) Rs,^251 to Rs.3^00,00 and

(iii) Rs,3 50l to Rs,4,800,00

There after, the following set of procedure is

adopted for the selection of families,

(1) The list of the poorest of the poor families is

prepared by VLW/Block staff,

(ii) The list of so prepared is then placed for app­

roval in the Village, Assembly (Gram Sabha),

This meeting is required to be called by the BDO

concerned,

(iii) The Village Assembly meeting is required to be

attended by the block officer, bank officers,

non-officials, local people etc,, Prominant vo­

luntary action groups are also expected to be

associated with these meetings,

(iv) The list of the beneficiaries so selected is

then displayed on the notice board on the Village

Panchayat and the block office.

District And Block Level Planning :-

Two types of plans for District and Block are

required to be formulated for a meaningful implementa­

tion of the programme.

134

The first is 'the perspective or indicative plan's

and the second 'The Annual Action Plan's. The role of

the perspective plans is to be given indication about

the local resource profile for preparation of annual

action plan*

The prespective plans are required to be pre -

pared at the block level which should be aggregated at

the district level. The plan should ordinarily contain

the following information :-

(i) An inventory of local resourci^s which may in -

elude the following informations;

(a) Demograj^hic trends and human resources,

(b) Area and location specific resources data,

(c) Economic activities with details of Institutions

engaged in these activities.

(d) Social and institutional infrastructure inclu -

ding the status of voluntary action groups,

(11) Information regarding the on going programmes,

both under plan and non-plan schemes. This should

contain an analysis of the potential of these

programmes interms of offering opportunities

for economically viable activities either through

generation of direct employment opportunities or

through provision of back-ward and forward lin­

kages and infrastructural support.

o rr I8r)

(iii) Assessment of the likely activities under pro -

grammes of the development department in the

next five years.

(±v) Impact of the Sixth plan IRDP activities on

the economic environment.

As far as Annual Action Plan is concerned, it

should contain the following details«

(i) Economic profile of the block/district spelling

out the sector proposed to be adopted giving re­

ason for such sectoral preferences;

(ii) The areas of co-ordination with the other de­

partments and the extent of environment of other

agencies and departments,

(Iii) The beneficiary famiy profile, broadly catego­

rising then according to their aptitudes and

choice for remunerative schemes and the scheme

actually prepared for them, giving reason for

assigning the schemes different from their pre­

ferences, if any,

(iv) Sources and mechanism for procurement of raw -

materials and disposal of finished goods,

(v) Linkages with the DPAP, DDP, RLEGP, NREP, Land

Reform and MNP and MC component and tdbal deve­

lopment plans and the infrastructural support

drawn from these programmes.

136

(vl) An overall assesment of the impact of the pro-

prosed activities on the incomes of the assis4—

ted families and the economy of the area.

(vii) Model project^

(viii) A list of the beneficiaries proposed to be bene­

fited during the year.

.IMPltBttfUTATION MACHINERY :

At the State levels a co-ordination committee

headed by the chief secretary was to be constituted to

approve the schemes under IRDP and to monitor and over

see all aspects of implementation of IRDP, The collector

as chairman of DRDA is required to provide co-ordination

in the implementation of the programme at the district

level. The existing consultative machinery for ensuring

regular credit support was also to be activated at the

State and district levels. People representative in -

eluding M.P,s# M.L.A.s, Members of Zila Parishads, Pan-

chayats Samlties were all expected to be involved in

the Implementation and moratoring of the programme.

District Level :-

District Rural Development Agency :-

The Mlnistery of Rural Development recommended

the setting up of DRDA at the district levels, headed

by the collector/Deputy Commissioner and a full time

Executive Officer responsible for planning, project

137

fonnulatld>n and implementation of IRDP. This agency is

to be provided with a team of administrative monitoring

and accounting staff besides Assistant Projett Officers

related to relevant disciplines in the area.

The implementation of IRDP in the field is to be

done through DRDAs with the assistance of the block ma­

chinery i.e. the BDO, Extension Officer and the Village

level Workers. The expenditure on the proposed set up

was not to exceed 7,5 to 10 per cent of the IRDP funds

available with the DRDA, Since the programme envisaged

preparation of a comprehensive plan for every block, a

three member planning team at the district level c6m -

parislng of an economist, statistician, a credit plann­

ing officer and an expert in the field of rural Indus -

tries was also to be set up as part of the district

level agency.

In a nut shell, the main function of DRDA in -

elude, interalia :

(a) To keep the district and block level agencies in­

formed of the basic parameters, requirements of

the programme and the task to be performed by all

these agencies.

(b) To keep co-ordinate and over-see the surveys, pre­

paration of prespective plans and Annual Action

Plans of the blocks and finally prepare a dis­

trict plan.

138

(c) To evaluate and monitor the progranune to ensure

its effectiveness,

(d) To secure inter-sectoral and inter departmental

co-ordination and co-operation,

(e) To give publicity to the achievements made under

the programme and disseminate knowledge and build

up awareness about the programme,

(f) To send periodical returns to the State Govern -

ments in the prescribed formats,

A broad staffing pattern of DRDA is being given

in Figure I below:

DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY

CHAIRMAN ( DISTRICT COLLECTOR )

PROJECT.OFFICERS

i ASSISTANT PROJECT OFFICER AGRICULTURE

J — A.P.O. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

A.P.O. MONITORING

A,P.O.

ECONOMIST OR

STATISTICIAN

CREDIT PLANNING OFFICER

RURAL INDUSTRIES OFFICER

OFFICr-R MANAGE­MENT (EXPER­TISE)

BLOCK LEVEL SET -UP;

As block is a nucleus of villages, therefore ad­

ministrative machinery at this level is primarily res -

ponsible for x

139

(1) Identification of beneficiaries.

(li) Performance of bankable schemes/projects for them

and

(iii) Monitoring of IRDP.

Ob«viously# a greater attention is expected to be

paid to strengthen the block level machinery, A chart

showing block level machinery is given in Fig. 2,

BLOCK DEVELOPMENT OFFICERS

EXTENSION OFFICER 4

SOCIAL EDUCA­TION

AGRICULTURE ^

RURAL INDUS-TRUES

ANIMAL HUSBAN DRY

ENGINEERING V

CO-OP -ERATION

PANCHAYAT PROGRAMME FOR WOMEN AND CHIL DREN.

SUPERVISION AND CO-ORDINATION i

The IRDP did seek to establish a system of super -

vision and co-ordination at different levels of co-ordi­

nation. At state level there is a state level co-ordina­

tion committee for IRDP, the progress of IRDP which was

reviewed by the chief Minister. At district level, the

Ministery of Rural Development had suggested that thae

District Rural Development Agency well have a govern -

ing body under the chairmanship of collector with follo­

wing as members:-

HO

(i) A Government's representatives,

(li) Representative of the lead Bank*

(lil) One representative of Land Development Bank,

(Iv) One representative from Central Co-operation

Bank,

(v) Chairman of Zila Parishad or his representatives ^

(vi) General Manager, District Industries Centre,

(vii) M.P^s, M.L.A.^s, of the area,

(viii) One representative of Rural women,

(Ix) Two representatives of the weaker Sections,

(x) Project Officer DRDA - Member Secretary.

BENEFIT SCHEMES t

According to the Ministery of Rural Development

any viable economic activity having potential for rais­

ing the income level of the family above Rs,6>400.00 per

annum on a lasting basis should be taken up for assis -

tance. The approach was to select from the package sche

ernes sanctioned by the authorities one or more schemes

in which the prospective beneficiary had adequate ex -

perience and motivation for deriving benefits. However,

the major schemes under the primary sector are - minor

irrigation (individual and community) supply of milch

catties, poultry forms, sheep breeding units, piggery

units, goats, ducks, fisheries, sericulture etc. secon-

HI

dary Sector inplles setting up of cottage or artisan ba­

sed rural industries and under tertiery sector activities

such as shoe reparing units* tailoring, grocery and petty

shops, ricKshaw pulling, bullock-carts, camel carts, etc.,

have been by and large under taken,

NABARD had recommended a project lending approach

for tlie programme. Thus, beneficiaries of milch catties

were to be provided at least two good quality animals at

an interval of 6 to 8 months, besides facilities for Ade­

quate supply of feed and fodder tranining in cattle re -

aring and feeding, animal health care and marketing of

milk. In scheme, under ISB sector, it was visualised that

arrangements for the supply of raw materials as well as

the sale of products should be arranged,

SUBSIDY COMPONENT :

A financial provision for IRDP made by Govern -

ment of India in the plan was almost entirely for

subsidies, extension, technical guidance, supply of in­

puts, marketing support etc. Subsidy rate of 25 percent

for small fanners and 33,3 percent to marginal farmers.

In case of tribals, the subsidy was allowed to the ex­

tension of 50 percent capital cost of the scheme for in­

dividual family.

The ceiling for the subsidy was fixed at Rs.3000/

112

for small and marginal farmers^ agricultural and non-

agricultural labourers and scheduled castes, and Rs.

5000.00 for scheduled tribes, subject to a maximum of

50 percent of individual project cost.

FOLLOW>UP AND MONITORING :

Ministery of Rural Development had laid great

emphasis on adequate follow up action and monitoring of

the programme so as to ensure increase in income of bene­

ficiaries. For this purpose an identity cum-monitoring

card called Vlkas Patrika, was given to each beneficiary.

Copies of this document were to be suppJ ied to the banks

and also maintained at the block and DRDA levels,The pro­

ject officer of DRDA and BDO, were required to assign de­

finite responsibility for filling up the monitoring cards

along with its up-dating and inspection. A monitoring sch­

edule was to be drawn up indicating the names of the be­

neficiaries responsible for monitoring and particular days

were fixed for their visit. This was done to ensure that

the beneficiaries have maintained the assets properly and

have derived substantial benefit there form. It was also

to act c»s a check that the assets have not been disposed

off fraudulently. The following up was to be done for a

minimum period of 2 to 3 years after the assets have been

acquired by the beneficiaries. It was percieved that in

H3

this way# the state Government will be able to find out

the exact number of families assisted and those who have

crossed the poverty line.

It was suggested that the impact of IRDP should be

currently under taken so as to ascertain the incremental

income accuring to the beneficiary and the factor respon-3

sible for the success or failure of the investment made ,

R £ F& R£ NC£'> , ^

(1) A family having an annual income of Rs«6400,00 or

less is considered to be a family below the pover­

ty line. Under IRDP, the family will be assisted

to reach this le*el of income so as to cross the

poverty line. However, the'cut off line for iden­

tification of the families for assistence is fixed

up at Rs,4800.00 annually per family,

(2) Department of Rural Development, Ministry of Ag­

riculture, Government of India, New Delhi, 1986

P.43.

(3) Upadhyaya Rakesh ''Integrated Rural Development

in India, Basic Approach in policy, Asian Publishing

House, New Delhi, 1989.

J45

CHAPTER - IV

TRANS-GHAGHARA PLAIN; LOCATION AND PHYSICAL SETTING

The Trans Ghaghara plain comparising the districts

of Deoria, Gorakhpur# Basti, Gonda and Bahraich, covers

an area of about 33,475 sq. Km., and carries a popula -

tion of 16 million in 1981. It lies between 26°5 N to

28°5' N. Latitude and 81°3 E to 84°25 E, longitude.lt

is bounded in the north by Nepal, in the south by the dis­

tricts of Faizabad, Azamgarh, and Ballia and in the west

by the districts of Sitapur and Barabanki (Fig.l).

Salient Physical Features t

(i) Structure And Relief :

The region forms the northeastern part of Ganga

plain and is a well demarcated physical unit in between

the Himalaya and Tarai in the north and the Ganga-Gha -

ghara Doab in the south. It forms the part of the great

plain of north-India which was formed as a result of all­

uvium deposited in a trough like depression between the

Himalayas in the north and the Vindhyan upland in the

south. The alluvium deposited here is either old allu -

vium known as banqar or new alluvium known as khadar.

The plain is clotted by many small jhils, tals, ox-bow,

lakes, deserted channels and is characterized by the

146

8.2'= 8|3P ei^°

LOCATION TRANS-GHAGHARA PLAIN

c 28 H ^NEPALGANv .2i

\

BAHRAICH

BAST I .-'• • .XiORAKHPUR-

I 2'7

____.:DEORIA^' ^

LOCATION OF THE REGION -1

/ ' \ IN INDIA

/^i--sVBIHAR,V •—•> /

I

R

— Internat ional Boundary — State Boundary

Distr ict Boundary • Distr ict Headquarters

2f

F I G l

117

presence of a generally high water table. Prom the view­

point of physiography, the whole region represents an al­

most level appearance and the alluvium is homogeneous in

character. The variation in the land surface is in the

form of a highc r tract or bangar are lying above the

flood level/ and a low lying tract along the rivers i.e.

the Khadar, which lies along the rivers and is regurly

inundated by them. The geological evolution of the re -

gion is still a matter of controversy,

Eduard Suess pointed out that it was a ''foredeep'*

between the Himalayas in the north and the Peninsular

India in the south. This foredeep was filled up since

pllestocene time by a vast amount of detritus brought -

down by the Himalayan rivers and thus the plain came into

existence,

Burrard postulated that the origin of this depre­

ssion is similar to that of the Great Rift valley of Af-3

rica and is probably of the same age « The plain occupied

a deep rift valley bounded by parallel faults on its two

sides, with a maximum down throw of 32 Km,, and the valley 4

was subsequently filled up by detrital deposits .

A third and recent view considers this region as

a ••Sag*' in the crust formed between the northward dri­

fting India continent and the compratively soft sediments

148

occumulated In the Tethyan Sea as well as in the connec­

ted basins in the south. As the sediments in the Tethyan

sea were being crumpled up and lifted up into a mountain

system, the rivers were filling up this 'Sag' and fina­

lly the plain came into existence .

The region slopes from north-west to southeast

and has a gradient of 40 centimetres in one Km, (Fig.2),

It is well drained by the river Ghaghara and its tribu -

taries which include Rapti, little Gandak, As observed

by Ahmad, meandering and braiding , can be seen

clearly on all the major streams of Ganya plain

The width of the meander belt of such large streams as

the Ghaghara (being)rather small 4 to 5 Km 7

owing to the dominance of coarse bed matter , These

streams were, however, noted for shifting their courses;

and for example, the course of the river Ghaghara was Q

15 Km., south of Barhaj township in A.D, 7th century .

Their shifting character makes them unsuitable for trans­

port but more important than this , however, is the fact

that they are liable to disastrous floods almost in every

monsoon season.

Physically the region can be divided in to three

divisions I

(i ) the Tarai area (ii) the Uparwar and

(iii) the Khadar area.

149

rw ^ 2 • ^

RELIEF TRANS-GHAGHARA PLAIN

28

^ H > 300 METERS

E H 150 -300 METERS

< 150 METERS

25 20 0 t-T-h

20 ifO 60 80 I I I I

KM.

SOURCE: GOVT OF INDIA NATICMAL ATLAS OF INDIA ,

PLATES 26,29,V0L.T(CALCUTTA J 9 8 0 )

"W w • ^

25

FIG. 2

150

But on the basis of nature of hydrology and alluvial mor­

phology as well as the level of economic development^ Sin­

gh^ has divided the region into three units namely (i)the

Tarai (ii) the Saryupar west, i.e. the Trans-Ghaghara west

and (Hi) the Saryupar east, i.e., the Trans Ghaghara east,

(ii) Climate t

The region has a monsoon type of climate characte­

rised by a seasonal rhythm. There are three well defined

seasons in the whole year, i.e. a cold weather season, a

hot weather season and a season of general rains. But In­

dian Meteorological Department has divided the year into

four seasons, two during the north-east monsoon and the

other two during the south-west monsoons. These four sea­

sons are t

(1) The cold weather season;

(2) The hot weather season;

(3) The South-Western nonsoon season;

(4) The season of retreating nonsoon.

The cold weather season occurs from mid October to

mid February. During this season the average temparature

is about 16 c and the cyclonic rainfall occurs in the

month of January and February, which is beneficial for

winter crops. December and January are the coldest months.

151

In Sxunmer, temperature rises up to 36°c, The re­

latively heavy rainfall (125 cm to 150 cm) during the

rainy season leading to '*taral'' condition in the nor-

th# produces an environment which Is generally unsuita­

ble for health. Over 99 per cent of total annual rainfall

occurs in four onths, i.e., from June 15 to October 15,

with thd result that this region is liable to floods.

Dxroughts also sometimes occur with the failure of mon -

soon rainfall. The hot weather season lasts from mid March

to mid June, During this season, the temperature sometimes

rise up to 45°c. Hot air blows on very often and dust st­

orms are also common,

(111) Natural Vegetation t-

In 1961, only about 14.5 per cent of the total

area of the Trans-Ghara plain was under forest, the ve­

getation is that of the sub-Himalayan type. Along the

Nepal border, there are large tracts of reserverriforest

but some patches of such forests are also founti south­

ward. The rest of the region is also fairly wooded, and

grovgs of mahua (Bassla Latlfolla), Shisham (Dalbergia-

sisso) and other trees are not uncommon. The per-centage

of the forest of total area of the districts show that

Bahraich, Gonda, and Gorakhpur have large shares of forests

than the other two districts .

ir32

(iv) Soil Characteristic :-

The Soil of the region Is alluvial and falls into

two divisions, bangar (old alluvium) and Khadar (new all­

uvium). The former is older and covers the upland tracts

beyond the flood limits and generally contains patches of

Usar. The latter, newer In age, covers the flood plain,

and contains a large amount of humus and requires less

Irrigation. Beside this broad division, a niimber of other

types are also recognised , Each type of soil is given

a local name in the region. The soil of the region are

often grouped under two district types, locally known as

bhat and bangar, with a third type, known as dhab,which

occurs near the river banks. The bhat soil, which is ge­

nerally low lying calcareous in nature, retentive of mo­

isture and does not require Irrigation in normal years,

covers the eastern part of the region. It is most suita­

ble for the sugarcane crop for which this area is noted.

The bangar soil, on the other land, is generally high

lying, less calcareous and has light texture varying from

loa« to sandy loam. Irrigation is necess<-ry on it for

growing sugarcane.

In general, the soils of the northern part of the

region are richer in nitrogen while the dhab is poo­

rest in nitrogen.

153

(V) Drainage ;-

The drainage of the entire Trans-Ghaghara plain

discharges itself into the river Ghaghara, an exception

being the Great Gandak which falls into the river Ganga

at a considerable distance from the Ganga Ghaghara con -

fluence. The courses of the rivers and their tributeries

generally take a south-easterly direction. There are a

number of perennial and seasonal rivers, noted for shif­

ting their courses leading to the formation of ox-bow

lakes and deserted channels. The principal rivers of the

region are the Ghaghara, the Tapti, the kuwano the Sarju

and little Gandak (Fig.3).

(a) The Ghaghara j-

The Ghaghara, which is known in the Palilitera -

ture as Sarbhu (Saryu) is a great river of north eastern

Uttar Pradesh with no less than five major tributeries

including Kauriala, Girwa and Chanka, all of which have

their sources in the Himalayan range. The Ghaghara is

sometime known as Kauriala in Bahraich district but is

definitely known as Ghaghara after its junction with

Chanka near Bahramghat. It is also known as Sarju or

Sariu at a short distance from the sacred city of

Ayodhya•

It is a mighty river flowing in a wide and sandy

154

•T2T E "W

DRA

25" SOURCE: GOVT, OF INDIA ,NATI0NA4.

ATLAS OF INDIA, PLATES 26,

20 0 20 - 4 -

£+0 60 80 I I \

KM. 29, VOL. I.PLATE 115, VOL- I I (CALCUTTA 1980).

25

8'2' 8^°

FIG. 3

"PT^

155

bed. During the rainy season, it carries a huge amount of

water but has a reduced flow in dry season. However, up

to the Ganga-Ghaghara confluence, the discharge of the

Ghaghara is one and a half time greater than that of the

Ganga, Its catchment area (53,354 sq, km.) is even grea­

ter than that of the Ganga (23,050 sq.km.) and the Yamuna

12 (11,605 sq,)an,) taken togather.

This river Is notorious for shifting its course

during nonsoon season and when in spate, it causes great

havoc, wiping out the villages which come In its course.

Due to the shifting of the river course, large tracts

are transferred from time to time from one affected dis­

trict to another. In earlier periods the river was navi­

gated by the country boats and lateron also by steamers

of Indian General Steam Navigation company which main -

talned a regular service up and down the stream. Until

about fifty years age, steamers plied as far as Ayodhya

on the Ghaghara river, a distance of 320 km, above its

13 confluence with the Ganga ,

(b) The Raptl i-

The second Important river of the region Is the

Raptl, which was originally known as Iravadl and later

corrupted to Ravatl and Raptl. Its source lies in the

Nepal hills to the north of Bahralch, It traverses the

15G

districts of Bahraich, Gonda, Basti and Gorakhpur and

Joins the Ghaghara west of Gaura Barhaj in district

Deoria, It has no less than three major tributaries on

its left bank and one small tributary on its ri^ht bank.

Some times/ earlier the Rapti had assumed a more north­

erly channel, as is evident from the very name the Burhi

Rapti or old Rapti

The Rapti is known for bringing down an immense

quantity of silt, locally known as bhat, which, as poin­

ted out earlier, is very good for sugarcane cultivation.

(c) Xbe Kuwana i-

The kuwana is a direct affluent of the Ghaghara,

Its name is frequently pronounced as Kuano, It rises in

the east of Bahraich and flows through Gonda and Basti

districts before joining the Ghaghara near Shahpur,

Through-out its course, it has a sandy bed with fairly

steep and high banks. The stream has a considerable

depth of water in all seasons and is generally nevigable,

Basti is the only important town on the bank of this

river.

(d) The Little Gandak :-

The little Gandak repressents an old channel of

of Great Gandak, It originates from the Baghban forest

in Nepal and takes a southernly direction in Deoria dis-

157

trict. In the ancient literature, this river is known as

Hiranyatri and also as Ajitavati. Yuan Chwang called it

Shi-La-na-fa-h (the river with gold), Ir flows at a dis­

tance of 13 Ion. west of the Great Gandak and falls into

the Ghaghara.

There are many other important rivers such as the

••Sarju**, the'Terhi* and the •Ami* which have played an

important role in rural development. There are a large

number of temporary swamps and jhils such as Ramyarh

Tal, Narhi Tal, Domingarh Tal, Nandaur Tal, Amir Tal,

Bengal jhil and Bakhira jhil. The water bodies, beside

being a source of drinking water supply and bathing, are

also used for various economic purposes such as far lar­

ge scale irrigation, fishing, navigation and for provi­

ding water to various industries and for generating power

for domestic and industrial use. Other uses of harnessing

the river such as measures of soil reclamation, flood

control and afforestation furtber generate many possibi­

lities for economic development. Hence the water resource

plaining for the betterment of agricultural and industrial

economy has become a necessity.

r\ w r w i\

158

Books :

(1) Singh, R.L. (ed.) India : A Regional Geography

(Varanasl, 1971) P.124.

(2) Krishna, M.S., Geology of India and Burma

(Madras) 1960, P.573.

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

Burrard, .' .,

Wadia, D.N. and

Auden J.B.,

••On rigin of the Himalayan

Mountain**, Geological Survey

of India, Memoirs of Geological

Survey of India.Vol.73 (Delhi

1939) P.134.

'•Geology and Structure of North

India'• Memoirs of the Geologi­

cal Survey of India, Vol.73,

(Delhi 1939) P.134,

Krishnan, M.S., Op. cit., P.511

Singh, R.L.

Ahmad, E.,

Singh,U.,

Op. cit., Po247

••The Ganga - A study of river

Geography'• The Geographer,

Vol.18, 1971, P.69

••The Middle Ganga^*, in Mountains

and Rivers of India,ed- B.C.Law

(Calcutta 1963), P.376

12 159

(9)

(10)

(11)

(12)

Singh, R.L, and

Singh, K, N., '* The Middle Ganga plain*' in

India ; A Regional Geography/ -

ed. R, L. Singh (Varanasi 1977)

P P. 246 - 47,

N,C»A.E,R., Techno <» Economic Survey of U»P«

(New Delhi, 1965) P.10

Raychandhury, S,P,

and Mukherji, S. K. ''present Position of Soil

Survey in India, loumal of

.scientific and Industrial

Research* *. Vol«6, No.10

(Calcutta, 1947) P.406

Hyden, H.H.,

Burrard, S. G« and

Heron, A.M. A Sketch of the Geography of the

Himalayan Mountain and Tibet ,

Part III (Delhi 1934) P.175

(13) Anand, B.D., ••usability of Indian Rivers*'

in the Mountains and Rivers of

India, ed. B.C. Law (Calcutta

1968) P.299.

(14) District Gazetter of Basti (Allahabad 1926), P.12

C^H_A_P_T_^_^K - V I hi)

TRANS - GHA3HAKA FuAIN - IMPACT OF INTSGRATilD HURAl. DSViSLOPl SNT ?R03RAi¥iE T I R D P I

On t h e b a s i s of g u i d e - l i n e l a i d down by t h e

Rura l Development A g e n c i e s , t h e r e s p o n d e n t s of t h e r u r a l

s e c t o r have been c l a s s i f i e d i n t o f i v e d i s t r i c t c a t e g o r i e s .

Among t h e f i v e c a t e g o r i e s of r e s p o n d a n c s , fou r of them

b e l o n g t o t h e c l a s s of p e o p l e c a t e g o r i s e d below p o v e r t y

l i n e . ( T a b l e - 1)

A c a r e f u l e x a m i n a t i o n of s t a t i s t i c s p r o v i d e d by t h e

o f f i c e of t h e r e s p e c t i v e b l o c k s r e v e a l , t h a t ou t of t h e

s e l e c t e d b e n e f i c i a r i e s i n t h e Semriyanwan b l o c k of B a s t i

d i s t r i c t , ou t of 485 b e n e f i c i a r i e s ( 5 2 . 9 8 p e r c e n t ) be longed

t o t h e d e s t i t u t e s c a t e g o r y , w i t h a very ve ry poor c a t e g o r y

and thy were 201 b e n e f i c i a r e s (41 .44 p e r c e n t ) , and t h e

t h i r d c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e d 2 7 b e n e f i c i a r i e s ( 5 . 5 8 p e r c e n t )

d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1 9 8 5 - 8 6 .

Dur ing 1 9 8 6 - 8 7 , t h e number of b e n e f i c i a r e s i n c r e a s e d

from 485 t o 6 4 5 . Out tof t o t a l 645 , 48 .06 pex c e n t b e l o n g e d

t o t h e f i r s t c a t e g o r y . The second and t h i r d c a t e g o r i e s

i n c o r p o r a t e d 4 1 . 0 6 and 1 0 . 8 6 p e r c e n t b e n e f i c i a r i e s r e s p e c t ­

i v e l y . I n t h e s u b s e q u e n t yea r 1 9 8 7 - 8 8 , o u t of 700

b e n e f i c i a r i e s , 227 ( 3 2 . 4 3 p e r c e n t ) b e l o n g e d t o t h e f i r s t

c a t e g o r y , 32 9 ( 4 7 . 0 0 p e r c e n t ) t o t h e second aud 144

( 2 0 . 5 7 p e r c e n t ) t o t h e t h i r d c a t e g o r y , whe reas i n t h e

161

0

(0

c d)

c 0 i4 (!) (U

I I .TS I

M l

1 I

( Q l

<\ I

H I

4-1

o

o\ I

Ai 03 (U

«

w •^

I (1)

o •H

m P •H

to (0

ra

o

8 m •H 4J 10

(II

fO

c

I (0

•w

(D

0> 00

I 0) 00 U) 00

•H 0>

I

u fO CD 0) 00

^ r i 10 00 c ^ 0)

o a.

r* 00

I W \0 (U 00

Qi ON T-i

o vO

i ^ CO

i i in £ 00 3 cr>

e o

H

4-1 ' ^ O ^

rj> C (0

O m 0) 4-)

C)

i2 8

O z

(/)

in n CM

o

in CM

in

CM CM

O •P

4J • H •p to <U Q

C

fO H

i n <r>

m 1-4

t CM (M

cn CM

n

• *

• ^

r^

in O

CM O

O CM CM O

O Q O O O O in 00 '•t rn I* v D

0 0 0 4J 4J 4-»

xO r-4 O >£) O O CM in CO <M CO •V*'

8

^ ^ 0) 0 > D4

^ ^

^ ^

0 0 0«

0)

>

'O c m o o

+J 10 1-1

+J 0 )

c > (U 0 I c O (I) a > Q) to Q C OJ ,« -H

CM n • * m

ON 1-f

r-

ai CO iH

CO r-'*

vC ro

O o r-

rH O n

vO vO CO

in

m 1-H

in • ^

vO

rH CO cn

\0 O r )

in CD • ^

ro CO r-t

ON 0 r-l

I I

I I

in o o o \0 O O O CM in 00 •<i< oj ro •«i< v D

0 0 0 0 U 4-1 ^ -P

r-t vD <-H O vO O O CM in CD CN ro ^

u o o

10

3 -P •H 4J to (u ai 0)

Q > >

0)

>

o o

l l 4

^ ^ o o a,

(01 PI 01 HI

•P (0 Ai

-^8 0) -)

m m

CM

Q) > O

fO

c

o o

•P to in

4J O C > (U O

c O (1) a > (u to o c

CN ro la* in

CM O

s on

00 vD

CM CO cn

• ^ 1 4 J |

H I

162 year 1988-89, out of 719 b e n e f i c i a r i e s . 2 35 (3?.63 pei cen t )

belonged t o f i r s t ca tegory , 345 (47.98 per cen t ) t o second

and 139 (19.34 per cent) t o the t h i r d c a t e g o r y .

In the Bankati block of che Eas t i d i s t r i c t , dur ing

1985-86, there were 382 b e n e f i c i a r i e s . Out of the t o t a l

382, some 183 (47.9 per c en t ) belonged t o d e s t i t u t e s

category, 199 (52.10 per cent) t o very very poor .

During the year 1986-87, out of 687 b e n e f i c i a r i e s ,

only 381 (55.46 per cent) belonged t o the f i r s t , and 306

(44,54 per cent) belonged t o che second c a t e g o r y .

In the year 1987-88 of the t o t a l of 802, a some of

301 bene f i c iar i e s (37.53 pe r cen t ) belonged to the

d e s t i t u t e s , 366 (45.63 per cen t ) t o second and 135

(16.84 per cent) to third c a t ego ry . During 1988-89 out

of 702 bene f i ca i re s , 188 (26.78 per cent ) belonged to the

d e s t i t u t e s , 478 (68.09 per cent ) t c very very poor and

36 (5.19 per cent) t o very poor c a t e g o r y .

Sectoral Benefit Scheme?

Sector-wise benef i t schemes were i n i t i a t e d for a number

of down trodden, persons i n s e l e c t e d blocks of the Bas t i

d i s t r i c t i n 1988-89.

In Basti Sadar block, out or 709 beneficiaries, some 358

(50.49 per cent) were benefitted under primary sector.

1G3 Beneficiaries under primary sector xeceived ki>. 1,907.14

thousand (50.49 per cent) of the to t a l subsidiary which

amounted to ic.. 3,777 thousands. In the Secondary Sector,

out of t o t a l benef ic ia r i es . 163 (76.5 per cant) benefic i ­

ar ies received fc>. 868.34 thousands oL t o t a l subsidiery

and in the t e r t i a r y sec tor , there wexe 188 (?6.5 per cent)

of the t o t a l benef ic iar ies and they received fo. 1001.5

thousands of to ta l subsidiery . Thus, the primary, t e r t i a r y

and secondary sectors cons t i tu ted a l a rges t share in t h i s

block. Within the primary sector , 11.7 per cent of to t a l

benef ic iar ies were provided fc. 44?.15 thousands, ?1.7 per­

cent of t o t a l subsidiery under the agr icu l tura l scheme and

for animal husbandary, and 17.07 j e r cent of the tocal

for minor i r r i g a t i o n works.

Out of 709 benef ic ia r ies , under the secondary sector

were provided hi, 868.34 thousands (22.9. per cent) for

industry whereas in t e r i t a r y sector , of the t o t a l benefi­

c i a r i e s , for service sector received ha, 708.52 thousands

(18.75 per cent) of the t o t a l subsidiery which was

Ki. 3,777 thousands and business schemes received the amount

of Ri. 2 93.00 thousands (7.75 per cent) of the t o t a l subsidery.

Bankati Blocks In the same year 1988-89, there were 702 benef ic ia r ies .

of t h i s 268 (38.17 per cent) bensf ic iar ies under primary sector

164

were provided Ki. 541.82 tnousands (3^.18 per cent) of the t o t a l

subsidiery. Under secondary sector , there were 159

(26.64 per cent) of to t a l benef ic iar ies who received a

sum of ks. 321.46 thousand (26.64 per cent) of t o t a l subsidiery.

In t e r t i a r y sector , the t o t a l number of benef ic iar ies

regis tered as 275, (39.17 per cent) of t o t a l who received

Rs. 559.98 thousands (39.17 per cent) of to ta l subsidiery.

In the above block, che hij/aest number of benef ic iar ies

provided under t e r t i a r y sector,and th i s i s followed by the •

primary sector and then secondary sector (Table - I I ) .

Under primary sector , 71 benef ic iar ies (10.11 per cent)

of the t o t a l were provided K:-. 143.55 thousands (10.11 per cent)

of the t o t a l subsidiery, 130 benef ic iar ies (18.59 per cent)

of the t o t a l received Ki. 262.83 thousands (18.52 per cent)

for animal husbandary and 67 benef ic ia r ies , were given

Rs. 135.46 thousands (9.52 per cent) of the to ta l subsidiery

for minor i r r i g a t i o n works.

In secondary sector , 159 beneficiar ies received

hi. 321.46 thousands (26.64 per cent) of the to ta l subsidiery

white in t e r t i a r y sector , out of 2 75 benef ic ia r ies , 215 have

received Ri. 434.68 thousands (2 0.63 per cent) of the t o t a l

subsidiery, and 60 benef ic iar ies received K.. 12o. l l thousands

(8.54 per cent) of-the t o t a l subsidiery.

M-l

C •H

• ^

%

H i W O O o

(0

Ml I

1 0 1

I <<l ^

5

U •U

w Q

c

a> 00 I

00 00 Ov

c •ri

0 o 0)

O Q)'-*

•H O

0) > U4 G < O H

c o ;3 o

csa

(U O •H O

•H •

% 0 C to -w

I u (0

•H

(1) rp (0

c (0 o (!) 4J -H o o i«

0) i « Q) D4 o m

0) m o ft

M O •P O 0) w M I I m a> (U H <u •U C O H

H M O (U

8 r-l ax

-"sj > H I

vO • 1-1

.« • CM

• ^ • • < *

a\ n

• o OJ CO

o\ i n

• •^ • *

vD

i / l

CO

ON

CO

n in

in

O •

r CO

• i n

i n

in

CO

crv

O

01

i n

CO

in in

•

O

CD vD CO

in

CO «

in

in

Oi

n CM

• 01

o f o

r-l Sf

t

r-H vr i n

o 00 m O 0^

t^ o • t^ I- f

ON ON

• C\ ' CNj

in r • 03 f H

in I'--

• r-

'-* H I H

I ' -S

•HI

• n 00

1 • rH

:3 • o

•H Q) . M M

r j l :3

• < ^

• OJ 0

• -H 0 U 0)

• ON

o

• ^

i n 1—1

r-l 0)

T3 C rt)

G;Q •H C

(0 3

< "X. ^ 03

rH

r-H

M 0

c •H '-

1

03 n i •H M M H

c o •rS

n r-l

^ +J w 0 X)

c H

G 0

U O Q) (y

m i n n i n r-4

0) 'Ji O <U

•H C

M (0

.^ ^

•H 0

m (u C-< t / )

165

0) G

C o C)

H >

s •

Oi

s •

cs

^ •

<\i •

• *

H « CM

s «

c

'0

>

•H •H

o

in in

I

u M

o «

00

CM

in

00

o

(0 O

•H O

CM

o

I

•H m

O •

« iT)

CM

tn

ll

O O

>.0 vP

i n \ 0

• o fO M"

CM t n

« 00 CD C^

a\ en

* vD O • < #

CM •*

• • ^

vD cn

O • *

• • *

o n

n O i

« r i vO n

o r - l

• Ov

o •td'

O '^l' «

r-tn r-

m v£)

» r - (

O CO

( 1 O i

« CM vD 1^

v£> i n

« • ^

CO CO

vO ^ •

r H

r^j

n

CO vO • -*

ro >*

i - i l-H

« o ex t-H

vD i H

• o i n i-H

o O

• CO r-CN

o *

CM

ro in

m

CM

o CM

ro in

in

^ vD *

vD CM

n vO

• o CM

"* 1 i n •

a i

0^ r\ * o

1 r-i

in O

• 0^ r-i

CM

o C\

in

in

CM

0-1

O CM

CM

o • CM

ro in

8 •

o CM

ro in

B * CM

CO

in

m

n O

• O CO CM

CJN

in

CM

ro

in

in CO

«

If) ro

O

CO

CM

• 0-1 r-4

CM

• CM CM

i n

o • 0\

r-£)

1

(0 M O' 0 - W C M G • H M O S H -H

Oi i n

t: + j

w 3 -o c H

IT) T3 C

i^ 0

0 +» o 0)

0 (1)

en to

i n

CM

(U o •H > ^1

0) 10

^ <0

• H -P M (U

u 0 -p CJ (U

B (0

o vD

CO Q) C

•rH

W =5 CO.

• < *

r-

1

3 o •H a) M U ^ 3

<: p

^u 03 0

e -p •d U ^ 0) .-, r/l

r-ro

1

r-( C (0 (U

e ^ •H 10 9 3 't n:

^ ro

i n

1 • P

n> ^ n i 0-rM G U w w S: H

G U

•d

CO ro

ti' iJ in 0 X> c H

' 0 G 0 0 <u CO

i^ 0 •p u 0)

CO

o

OJ

u •H > M (D tn

^ ro

• H U W 0) H

i n

^)

<u c H VI

•H

166

H

CQ ffl

ft

I H

ti (0

X

8

167 In the above block about 50 per cent of the to t a l

benef ic iar ies belonged to primary sector , which was followed

by t e r t i a r y (31.3 per cent) and secondary sec to r s . Under

Primary sec tor , 74 benef ic iar ies (10.29 per cen t ) , out of

the t o t a l benef ic iar ies were provided b . 150.16 thousands

(10.29 per cent) of the t o t a l subsidiery, 137 benef ic iar ies

were provided ic=, 2 78.00 thousands (19.05 per cent) and 145

(2 0.17 per cent) of t o t a l bene t i c i a r i e s were provided

fc,. 2 94.42 thousands (2 0.17 per cent) of the to ta l subsidiery .

In secondary sector , 138 benef ic iar ies (19.7 per cent)

of the t o t a l number of benef.iciaiies received k.. 280.03

thousands (19.20 per cent) subsidieiy while in service

( t e r t i a r y sector) accounts about 160 (72.75 per cent) of

the t o t a l benef ic iar ies benefi t ted by providing them

Ri. 324.64 thousands (22.2 5 per cent) of to ta l subsidiery,

and under business scheme ( t e r t i a ry s ec to r ) , about 9.05

per cent of to ta l benef ic iar ies received fo. 131.90 thousand

as subsidiery .

Loans and Subsidy?

The quantum of per capi ta assis tance through various

schemes under different sectors follows the norms la id down

by the National Bank for Ajr icul ture and Kural Developnent

(NABARD) and are generally based on the c red i t requirements of a benef ic iary.

168 It can be visualised from the Table-II, that the

average amount of financial assistance provided under various

benefit schemes, namely the primary sector amounted to

Ri. 9.84 thousands and Rs. 9.84 thousands in secondary sector

and an equal amount in tertiary sector schemes in Basti Sadar

Block. Within the Primary sector, the agriculture scheme

contained Rs. 9.84 thousands for financial assistance on an

average per person. For animal husbandary, the average per

person assistance amounted to ki. 4,16 thousands while for

minor irrigation scheme the financial assistance provided

reached to the amount of fc. 9.B4 thousands.

In Bankati Block, the average amount as financial

assistance received per unit of benefit scheme under primary,

secondary land tertiary sector was equal which reached to

Ri. 6.06 thous ands.

In Semriyanwan Block, the average amount of financial

assistance provided per benefit schemes, under primary.

Secondary and tertiary sector was Rs. 5.53 thousands.

As for as the average amount of subsidiery, per unit

in all the sectors and schemes is concerned, the amount was

equal being ki. 5.33 thousands per capita in Basti Sadar Block.

An average amount of subsidiery received per person in

all the sectors and schemes in Bankati and Semriyanwan Block

169

are equal being fc>. 2 .02 thousands while in Basti 3adar

Block, i t was more being ^. 5.33 thousands.

Total Number of Beneficiaries - 1985--86 to 1988-89?

The present study confesses to assess the number of

benef ic ia r ies of three selected blocks, namely Basti Sadar,

Bankati, and Semriyanwan Block of Basti d i s t r i c t to account

t h e i r number during the period extended from 19B5-86 to 1988-89

and Table-I I I shows the blockwise breakup of the number of

benef ic iar ies and the amount given as subsidy in individual

blocks of Basti d i s t r i c t during the period 1985-86 to 1988-89.

The figure reveals a trend of progress in the t o t a l number of

benef ic iar ies covered during the period of 1985-86 to 1988-89.

These seems to be a continuous phase in the u t i l i s a t i o n of

amount received by the benef ic iar ies as subsidiary.

I t i s evident from Table-II I that in each block, the

t o t a l number of benef ic ia r ies , increased leadinj to an increase

in the amount of subsidiery. The actual number of 3,369

benef ic iar ies were ass is ted under IRDF in Basti Sadar Block

during 1985-86 to 1988-89 against the t a rge t of ?,400 femi l ies .

Table-IV shows tha t out of 3369 assested famil ies , in Basti

Sadar block, about 30 per cent ware women, 50 per cent of the

to t a l belonged to scheduled caste atid res t to the general

category.

In Bankati Block, the to t a l nuiuber of Vjienef i c i a r i e s

H I H I

I

Wl I

J l « !

I xCl

I H I

+J (J

(0 (!)

•H U (0

•H 0 •H M-l (U c ii 44 0 u ^

3 c <u 0

a ? 1

X (0

o Wl ^ 0) (0

•^ i

;l<

8 rH CQ

•ri u 4J to •H Q •H 4J W fO

m c •H

&

•H '0 •H

^ 3 w CO fO

G 0) > •H rr 4J C

8 p 59

"S c (0

vD

10 (0

c m C > > i O

•H M -H m (U rH

.<e to ^a

to U-l Q) O H

O -ri a tj

•ri X r-j m i-i n nj (U £ O +J C 0) rH o a) to p h CQ

c ft)

(0 >1

c I - ^

•H rH

•H -H - d

«

mtn Q) ci

w m 0) O H

V4 fO •H U •H 4-1

03 • O

•H 2

C 4J C fO O (U m H A5

C I - ^ (U (U C > -H •H t i -H tT>-H r^

to rH 4J ^ C -H

8 rH CQ

U ft)

(0 to

m 0

A :

to (1) •d U (0 •H a •d •H rH U4

J j to to -P fO 0 PQ H

Q) C

^

(t)

170 00

r-o

in CD

O m

in a.)

in CO

in O

o\

o TH

O

O t - o

CO o

(N 00 n

r-ai vD

o

0\ t~

CM CM

vO O

t

on

o\ r-<X)

0^ vO 00

o i H 0^

0\

o

vO CO 1

i n CD 0^

t ^ CO 1

vO CO 0^

00 00 I r-

00 0 \

0\ CO I

t u 00 0 \

0 .

in

o

in CM

0\

M l 0)1 +J |

a 0) u x: +j

c •H

Xi Q) Xi •H > 0 u a w d) •d M rO

•ri O •H i «

(U C

S m o M

1 C

3 2 rH

0 9H

Ch 00 1

CO 00 a\ r-t

0 4J

vD 00 1

i n 00 a\ f - t

1

•P 0 •H i-l •M 10

S •H •P to (0 m m 0

^ 8

rH 0)

in Q) '-v 0 ^ O P O C 0 ' - ' 0 P • 0 Q2

l ^ c 0) H

fo -w (U M W P

> 0 <0 < 10 0

13 iH 0) c c*

1

13

r H

3 -o (W Xi 0 t/l

<]> O

• H •

0 C to -H

P to (0

o

u

B r-t

73

c

I

0)

t o

CO -^ r~ in

OJ CM

rH CM

\0 in

vo vo ao oi

I I >

0^ ff» O CO CM t~ vD rM 00 0^ (N O • « « •

vD in o» CM

OA CTv ^ •

rH 0^ 0\

CM o r-

• • ^

r-H

r-

CM sj> n

fl

i n vD O

O O o •

I - -

r~ i ^ ro

I I

CD i- 0^ sr ro in fo rH •^ •^ Kf CI

c a> o o\ r \D rH O CO 00 o\ r-

vo r^ oj o\ CO CD CO CO I

CD I

in vD t~ CD 00 C» 00 0 0 0> ON

AS

to

•H p to

0\ rH t ^

in •<;l' d-t

O

0>l vOI roi n |

I I I I I

rHi

PI 01 EHI

n O *

I >

0 in in

in l O f i

U-)

o C--

in in O

O r-) rH

0^ CO

t

c\ O r H

o> 0 1 r~i

• m O t^

i n r-r~l

• n O CO

00 t^ C\'

• Q\ rH

•

rH 1<

'rf"

in rH • *

rH l> •s)'

in o> ro

00 cr> r->

00 t^ • ^

rH

n ro

(X in ro

vj-CO r H

0^ o CM

r H

r~ vr

o i n fO

CN t^ CM CM 00 CD O O CO iD CO t-~

vD t~- CO 0> CD CO CO CD I I I I in vD t~- CO CO CO CD 00 01 01 0> 0\ ?

m

p

fO

c (0

p o

rH <r* in in C) CM OJ vD r. vD r~ 01 • • • •

CO <N CO f)

I f I >

CO "^ -^ t~

rH in o in CM *£) t~ rH • « « «

f) (N CO vcf

C J

r-0 1

• r H

a j

(

O l CM 0 1

« tH

i n 00

o o o

t

o o ro

o o

• 0 1 i n • *

CM - f Oi CO st< CM ^ vD CN) CO ro r )

I I II I

CO

'* CN

r H <N ro

rH i n ro

rH i n CO

i n 00 ^

i n • < *

\D

o o r-

c r H

t^

vD t^ CO 00 I I

in CD

8 i-H

w c

ft)

> •H in

e 0) (0

CO CO I

CO 00 c 0^

0> CO I 00 00 ON

17*i

172

ass is ted under IRDP, durinj tha same period were ?,573

against the ta rge t of 2400 famil ies . Cut of the 7,573 famiies,

30 per cent were women, 50 percent of thc^ t o t a l were scheduled

caste and res t were under the general category.

In Semriyanwan Block, Lhe tocai number of benef ic iar ies

ass is ted during the same period were aggravated to 2,549

against the t a rge t of 2400 famil ies . Cut of 2549 famil ies ,

50 per cent were scheduled caste and 50 per cent were under

the CSeneral category, 30 per cent of tna t o t a l were women.

Subsidy Components?

The f inancial ass is tance under lt<DP provided by the

s t a t e and centra l government was en t i r e ly given in the form

of subsidies , extension, technical guidance, supply of

inputs and marketing support e t c . , The predetermined norms

have been fixed to provide a subsidy at the ra te of 2 5 per cent

to small and 33.3 per cent to the marginal farmers. In t r i b a l

areas the share of subsidy i s raised to the extent of 50

per cent of the capi ta l cost of the scheme for the individual

famil ies . ( Appendix-I)

I t i s evident frau the Table-V that, in the tnree blocks,

the per centage of marginal farmers was more than 50 per cent

among the benef ic ia r ies .

Basti Sadar BlocK» During 1985-86, out of the t o t a l 879 benef ic iar ies 597

farmers (67.9 per cent) beionjad to the marginal category

and the rest of 282 (32.1 per cent) were categorised as

small farmers. In 1986-87, out of the 86 9 beneficiaries,

there were 660 marginal farmers (75.9 par cent) and 2 09

(24.1 per cent) were possessin.j small holdings. In 1987-88,

out of 910 beneficiaries, 755 families (82.96 per cent)

belonged to marginal category and rest of 155 (17.04 per cent)

were small fanners.

In 1988-89, out of 709 beneficiaries, the number of

marginal farmers accounted for 574 (80.95 per cent) and

only 135 (19.05 per cent) farailias were classed small farmers.

Bankati Block?

During 1985-86, out of 382 beneficiaries, 217 (56.8 per cent)

were marginal farmers, and 165 (43.7 per cent) belonged to the

small farmers category.

In 1986-87, there were 687 beneficiaries, out of

which, 521, (75.8 per cent) belonged to marginal and 166

(24.2 per cent) to small holdings.

In 1987-88, out of 802 beneficiaries, marginal farmers

comparised 571 (71.2 per cent), and 231 (28.8 per cent) small

farmers, while during 1988-89, out of the tocal number of

702, 479 (68.2 3 per cent) beneficiaries were catejorised

having marginal holdings and 233 (31.7 per cent) small holdings.

0)

u > <

to H I M

I ^ • J l

I pai <c

I fi • < i

I t ^ H I O

m

8

•p

c •H

m u 0)

00 I

CD CO

o +J

vO CD

I in 00

^

1^ •P o

W4

o •ri U V w

•H +J to (0 M 4-)

o

to u (U

fO •

^ c (0

e

(0 to C M • •H (D c2

M t i C

5: ^

M OB

to

8

1 C -0 -d •H-^ ^ :3 0) W -H

to u

rH (U

';3g G tJ to fe

c 0 H r-H

rj

^

d^

(0 in c u

•H Q)

(0 <0

I to M -HO)

r-i g> *« -H nj ^ m 0) i-i +j S 0 c m o p 0) -H E-i c m o

(U

to

8 m

n 0* •

00 0^ 00 0>

O o « 0\ CO ON <s

t—I

o • ou c\ CN vD

r-r~ « r-c-0\ t

r~ in «

ri CN vD

n t-H

• vO n (NJ •=}•

r 0 •

vO r-M* n

r. p>

• r-t

0\ o \D

vO CO

• \0 o •"t 00

rH

r~ •

CN 00 c-CD

CN vO •

0\ CN \D o\

t-i in • r-"* m O

(N CN

r- 00 00 r-l • *

in n r- rH vD rH • ^ • < *

vD t^ 00 CO 1 t

in \D CD CO 0^ 0\ r-t r-4

H (X -'»•

cn Q 0 < •< .-H m to (Ji

in in • •* CO n in

CO CO 1 r-CO ON rH

m rH

« o CO in vD

0^ CO 1 Oo CO 0\ rH

^ rH

• r t ^

vO 00 1 in 00 ON

H EH

r^ < m

rH

r •

ON •<:r

n rH

f CO 1 \D a> ON rH

X 8 rH (t)

rH v^ « vD O • ^

rH

00 CO 1

r-to ON rH

o o • ro vD ON CN

o\ OJ 1 00 CO o\ rH

•5f 00 • M* ON ON .-1

vO CO 1 in CO ON r-*

1

H

o vO •

•"d*

in in T-*

r-00 1 vD W CJN

• r H

»—* 1-^

s ;-.4 0 fa i< -1 to < rj

tt) CO • o o n CN

00 00 1 r-CO a^ rH

CN CN t

• ^

rj in CM

a\ CO 1 03 CO ON rH

0\ r

rH

r-vD O

r-r-

CN rH

CO t

o CO

rH • > *

00 r-

in CO

o ro

in '

CN CN -vf CO

CN Ov i n i n CD O in ro CS CS rH r-t

r - O i n " j" ON vD i n t^ i n vD r^ CN

0> Oi O ON r~ vD rH O 00 00 ON r^

vD C^ CO 0"\ 00 00 a. CO

I I I I in vD r - CD ou oj cu CO 0 - 0 . 0> 0 ,

hi VC X (r< < U

m m fQ

o o o

i n .£) r-H r i l£) vD fO <\. rH ,-H r^ (N

CN r ^ CN CN CO CO O O n vD CO t^

vD c^ a^ 0> 00 OQ OJ a./ I I I I

in vo t~ U; 00 a . 0

OJ 00

O O rH

CO r~ i n rH a> o^ ro scf

,--\ CN' in

rH

t~ in

0 r-•<*

CN ON

(^

03 • > *

in

in \D in

CO r« in

i n i n o ON CO .r O rH •«d< vD t^ f"

vo r- CO ON aj 03 m 00

I I I

ON ON ON 2 0 <

I CO

00 OJ 00 CO ON ON ON

H

^ X

i8 << r-H (l\ CO

2

H X

is c^ pa

174

175

Semriyanwan Block? During 1985-88, t h e r e were 485 b e n e f i c i a r i e s , of which

392 (86.8 per cen t ) were marginal farmaxs and 93 (19.2 per cen t )

were small h o l d e r s .

In 1986-87, out of the t o t a l of 645 b e n e f i c i a r i e s ,

548 (84,9 per cen t ) were mar j ina i and 97 (15,1 par cen t )

were small fa rmers . In 1987-8B, t o t a l b e n e f i c i a r i e s were

700. Out of which 565 (80.72 pat cen t ) were laar j inal farmers

and 135 (19 .3 per cen t ) were small fa rmers . While during

1988-89, t h e r e were 719 b e n e f i c i a r i e s , out of which marginal

farmers were 578 (80,39 per cent) aad only 41 (19.61 per ceii t)

were smal1 f arme r s .

Fami l i e s Ass i s ted t o Cross tne Poverty Lingj

For t h e purpose of i d e n t i f y i n g the t a r g e t group of

f ami l i e s t o be covered under che I n t e g r a t e d Rural Development

Programme (lt<DP), t he guide l i n e i s sued by the Ministr-y of

Rural Development had taken a cu t -o f f po in t of an annual

income of family not exceeding Ki. 640o/ - r e p r e s e n t i n g the

poverty l i n e . Going by. t h i s yard s t i c k and t ak ing the income

d i s t r i b u t i o n of the s e l e c t e d f ami l i e s a t t h e time of t h e i r

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and t h e i r iricome s t a t u s a f t e r they had been

covered by the bene f i t schemes prcviaed under IKDP, i t i s

p o s s i b l e to i n d i c a t e the numt-ir of Latnilies above tne poverty

l i n e from the t o t a l number or coor f c iu i l i d s .

176

Bastl Sadar Block»

Table-VI shows, that about 80 per cent of the 13,903

poor f a m i l i e s were c l a s s e d with annual income of ic. 0-3500.

Of t h i s 11,122 (80 per cen t ) fami l ies of the t o t a l , only

50 per cen t poor f ami l i e s wexa belonged t o scheduled

c a s t e s and out of the remainin j 50 per c e n t , about 30

per cent was reserved for women and 2 0 per cent was for

t h e o t h e r s .

Under the ca tegory of very very poor (with a income of

Rs. 3500-4800), 20 per cent of the poor f a m i l i e s were out of

the to ta l poor fami l ies of 13 ,903 . Cf t h i s 20 per cent

(2,781) f ami l i e s , about 50 pei cent wete scheduled c a s t e ,

30 per cen t women and 20 per cent were General . The impact

of IRDP can be assessed by v i s u a l i s i n j t h a t 13,903 poor

f ami l i e s as r e g i s t e r e d only , 4317 f ami l i e s (36.46 per cen t )

were b e n e f i t t e d during the per iod 1980-81 t o 1988-89.

Out of the 13,903 fami l i e s t o i 2,357 (16.95 per cen t )

fami l ies i t was at tempted t o b r i n j them above poverty l i n e .

I t can a l s o be s a i d , t h a t out of the 4,817 b e n e f i t t e d t a m i l i e s ,

about 48,93 per cent have c rossed the poverty l i n e and

the remaining 11,546 f ami l i e s (83.04 per cen t ) are s t i l l

below the poverty l i n e . Within a span of e i g h t y e a r s , only

16,95 per cent of t he t o t a l poor f ami l i e s were able t o be

placed above poverty l i n e , and the remaining 83.05 per cen t

are s t i l l have t o be raised above pover ty l i n e .

I • 4 1

I CQI

I -CI

I

B

• •

1 'O 1 • M • 1 d) 1 • C

J. 8 ;.

1 (3> 1

1 (0 1 • F=

1 ( 0 1

• t ) CO • 1 0) 0) 1

; •^o .• 1 0 1 • to

1 U) t • d) • 1 H 1

1 ^ -rj • • 0 e • • M 4-1 •

1 e 0 1 • p 0 • 1 ?; a. 1

• 0) • 1 C) 1 • -H • 1 U ^ 1 • 0 • • 1 r^a 1 • 0) ^ ^ • 1 4-> 1 • (0 •

• . u « • • • 1 0 1

1 * 1

1 Ul •

in r CN (N

r-m in

vD n C I

n

•sf rn CO

r-l -.0 in in

O Oi

n <-i

fN CO

o o i n r t 1

o

o o CO M* 1

o o i n n

O O • *

vD 1

o o CO M<

O

o ^ iD

0) > 0 A i '<

(') -^J*

177

n O cr> f o f - i

1 1

* CO (I) •H r-H •<-{

P fd

144

i-«

o 0 Qi

r - (

(D

0 +J

(1) ..G j J

>4-l

0

M

i c

5 , - ' <

t -

( 00 vr

-o Q) +J -p •H U-1 Q) G 0) ^ (n (U H .—1 •H

i m

i j -G 4J

^

• Oi

•H G

'T\

i 0)

o x: M

^ s 3 Z

4J

o G

•r i U)

r~ i n r> rsi

1

0) > ^ fO

13 (U W •H (0 M

(fl 0) •H rH •H

% ••u

<1) .G 4J

H-l 0

u 'A e i

• 0) G

• H r-i

> l

t: 0) > 0 p.

vD •<* i n f-H 1-1

1 1

•P U 0) > 0 Q,

> 0

rH (1) X! U) (U •H rH •H

(0 m (U -C 4J

> M 0

M

X3 1)

e G =1 -H 2 ,-<

CM O ^

178 Semriyanwan Block?

Table-VII shows, t h a t t h e r e were 10,?54 poor f ami l i e s

i n t h i s b lock . Out of 10,754 f a m i l i e s , 1,511 (14.74 per cen t )

were w i t h i n the annual income of tv.. 0-3500 ( d e s t i t u t e s cateciory)

Of the 1,511 poor f a m i l i e s , 55.2 per cent were scheduled

c a s t e , 8 per cent women and 44.73 per cen t were g e n e r a l .

Under t h e ca tegory of very very poor (Kb. 3500-4800) t h e r e

were 302 0 (2 9.45 per cen t ) f ami l i e s out of the t o t a l poor

f a m i l i e s . Of the 3,820 f ami l i e s only 1,672 f ami l i e s (55.3

per cen t ) were scheduled c a s t e , 8.6 per cen t women and 63.2

per cen t belonged t o g e n e r a l . There remained 7,881 poor

f ami l i e s below the poverty l i n e . As for as the t o t a l number

of poor f a m i l i e s are concered, about 3,72 3 f ami l i e s

(36.3 per cent) of t he t o t a l poor f ami l i e s were b e n e f i t t e d ,

of t h e s e 48.91 per cen t were scheduled c a s t e , 11,2 per cen t

women and 51.10 per cent were the o t h e r s .

The t o t a l number of f a m i l i e s a s s i s t e d t o c ro s s the poverty

l i n e were 2,871 (2R.08 per cen t ) of the t o t a l poor f a m i l i e s

or 77.1 per cent of the t o t a l b e n e f i t t e d f a m i l i e s . Of che

2,871 f ami l i e s t o be r a i s e d above the pover ty l i n e , t h e r e were

839 f a m i l i e s ( 2 2 . 5 . p e r cen t ) belonged to scheduled c a s t e s ,

2,39 per cen t women and 54.4 per cent were che o t h e r s .

Of che 7,382 f ami l i e s recorded below poverty l i n e accounting

for about 72 p6r cent of the t o t a l poor f a m i l i e s , 3,4 31 f a m i l i e s

(46.47 per cent ) were scheduled c a s t e , <. .5 2 per cent women and

53,53 per cent were o t h e r s .

179

HI > l I

Ml I 1

(Ql I

•<l I

1

•

1

1

•

«

• •

• u <0

c C<H

Q)

1^ s 0) tu

•d OJ r ^

:3 TJ

0) +J w (0

0) O J3 0 to

m o M

1 3

1 * ^

u o 0

(!) 0) •H

•H

g f9 ft ^

i^l

81 vJI « l

1

* i ii <t ><* H I

^ ' M l t n i

1

• I/) 0) •rl W

o-> '^ » Q) ^ • P ^

C)

• 0

• rH

tn

»o r-\ 0

00 • ^

n r-t

0» l-H

\D n

m « vO vO

(NJ

LD

vO ro rH

vD 0^ sf

L D

O CN

i n ro 00

ex r vO rH

^ r-t

o c\

00 r^ CM r-<

o (N

o m

n (N: r-i n

rH 00 CO r-

O O in r> t o

o o 00 ^ 1 o o in m

o o ' vD

1 O o 00 sf

O O ^ vD

1) > 0 XJ <

CN ro

'* i n CM

ro CM [^

t-H

r-CO

ro 00 ro

O r'1 (S

•

•H ^ •H r:

<9 14-t

V4 0 o P-.

0) u c •H 10

0) +J JJ •H m 1) c ^ U)

a) •H

0) x: +j

0) > s (0

•0 fl) w •H 03 U

W a) •H

>( -p

w 0) > 0 Ck

Q)

^ p

? 0 r-l

z 10 (1) •rl

(0 H -H -H ^ S G ^

0) (1) • (U • 0) x: x : CT x : 0) -C oJ +J C 4J G -P

•H H o o H o o

^ ^^ i i ^ l a i 3 :3 c , 5 0 ,3 -H

sr

180 A P F 2 D I - I

P r e d e t e r m i n e d Norms F ixed tot F i o v i d i n j t h e S u b s i d y t o smal l and Mar-jinal Farmers

S .No. Tar .jet Group P e r - c e n t a j e o£ Subs idy t o Tota l f i n a n c e

C e i l i n j i n A s b o l u t e t e r m

1 , I n d i v i d u a l / f a m i l y s m a l l f a r m e r s Mar­g i n a l f a r m e r s A g r i c u l t u r a l 1 a b o u r e r s non-a g r i c u l t u r a l l a b o u r e r s .

2 5'/ — Subjected to a ceiling of Ri, 3000/- per family in Non-DPA Pareas and Rs. 4000/- in DPAP areds

Rural Artisans

Tribal families

2. Community Minor

33.33%

50-/

3 . Co-operative Society and Beneficiaries

•R:.. 5000/- per family in a l l rural areas .

•More than 50% Land­holders in the ayacut should be small and farmers and they should own not less than 2 5% of the Land. Cost apportionment for each group member wil l be in proportion to t h e i r land as a per-centage of t o t a l land in ayacut,Of th i s cos t , each beneficiary wil l get 5C% subsidy with­out the absolute ce i l ing l imi t refered to at se r i a l No.1 above.

Assistance under IRDP w i l l , however, be r e s -t ructed to Projects costing up to Ri.2 Lakh per blocks.

-SCr/. of the Capital Cost subject to individual ce i l ing at s e r i a l No.l above. •

Source: Department of RD, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt India , New Delhi, P-12.

of

C_H_A__P_T_£_K - VI

CONCLUSION

I n t e g r a t e d Kural Development Fro^rarnme i n

Trans-Ghaghara P l a i n , i n i t i a t e d i n 1980, i s more r e l e v a n t

t o the p r e s e n t day problems and needs of our country as

80 p e r - c e n t of her teeminj and overflowing popu la t ion

l i v e i n t h e thousands and lakhs of v i l l ac fe s . The imp­

lemen ta t ion of the p lan for I n t e g r a t e d Kural Development

i s necessary and d e s i r a b l e for minimizing poverty and

mounting unemployment i n the s tudy a r e a .

The concept of r u r a l development i s an i n t e g r a t e d

a rea apprach and i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e l i e s i n the growth of

r u r a l economy.

Rural development i s a never ending p r o c e s s . The

success of a s e t of programmes takes r u r a l s o c i e t y

upwards, Ind ia s t a r t e d Community Development Programme

i n 1952, and l a t e r having implemented with varying

measures of s u c c e s s , t he I n t e n s i v e A g r i c u l t u r a l D i s t r i g t

Programme, the I n t e n s i v e A g r i c u l t u r a l Area Programme,

the Small and Marginal Farmers Agency Programme have

been engaged i n the implementat ion of the I n t e g r a t e d

Rural Development Programme s ince 1980. The con ten t s

of r u r a l development have bean changing f ran time t o t ime

i n t h e p e r c e p t i o n of the l oca l r u r a l s o c i e t y as well as

t h e impulses and forces r e l e a s e d by the success of e a r l i e r

programmes.

181

Rural development in Basti d i s t r i c t , how^^ver,

did not have a J|Ocd impact on the eradicat ion ct poverty.

Table VI makes i t c lear chat in Basti d i s t r i c t only

about 20 per-cent of the tocai poor lai.iilies have risen

above the poverty l ine since ch^ be.jining of IKDP t o

1988-89.

This study was undertaken in Trans-3haghara

region with special reference to Basti d i s t r i c t in the

l i g h t of major po l i c i e s , planning, implementation and

organisat ion set-up for rural development launched since

independence.

Fie ld work for study was undertaken in the

three blocks of Basti d i s t r i c t . The study covers a l l

the benef ic iar ies that were ^-iven helped during 1985-86

through IRDP. The highest number of benef ic iar ies were

found in Basti Sadar block and the lowest in Ba'ri^ati

block of the d i s t r i c t . About 50 per-cent of the

benef ic ia r ies belonged to Scheduled Caste, 30 per-cent

were women and 20 per-cent were other members of the

soc ie ty .

The study has been atcempted because of the

past experiences of the development projrammes wherein

poor people and and areas lacking resources are l e f t

untouched and in t r a - r e j i ona l ana in te r - reg iona l

d i s p a r i t i e s in income are created. To ensure a

182

183 balanced growth ot all sections of the society

and all the areas, a special policy for rural poor

and backward areas is urgently needed.

The present approach of the IRDF envisages

self-employment which is basically dependent upon a

number of factors such as entite p eneurial skill of

the individual beneficiaries, requisite potential of the

area concerned, forward and backward linkages, no effort

seems to have been made on the part of the government

to promote wage employment. The very foundation of

IRDP is the notion that every beneficiary possesses the

entire preneurial skill and just by extending finance

he will be able to plan, manage, organise, coordinate,

control and maintain the so called "income generating

asset" for his benefit.

In majority of cases tnj amount of joan and subsidy

was not adequate to meet thj co-t of investment. About

80 .per-cent of the total beneticiaries reported

inadequacy of financial assistance. As a result, the

programme could not cover the people belonging to the

categories of 'destitutes' and'very very poor* who are

unable to contribute anything on their own in terms of

money.

In majority of cases, shorter loan maturity periods

184 were fixed by ccmmarcial banks. This was because

of the fact that discret ionary powers were available

t o the pa r t i c ipa t ing bankers for repar inj loan repayment

schedule even below the s t ipu la ted maximum. Tt would be

des i rable to have a uniform repayment schedule adopted

by a l l the par t ic ipa t ing banks and i t should, as long

as poss ib le , depend upon the econoniic l i i e of the asset

and the incremental income generated there from.

I t has been observed that in che selected three

blocks, namely Basti Sadar, Semriyawan and Bankati block

of Basti d i s t r i c t , the scheme of primary sector and scheme

of service and rural industry are most popular. The

per-centage share of each scherue has been 7.5 j,'i;r-cent

i n Basti Sadar, 8.54 per-cent in BanKati and 9.5 per-cent

in Semriyawan block under business, 11.7 per-cent ,

10,11 per-cent and 10.2 9 per-cent under agr icul ture

in the respective blocks, 2 0 per-cent under secondary

sector and about 50 per-cent under primary sector in a l l

the three blocks.

I t has been observed that no family belonging to the

d e s t i t u t e s and ver>- very poor categories could cross the

poverty l i n e . Therefore, i t i s c lear that people from

higher income brackets were able to generate incorue and

thereby were able to cross the poverty l i n e .

185

It has been also observed cnat th^i^ was a

weakness in the identification of beneficiaries because

of the lack of systematic household surveys, non-covering

of Gram Sabhas for ascertaining the economic position of

the would be beneficiaries and political interference

by the local leaders to a great extent, all attribute

to such wrongful identification of beneficiara.es.

"^ In the majority of cases the beneficiaries were

dependent on casual labour for earning their livelihood

as the activity financed contributed on an average btween

2 5 to 50 per-cent to the family income pool. Thus IRDP

could not make a concrete dent on the economic life of

the poor.

Further, it was observed that not even a single

beneficiary was able to get the bank loan in single

visit to branch concerned; Majority of the beneficiaries

had to visit the bank branch chree times of even miore

often to get the bank lean sanctioned.

•v/

Majority of the beneficiaries selected the activity

on the basis of the experience of their neighbours and

friends. It shows that there was a lack of initiative,

enterprise and innovative thinking on the part of the

beneficiaries and also the bankers and the government"^

of f i c i a l s regarding new ideas/schemes.

I t was found tha t due to lack of awareness, majority

of the respondents were unaware of the programme and

i t s purpose. In most of the cases the benef ic iar ies were

c r i t i c a l of the a t t i tudes of both the government and the

bank o f f i c i a l s and reported that the a t t i t ude was

non-co-operative, however, i t was more in case of

government of f ic ia l and less in bank o f f i c i a l s . v

The income generated under the same a c t i v i t i e s

showed wide var ia t ions fran block to block. I t was

observed tha t the income also depended ujon market

potent ia l t o great deal and the extent to which i t had

already been exploi ted, where there was over crowding

in any f ie lds income tended to be lower and where the

nximber of persons following the ac t iv i ty was low in

r e l a t ion t o potent ia l ava i lab le , the incomes were r e l a t ive ly

high. I t was also observed that in Easti Sadar,block

which i s agr icu l tu ra l ly and otherwise a developed block

of Basti d i s t r i c t , income levels in general , were

r e l a t i ve ly high. In fact , i t was observed that in the

blocks with re la t ive ly most d ivers i f ied economies, the

scope for new a c t i v i t i e s was b e t t e r . But, unless the

market potent ia l for each of tne a c t i v i t i e s i s properly

assessed, there i s a danger of over-crowding and

186

187 consequent fall in incomes.

The survey indicates that total investment per

beneficiary continues to be low. This is the major defect

of IRDP which obviously affects its efficiency in poverty

alleviation. Unless total investment is realistically

assessed and adequate subsidy and credit are extented,

the investment will be inadequate to ensure sufficient

surplus, after meeting the essential consumption

expenditure to the family and repayment of loan instalment.

This is the joint responsibility of both the DRDAs and

the Bank Managers.

There should be a 'nursing approach' on the paxrt

of implementing authorities which implies regular monitoring

and follow-up of the beneficiaries by the sta-ff on the

implementing agencies. Ic should also include the

provision for guidance to the beneficiaries as also

periodic verification of the physical possession of the

assets, their maintenance, gradual economic improvement

of the beneficiaries' status and the like.

Like democracy IRDP also believed in quantity rather

than quality. Small amount of loans diffused in a very

large area covering a very large number of beneficiaries

makes the monitoring and follow-up not only diffused but

also excessively expensive. Therefore, substantial

188 financing to a small number o£ beneficiaries rather

than a meagre amount to a large number of beneficiaries

should be the approach of che financing agencies while

extending credit to the beneficiaries.

Integrated Rural Development does not simply mean

econccnic development but total development of econanic,

social, educational, political and psychological aspects

of people living in rurual areas. For instance, more

economic development of an individual will have no meaning

if he or she does not develop a sense of health, nutrition,

sanitation and hygiene.

Indian villages have a predominantly,agrarian

economy notwithstanding that, in some regions majority

of the inhabitants is composed of cowherds, shephards

or even hunters in some tribal villages. Cur villagers

are marked with their unsophisticated simplicity combined

with an astuteness of observation of strangers. \/

'Undoubtedly, IRDP did help certain beneficiaries

to cross the poverty line but its role, taking into

consideration the totality of the problem, has been

insignificant, because of a number of factors such as

selection of beneficiaries not strictly on the basis of

social inequalities and political considerations, the

quantum of help rendered, faulty occupational distribution.

high cost of borrowinj, delay m sanction and m a t t a c t i v e

management of the business a s s e t s . Thus the conclusion

i s that any micro-level development, can be sustained only

by macro-level development of resources on the basis

of the economy of permanance.

The fa i lu re in the development of an econany

of permanance by development of resources at the macro-level

has meant tha t the poverty a l l ev ia t ion programme has

ul t imately slipped back again in to the quagmire of poverty

a f te r c e r t a in i n i t i a l success, thus creat ing a vicious

c i r c l e of poverty and the ult imate pos i t ion i s where i t

was. This phenomenon i s observable pa r t i cu l a r ly in drought

and floor prove areas which i s the fate of many a s t a t e s

i n India .

So far as the f inancial assis tance i s concerned,

i t wil l be l ess in quanti ty and require continuous monitoring

in regard to proper use and limely repayment. Further,

self-employment wil l be by and la rge , based on the family

background and individual s k i l l s , thereby, c rea t ive

t a l e n t of en t i r e population will be optimally used for

enrichment of the region as a whole.

Every occupation will be upl i f ted to a high pedestal

through the processes of modernisation, mechanisation and

commercialisation which will ul t imately wipe-out a sense

190 of social startification as manifested, currently in

hereditary occupations. In this manner che entire policy

of IHDP will be completely changed to ensure active human

participation on the basis o£ spirit of enterpreneurship,

hardwork, individual initiative and optimum use of skills

in the study region. With this the financial aids and

subsidies will provide marginal help to the beneficiaries

with an effective system of monitoring the entire use of

financial aids in conjunction with the total efforts

of the beneficiaries. It has been stated that "The

economic bettei;ment of the poor section cannot be achieved

without social-transformation involving structural changes

educational development, growth of awareness and changes

in outlook, motivation and attitudes.

Greater participation of the poor through the election

insititutions at the grass-ioots level as well as through

their own organisations is another means to achieve social

changes. Improvement in the literacy and education, both

through formal and non-formal means and the imaginative

use of various mass media tor canmunicating useful information

and knowledge as well as for changing the outlook of the

people by instilling in them the egalitarian spirit,

the urge for and confidence in achieving self-betterment

through cooperative endeavour are essential, foi speeding

up the process of socio-econanic transformation.

191 The poorest of the pooi laquire a laxje component

of subsidy since their credit worthiness is not adequate

to raise the required loans tor meeting the balance cost

of the assets. The cost of the assets tc be provided

to such people may have to be met fully by the Government,

The pattern of subsidy for such class of people should be

raised substantially. It is said that unless sufficient

credit is provided to the development projreammes for

the weaker section, the main goal of the development

programme cannot be achieved,

LacX of integration in planning and implementation

is the cause of failure to forge effective backward and

forward linkages for che poverty amelioration programmes.

Decentralisation of planning has remained in papar despite

the detailed guidelines contained in the plan documents.

Decentralised planning by itself cannot produce the desired

results without integrated implementation.

It is said that the major joal of planning in a region

should be 'the growth with equity and their airxis at

eradication of absolute poverty and without the reduction

of the population below the poverty live, it can be said

that planning has not achiaved much in eradication of the

poverty of the poorest group. IL can also be said that for

the rural development 'no single approach will solve all the

problems relating to the rural area' .

The main findings of the study are: \[]2

A vast array of the ajenci-s at the national, state,

district and block level have been set-up indicating the

intention ot Government machineiy to enable, the people

to take up gainful econauic activity and thereby raise

their income to the level above line.

The emergence of one institutional agency after the

other has given i t a character of multi-agency approach

under which "finance" has been provided a driver's seat to

navigate the people in rural areas, across the ocean of

poverty,

Among all the rural development programme, IRDP has

been considered to be forerunner of life and which is a

major strategy to assist rural people living below the

poverty l ine.

Tne main objective of che study was to make an

assessment of the approach and policy implication of

3overnment of India regarding IkDP. The approach envisages

identification of the poorest of the poort families with

the objective of bringing the identified families above

the poverty line.

The present approach of the IKDP envisages self-

employment which is basically dependent upon a nvimber of

factors such as enterpreneurial skill of the individual

193

bene t i c i a r i e s , r equ i s i t e pocentiai of the area

concerned, forward and backwaia linkacies e t c . No

effor t seems to have been made on the part of

the Government to promoce wa^e-employment.

The micro-level analysis oi implementation of

IRDP indicates that there were def in i t e quant iat ive

projiress in terms of number of benef ic iar ies covered,

the expenditure incurred v is -a -v is a l locat ion and

enhancement in the level of investment over a

period of four years from 1985-86 to 1988-^9.

There had been also consis tent improvement in the

u t i l i s a t i o n of funds.

194

1, Ramesh Sharma, "Omtajrated Rural Development

Programme in Indias A Basic Approach, 19"9,

pp. 93-94.

2, N.E.C., Secretariat, Shillong- (i) Basic Statistics

1980, (ii) Basic Statistics, 198?.