conklin, "the new ethnology" (2002)
TRANSCRIPT
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THE NEWETHNOLOGY
ANDLA SITUATION COLONIALEININTERWAR FRANCE
AliceL. ConklinUniversityofRochester
La proposition, avanceparGeorgesBalandierdans les annes 1950, queceque
jobserve, enralit, nestpasunvillagekongouunetribufang, maisunesituation
coloniale, na dunecertainemanirepasencorefinidexercerseseffetssubversifs
dansla discipline. Lerapportdesethnologues la dominationcolonialeoupost-
colonialenestpasdeservilit, maisdedngation. Toutsepassecommesilsnela
voyaientpasetleurcomplicitobjectiveserduitgnralement laissercroire
quellepourraitntrepasvisible1
JeanBazins 1996 invocationof theenduringeffectsofGeorgesBalandiers
criticalinsightsofthe 1950sis a testimonialtonotjusthowrevolutionary, but
alsohowpersuasivethese insightswereandremain. It iscommoncurrency
now, even amongthoseofuswho arenot anthropologists, thatfirstEuropean
travelers, thenEuropeanscientistsinventedplaceslikeAfricathattellus
more aboutthemselves/ourselvesthantherealitytheypurportedtodescribe.
Theparticularinventionofthetwentiethcenturywas anthropologistsdis-
coveryofpureculturesuntouchedbyhistory andespeciallybycolonial-
ism. Havingfoundsuchpeoples, anthropologiststhendevotedthemselvesto
recording andpreservingtheirauthentic traditionsbefore itwas too late.
Balandiersprecociouscontributiontothefield, inthiscontext, wastotakethe
colonialsituationitselfashisobjectofstudy asearly as 1951 andtorendervis-
ibletheunequalpowerrelationssodiscreetlyevacuatedbyhismorecom-
plicitprofessionalcolleagues.2
The above assessmentoffers a useful startingpoint for a discussionof
BalandiersplaceinmodernFrenchethnology, becauseincorrectlyidentifying
the lattersremarkable achievementsBazinneverthelessoveremphasizes the
French Politics, Culture&Society, Vol. 20, No. 2, Summer 2002
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invisibilityoftheempireforFrench anthropologistsgenerally. Recentschol-
arshipon thehistoryof thesocial sciences inEuropehasgonebeyond the
onceuseful, butnowratherconfining, tropeofpreservationist anthropology
asthehandmaidenofcolonialism, toconsidermorecloselythemanydif-
ferentinstitutionsincludingcolonialonesthatsupportedtheemergenceof
thedisciplineinthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury. Historiansofanthro-
pologyhaveincreasinglyshownthatcolonial andacademicknowledgeof
non-Westerncultureshelpedtoconstituteeachother atspecificmomentsin
time, whilediverging atothers.3 Balandiersownwork, Iwouldliketosuggest
inthisessay, is a caseinpoint. Itdidnotspringex nihilofrom a brilliantmind,althoughnoone woulddeny that the latter waspresent. Rather, his con-
frontationwithla situationcolonialewascriticallyframedby atleasttwo
imperialfactors atthebeginningofhiscareer. Bothremindusthatwhilethe
generationof anthropologists thatmentoredBalandiermayhave ignored
colonialismwhenitcametowriting aboutnativecultures, theyopenlysought
theimprimaturofempire andtheopportunitiesit affordedthemfortheinsti-
tutionalizationoftheirscience.
Whatwere thesetwo factors?FirstwasBalandiersowncolonialsitua-
tion as a state-employed anthropologistdetachedtoFrenchWestAfrica in
thehighlypoliticizedpost-Brazzavillecontext. Second, andmyparticularcon-
cern in thisessay, washisearlier sociological training at the Institutdeth-
nologie(IE) attheUniversityofParis andtheMusedelhomme(MH) at a
momentwhenthesetwolinkedinstitutionswereopenlyplacingethnological
knowledge attheserviceofempire.4 FoundedintheinterwaryearsbyMarcel
Mauss, PaulRivet andLucienLvy-Bruhl, theIE andtheMH attemptedtoren-
ovate anthropologyinFrancebypromotingthestudyofso-calledprimitive
culturesin loco, ratherthanfrom armchairsinParis. Theybaptizedtheirnewapproachethnologytodistinguishitfromtheexcessivelyphysical anthro-
pologythatstilldominatedinFrance. Intheirbidtoprofessionalizeethnologie,Mauss, Rivet, andLvy-Bruhlconsciouslysoughtcolonialsubsidiesfortheir
newcourses, publications, andresearchdevotedtothesocialfactsofnon-
Westerncultures. Suchknowledgewouldsurely improvecolonialrule, they
claimed, byhelping administratorstounderstandtheirsubjects. Theydidnot
haveto asktwice. Anthropologyinitsnewethnologicalguisewas aninex-
pensivesciencetofund, andthedesiredsubsidiessoonmaterialized. Ethnol-
ogys stated goalmaking colonialismmore efficient andmorehumane
throughbetterknowledgeof their subjectswasone, moreover, thatevery
colonial interestcould applaud in theory, ifnotdevote itself to inpractice.
Las
t
but
not
least
, asB
eno
t
d
elE
sto
ileh
aspo
int
ed
out
,th
eFr
en
ch
st
at
e aft
er
WorldWarIwasnoweagertolegitimateitsrighttocoloniesbymobilizingthe
prestigeofscienceforitsownsake.5 Outofthistangledwebofcross-cutting
motivations, ethnologyinthe 1920s and 1930s, attheInsti andtheTroca,
becamecolonialthroughandthrough, atleastinstitutionally, financially, and
initschoiceofscientificobjects. Atthesametime, asVroniqueDimier and
AliceL. Conklin30
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GaryWilderhaveeachshownindifferentways, French administratorsinthe
coloniesbecameincreasinglyscientific andethnological.6
GiventhiscolonialimbricationoftheIE andMH, Bazinssuggestionthat
French anthropologistspaid little attention to empire requires revising, at
least for the interwarperiod. Butdoesnot this samephenomenoni.e.,
ethnologies relianceon colonialism to institutionalize itselfproveBazinslargerpointthat anthropologywasdirectlycomplicit intheempiresmany
inequities?There are, ofcourse, degreesofcomplicity.Iwill arguethatwhile
Mauss, Rivet, andLvy-Bruhlcertainlymobilizedimperialresources, theydid
soinwaysthatreflectedtheirparticularprofessional aspirationsfirst andfore-
most. Thispreoccupationinturnkeptthem(and atleastsomeoftheirstu-
dents) at a criticaldistanceliterally and epistemologicallyfrom empires
mostdirectuse and abuseoftheirscience. Wasitnotfromhisspecificloca-
tion, oftheempirebut alsooutsideofit, thatBalandierwas abletoproduce
the kindof anticolonial sociology for whichhe isjustly famous? Indeed,
Balandierscasesuggeststhatwestillhavemuchtolearn aboutcolonialforms
ofknowledge, astheyemergedonthemarginsofa scientizingempire and a
professionalizingscience.
TograspMauss, RivetandLvy-Bruhlsscientificaspirationsintheinter-
waryears, a brief reviewof theorganization and statusof thedisciplineof
anthropologyinFranceishelpful.7 Inthe 1920s, therewasstillnouniversity
chairorprograminthefield, althoughtherewas a rich andvariegatedtradi-
tionofstudyingmaninthemanyparallelschoolsthatexisted alongsidethe
variousfacultsdeslettresand facultsdessciences, andinprivate associations.Therewas also a markeddividebetweenphysical anthropologistsinterestedin
systemsofracialclassification andethnographersconcernedwithhumanitys
diversecultures andmoreespeciallyprimitive andexoticones. Thefor-
mer, anoutgrowthofnaturalhistory, historicallyhadenjoyedthemostpres-
tige inFrance and internationallydespitedeepdisagreements within their
ranks. Itsprofessionalbases were thecoledAnthropologie, the Musum
NationaldHistoireNaturelle(Musum), theInstitutdePalontologie, andthe
Broca Laboratory atthecolePratiquedesHautestudes(EPHE);thesewere all
teachinginstitutionsthatneverthelessdidnotconfertheuniversitydegrees
essentialtocareersinFranceinhighereducation. By 1900, physical anthro-
pologistsinFrancewerenolonger atthecuttingedgeofscholarship, although
institutionallytheystilldefined andthereforecontrolledwhatofficiallypassed
for anthropologyinFrance. RatheritwasFrancesotherlearnedcommunity
devoted to the scienceofmanthose sociologists, linguists, andethnogra-
phe
r
sdo
cum
ent
ing
and
an
alyzing
civilizat
ion
sb
eyond
Europ
eth
at
app
ear
ed
themoredynamic andmore innovative, albeit alsomoremarginal and (if
possible)more fragmented. Themost successful among themhad found a
nicheintheeruditefifthsectionoftheEPHE, devotedtolessciencesreligeuses,aswell as atthecoledesLanguesOrientalesVivantes andthemorepracti-
callyorientedcoleColoniale. AsEmmanuelleSibeudhasshown, increasingly
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sophisticatedamateurethnographerswere alsobeginningtoemergefrom
theranksof thecolonial administration, thebestknownofwhomwas the
AfricanistMauriceDelafosse. Finally a numberofethnographicsocietieswere
foundedorrefoundedintheprewaryearsfurtherevidenceofa flourishing
interestintraditionalsocietiesbeyondFrancesborders. Althoughthesedif-
ferent groupsdidnot initiallywork inconcert, by the turnof thecentury,
manyofthemwerecomingtothesameconclusion. Thiswasthatthescience
ofmanneededtobeplacedon a new, moretheoreticallyrigorous andmore
syntheticbasisthanthatonofferbyBrocasdisciples, onethattookintobetter
accountsocial, linguistic, andculturalfactsofsimplesocieties. Thismulti-
facetedreformingimpulseultimatelyculminatedinthetwolinkedinitiatives
invoked above:first, thecreationoftheIE and a dramaticoverhaulofFrances
existing ethnographicmuseum, the MusedethnographieduTrocadro
(MET), whichtogether, itwashoped, wouldgiveethnologists aninstitutional
basethatcouldeclipseifnotsupplantthecoledAnthropologie andredefine
anthropology attheMusum; andsecond, theturnofthesesameethnologists
tothecoloniesforfunds andlegitimation, bothbecausetheybelievedinthe
possibilityofa humanitarianempire andbecausethescientificmanagement
ofhumanresourcesoverseashadbecomepoliticallylordredujour inFrance.Mausswascertainlyoneoftheearliestandmostarticulateadvocatesofa
renovated anthropologyinFrance. Unlikeothermaverickscholarswhoshared
hisconcernsbutdidnotmoveinthesameelitecircles, hewas alsosufficiently
wellconnectedtomakehisviewsheard. In 1907, fiveyears afterhis appoint-
menttotheEPHE, heconsidered applyingforthedirectorshipofFranceslong
neglectedMET.8 Itis asifMausssensedeventhentheimportantrolethatthis
museumcouldplay andshouldplayintheprofessionalizationofa new, more
culturallyorientedscienceofman. Intheendhedidnotsecurethisposition.
YettheconcernsthatmotivatedMaussin 1907 resurfacedsix yearslater. In a
1913 lettertotheministerofpubliceducation, Mausspointedoutthatthe
breakthrougheffectedbyDurkheimian aswell asrecentAnglo-American and
Germansociologyhaddependedontheirinnovativeuseofethnographicdoc-
uments. Les faits ethnographiques,he wrote, emprunts des socits
infrieures, fontdsormaispartieintgrantedelensembledesfaitsquecon-
sidrentlesdisciplineslesplusclassiques. 9
But, helamented, Francewasdoingnothingtostudysuchfactsormake
themknown. That same year, in two articles surveying ethnography in
France and abroad,heconcludedbitterlythatevenSwitzerland andSweden
haddonebetterthanFranceinthisdomain, despitethelatterssuperiorstatus
as a greatscientificpower andcolonialpower.10 Hethen added,
La causeet aussila consquencedela stagnationdelethnographieenFranceest
labsenceou linsuffisancedes institutionsquipourraient senoccuper. Nous
navons ni enseignements, ni bonsmuses, ni offices de recherches ethno-
graphiquesparcequenousnenous intressonspas lethnographie. Et, inverse-
ment, nousnenous intressonspas cette scienceparcequilny a cheznous
AliceL. Conklin32
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personnequisoitparticulirement intress sonsuccs. Unesciencenevitpas
quedebeaulangage, illuifautunmatrieletunpersonnel. Illuifautdesorganes
permanents, desinstitutionsdurablesquila crentetlentretiennent.11
Maussinwhatwasclearly a bidtoestablishhimselfas a leaderofthismiss-
ingscienceinFrancewentontooutlinewhatremainedtobedoneifFrance
wanted to rankon a par at thevery leastwithLondon andVienna. As an
observationalscience likezoology, botany, geology andphysicalgeography,
ethnographydemanded threedifferentordersof work: fieldwork, during
whichdocumentswerecollected;museumor archivalwork, whereobjects
wereclassified, studied, andpublished; andteaching, whereknowledgepro-
ducedwascommunicatedtospecialists andeventhepublic atlarge.12
Ayearearlier, Mausshad actuallydrawnup a proposalforonepieceofthis larger institutionalproject. He envisaged the creationof aBureauof
Ethnography attachedtotheuniversity, whoseexplicitobjectivewouldbeto
organize, encourage, and activateethnographicstudiesinFrance andparticu-
larly in theFrench colonies.13 Nothing cameof thisparticularproposal as
Francemobilizedforwar. Butwhatisstriking aboutMausssdescriptionofthe
stateofethnographyinFrancein 1914 istheextenttowhichhisrecommen-
dationswererealizedinthe 1920s and 1930salthoughnotbyMauss alone.
Istilldonothave alltheelementsofthestory. Itnevertheless appearsthat
Mauss andLvy-Bruhl, professorofphilosophy attheSorbonne, fellowsocial-
ists andlongstandingfriends, together approachedtheMusum anthropolo-
gistPaulRivetshortly after thewarwith their idea of forming an IE at the
UniversityofParistoteachethnography andpublishresearchinthefield.14
Rivet andMausshad alreadybeenintouchbeforethewar. Rivethadwritten
toMaussin 1914 applaudinghisexcellent article andhopingthatitwould
havesomeeffect.15 Although a medicaldoctortrainedinBrocas anthropo-
metricmethods, Rivethad cuthis anthropological teethduring a five-year
missioninSouthAmerica, from 1900 to 1905;whiletherehebeganstudying
thematerialculture, andmoreespecially the languages andmigrationpat-
terns, ofthepeoplesofMeso-America andbecame a passionate advocateofa
morepolyvalent approachtothescienceofman. Dispatchedfromthenavyto
theMusumuponhisreturn, bythe 1920shewouldsoonbecomeFrances
mosteminentAmericanist. Agifted administrator aswell, hefoundhimself
headofboththeSocitdesAmricanistes andtheInstitutInternationaldAn-
thropologie. Hisorganizationalskills, hispublicationrecord, hisinternation-
alist andsocialistpolitics, aswell ashis ambitiontosucceedintheelitesocial
worldoftheFrenchintelligentsiatowhichhe, unlikeMauss andLvy-Bruhl,
wasnot connectedbybirthormarriagemadehim an especially valuable
recruittoMausssethnographiccause.16
Mauss andRivetwouldruntheInstituttogether asco-secretarygenerals,
withRivetparticularlyresponsiblefororganizingthecontentofitscurriculum
anditsday-to-dayoperations. YetitwasthankstoLvy-Bruhlspoliticalcon-
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tacts andhisin attheSorbonnethattheIEsawthe lightofday in 1925.
WhentheCarteldesGauchescametopower, thethreemensawtheopportu-
nitytorealizetheirobjectives. Lvy-Bruhlintroducedtheidea and a projetde
rglementfor a newethnographicinstitutetotheSorbonnesConseildes
Professeurs(ofwhichhewas a member)inDecember 1924, withthespecific
mandate to studyFrances colonies.17 Theplan wasmodest enoughnot to
offend:theInstitutewouldoffer a fewcoursesofitsownmostlyindescrip-
tiveethnographybutwoulddrawuponexistingcourses attheMusum, the
EPHE, the UniversityofParis, thecole Coloniale andcoledesLangues
Orientales. Students alreadyregistered attheUniversitycouldenroll, andstu-
dents attheEPHE andthecoledesCharteswouldbeexemptfrommatricu-
lation fees. Institute students couldprepare a diploma (later thesebecame
certificatesforlicenses ineithersciences orlettres). Thenewprogramwouldbehoused attheInstitutdeGographie. Itwould alsoinaugurate animportant
publication, a newseriesofmonographsentitledTravauxetmmoires, dedi-catedtobringing intoprinttheethnographicfactswhichFrench anthro-
pologistswerenowgoingtocollect.
Finally andmost importantly, principal funding would come from the
colonies, directly implicated inthescientificworkofthenewInstitute. The
Sorbonne assemblypassedLvy-Bruhlsproposalbut stipulated that the IE
shouldnot cost the University anything. Sbastien Charlty, Rectorof the
University, referred theproject to Gaston Doumergue, ministerofpublic
instruction, whopasseditontodouardDaladier, colonialminister andfriend
ofLvy-Bruhl. ItwasDaladierwho approvedthecolonialsubsidythatinthe
endwouldprovethelinchpinoftheinstitution. He alsoinsistedthat, given
thecolonialsubsidy, coleColonialestudents andcolonialfunctionariesencongshould alsobedispensedfrompayingfees andthatcompetentcolonialadministratorsshouldbe allowedtoteachthere.18
Thecolonialunderpinningof the IE, whichwasofficiallycreatedon 1
August 1925, wasthusinplacefromtheoutset. ThefateoftheInstitute, in
turn, quicklybecamelinkedtothatofFrancesethnographicmuseum, which
alsobecame avowedlycolonialintheseyears. Museumshadbeencriticalto
Mausssconceptualizationofhowtotransformethnographyinto a propersci-
encesince atleasttheturnofthecentury. In 1913, hehadbeenparticularly
scandalizedbyFrancesbackwardnessonthisfront aswell. By 1928, however,
PaulRivetwasintheidealpositiontobringtheMETintotheorbofthenew
ethnology, giving its acolytes a real laboratory in which to work and an
institutionthatcouldhiretheirstudents. BytraditionthedirectoroftheMET
had
h
eld
th
ech
air
in
Fr
en
ch
anthropo
log
y at
th
eMu
sum;
b
yth
elat
e 1920sRivet was a frontrunner for thatposition, sincehehadbeen teaching and
working atthisinstitutionsince 1908. WhenhewaselectedProfessorin 1928,
Rivetmadeit a conditionofhis acceptancethattheMusedethnographiebe
formally attachedtotheMusum andthathebe allowedtohireboth a sous-
directeur tohelpturnthemuseumaroundandastafftorunit. RivetandMauss
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nowhadyet anothermeansofacquiringethnographicfacts anddisseminat-
ingtheirnewsciencemoreresponsibly andmorewidelythanhadhitherto
beenthecase.
That themuseum would be responsibly scientific, Rivet left little
doubt.19 Withthehelpofbothwealthypatrons andIEstudentssentonmis-
sion to conduct fieldwork and acquire artifacts, Rivet soonbuiltup the
museums library and collections. All Institute students were expected to
spendtime atthemuseum, whichRivetwithMausssbackingalwayscon-
ceived asmuch a researchfacility as aninstitutionforthepopularizationof
science. ManydoctoralstudentssurvivedbyworkingfortheMH, helpingto
catalogue its collections anddetermininghow they shouldbe exhibited.
Finallyin 1937 and 1938 Rivetrealized a longstanding ambition:thereloca-
tionoftheoldTrocadromuseum andIEtogetherin a newbuilding, complete
with classrooms, display galleries, photothque, phonothque, sallede cinma,andsalledelectureforitslibrary. He alsomovedtheMusumsphysical anthro-pology collection to thenewpremisesforRivet and Mauss accepted that
ethnology astheyweredefiningitrequiredthatmanbeclassifiedracially as
well asstudiedsociologically. In 1938, a littlelatefortheWorldsFairthatwas
held inParis a year earlier, Rivet was able to inaugurate a refurbished and
renamed Musede lHomme, so calledbecause thenecessary elements for
learning aboutmanin allhisfacetscultural aswell asracial, prehistoric as
well ascontemporarywerenowcontainedinitsfourwalls. Inpointoffact,
mostoftheobjectsinthemuseumcamefromtheFrenchcolonies, which also
underwrote itsbudgetespecially in theearlyyearsof its transformationa
connectiontheMETdidnothingtohide andliketheIEconsideredoneofits
greatstrengths.20 TherenovatedMusedethnographie, Rivetinsistedin 1931,
inhisplea tothegovernmentformorefunds, wouldcontinuetheeducational
workoftheColonialExpositionclosingthatsameyear.21 Ontheeveofthe
openingoftheMH, RivetcouldstillwritedouardDaladier, thenwarminis-
ter, thathisnewmuseumwas a colonialmuseum andrequestthepresence
ofcolonialtroops atitsinauguration.22
Asthe abovedescriptionimplies, identifyingthecolonialvocationofthe
linkedIE-museumnexusiseasy:itwasopenlyembraced andcelebrated. Deter-
miningtheexactnatureofthecolonialconnection, however, islessstraight-
forwardthanitmight appear. Certainly, allthreemenwhoguidedtheIE and
theMET-MHstatedhowimportanttheirworkwastocolonization. In a well
known articlepublishedbyLvy-Bruhl in 1926, announcingthecreationof
theIE, hedescribedit as a scientificinstitutionthatwouldtravailler aupro-
grsd
ela scienceet
hno
log
iqu
e,on
t
heonehan
d, an
don
t
heothe
r
, m
ettr
elesrsultatsdecettescience auservicedenotrepolitiqueindignetoutesles
foisquonleluidemandera.23 Ifthelatterclauseseemedtoleaveituptocolo-
nialbureaucratstocallornotcallon anthropologistswhoseworktheywere
underwriting, anotherparagraphmade a strongerpitch for the active role
anthropologistsshouldplayoverseasinFrancesofficialimperialproject:eth-
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nologistswere asimportant asdoctorsorengineers, sincetheycouldprovide
uneconnaissanceexacteet approfondiedeslangues, desreligions, descadres
sociauxofthepopulationsindignes.Despitetheseclaims, itisdifficultto
findLvy-Bruhl, MaussorRivettaking anydirect interestincolonialpolicy,
thattheymightcoordinatetheirteaching andresearchprojectswiththespe-
cificneedsofadministratorsinthefield. Nordidtheylobbyforpositionsfor
theirstudentsinthecolonial administration. Giventhis ambiguityonthesub-
ject, a bettersenseofhowMauss, Rivet andLvy-Bruhlenvisagedtherelation-
ship between colonialism and the scientific study of so-called primitive
culturescanbegleanedfromtheorganizationoftheInstituteinitsearlyyears
andthecorrespondenceofMauss andRivetinparticular.24
LIE a pourobjetdecoordonner, dorganiseretdedvelopperlestudes
ethnologiques, enparticuliercellesquiserapportent aux Coloniesfranaises,
deformerdestravailleurspourcestudesetdepublierleurstravaux. Ilpourra
envoyerdesmissions aux coloniesetexceptionnellement ailleurs, ilpourra
subventionnerdespublications aux colonies, danslamesuredesesressources.25
ThisdescriptionoftheInstitutesraisondtre, containedinthe 1925 decree
and whichdidnot change throughout the interwar years, makes clear, of
course, thecentralroleofthecoloniesinfacilitatingtheemergenceoftudes
ethnologiques.Themoney would come from the empire. Students, as a
result, wouldmostlyalthoughnotexclusivelybesenttostudypeoplesliv-
ingunderFrenchrule. As, orperhapsmore, revealing, however, inthedescrip-
tionquoted above is thepronouncedacademicorientationenvisaged for
thisnewcolonialscience:itwastakenforgrantedthatthebulkofthefunds
wouldbeusedtosubsidizeresearchwith a viewtopublicationinthemetro-
polein thenewTravaux etmmoires series, with itsprestigiousSorbonneimprint anditsimpliedlimitedreadershipoffellowscholars. Hereisoneclue
thattheIEfoundersviewedtheirenterprise asoneprincipallydedicatedtothe
productionofnewknowledge inkeeping with themost rigorous scientific
standardsobtaininginFrance, ratherthan accordingtothespecificneedsof
more local (colonial) agendas. This academic vocation was furtherunder-
scoredbythemakeupofthegoverningbodiesoftheInstitute. Colonialdele-
gatesweregivenrepresentationonlyontheInstitutes administrativecouncil,
notonitsDirectorsCommittee, whichmadetheessentialdecisions. Thefor-
merhad 28 members, ofwhomtenweredesignatedbythecolonialgovern-
mentsor the colonialminister; the latterhad fivemembers, allof them
professionalscientists attachedtometropolitan institutionsofhigher learn-
ing.26 TheseincludedMauss, Lvy-Bruhl andRivet, thelinguistAntoineMeil-
let
,who
held
a chair
at
t
he Co
llg
ed
eFr
ance, and
Maur
ice Delafo
sse, acolonialgovernorwhohadvirtuallyretiredfromservice andwasnowteach-
ing atthecoledesLanguesOrientales.
Afinalindicationthatthenewethnologywouldbecastprimarilyinthe
modeofpureresearchcanbefoundintheminutesoftheveryfirstmeeting
of the Conseildadministration, held in November 1925. At thismeeting
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Lvy-Bruhlnoted, once again, thatoneoftheInstitutesgoalswastoprepare
mencalledtoliveinthecolonies(administrators, doctors, officers, missionar-
ies). Heneverthelessspentmoretimediscussingtheparticularresearch attrib-
utesoftheIE, twoofwhichhadnot appearedintheorganizingdecree. These
areofparticularinterestbecausetheybothconfirmthe academicvocationof
thenewethnology andreveal, somewhatsurprisingly, thatMauss, Rivet, and
Lvy-Bruhlverymuchsaw a placeforthiskindofscholarshipintheempire
proper: la conservationdes civilisations indignespar lorganisationde
muses aussibienenFrancequaux coloniesetdenqutesethnologiques and
collaboration avec toutes lesorganisations scientifiquesdj existantes [in
the colonies]by establishing une liaison entre elles.27 The IE, in short,
wouldnotonlypublisheruditemonographsinFrancededicatedtothecul-
tures andlanguagesofpeoplesinthecolonies. Itwould alsobring academic
scienceitselftothecolonies intheformofsatelliteinstitutionsthattheIEcon-trolled andcoordinatedmuseums andscientificorganizationsinthecon-
tinued absenceofuniversitydepartmentsofanthropologyinFrance.
It is significant in this context that the largest subsidy for the Insti-
tute80,000 francspromisedfromthebeginning androutinelyreconfirmed
until the Depression forced a retrenchmentcame from Indochina. This
colony alreadyhad a well-developedtraditionofcolonialeruditioninitscole
FranaisedExtrmeOrient(EFEO), asitsrighttosend a delegatetotheCon-
seildadministrationof the IE indicates.28 Thedirectorof the schooluntil
1929, theOrientalistLouisFinot, hadbeenoneofMausssprofessors 25 years
earlier attheEPHE, andtheyhadremainedfriendseversince. Mauss(whohad
beentoHanoiin 1902 attheschoolsinvitationforthemeetingoftheSocit
desOrientalistes)29 keptFinotwellinformedofhisplansovertheyearsregard-
ing a Bureaudethnographie, andin 1925 Finotwrotethathewasdelighted
thatthisplanwasfinallymaterializing. AlthoughFinotclaimedtohavehad
nohandinpersuadingthegovernorgeneraltoopenhiscoffers, Finotscoop-
eration coupled with the local governments largessehelped theEFEO and
Indochina moregenerallytoquicklybecome a favoredvectoroftheIE andthe
MET.30 Finotwasparticularlykeentohave a museumfoundedinIndochina,
a properlyethnologicalone, particularlysincenoussommesencemoment
encombrsparunprojetSarrautpourquiunmusedethnographiecestun
museGrvinpour amuserlestouristes avecpourdirecteurunbravegaron
qui a besoinduneprbende.31 Indeed, he impressedupon Mauss that it
wouldbemisguidedfortheInstitutetogivepriorityto
lespub
licat
ionse
t
hno
lo
giques
.L
eb
eso
inlepluspr
essant
, c
est
lor
ganisat
iondesenqutesethnologiques, la recherchedesdocumentationsetleurconservation
lesvieillescoutumes, lescostumes, lestraditionsdisparaissent avecrapidit. Legou-
vernementgnraletlesgouvernementslocaux pourraientfairebeaucoupdansce
sens, maisilfautquilsoitstimulpardesobjurgationsvenuesdeParisetportant
lestampilleofficielle. Enoutreilfaudraitquundevousvinticipourtudierleter-
rainetmettresurpieduneorganisationpratique. Lachoseestpossibleetelleen
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vautla peine. BienentendulcoleFranaiseseraitl pourvousprterson appui.
Examinezcela avecM. Lvy-Bruhletvoyezcequiestpossible.32
TheInstitutedidnot, intheend, make a choicebetweenfieldwork andconservationontheonehand, andpublicationsontheother, atleastfrom a
financialpointofview: almost alloftheirresearchbudgetwenttopublishing
ethnographies, initiallythoseofethnologistsknowntothemworkinginthe
colonies, andthentotheirstudents. Tosubsidizemissionsdenqutes fortheirstudents, they appealedsuccessfullytoothersources, such astheRockefeller
Foundation, theCommissiondesMissions, theMusum, and theCaissede
recherchesscientifiques(laterCNRS). Yeteven astheyturnedtothesetradi-
tionalformsofestablishing academic legitimacy, Mauss andRivet alsotook
seriouslyFinotsprojectoffoundingmuseumsoverseas, intandemwiththeir
revampingoftheMET.
Rivetwasparticularly activeinthedomain andwasprobablyresponsible
withFinot forpersuading thegovernorgeneralof Indochina tobeginplan-
ningatleastonpaperanethnographicmuseuminHanoiin 1929.33 Hemet
withGovernorGeneralPierrePasquierduringtheColonialExpositionin 1931
andremindedhimin a subsequentlettersummarizingtheirconversationthat:
Nousnoussommestrouvsentirementdaccordsurla ncessiturgentederecueil-
lir lethnographie et le folkloredIndochine avantquilsnedisparaissent, cettedestructionsaccomplissant avecunerapiditeffrayante. Jevous aiditquelIEqui
comptecette anne 117 lvesdontunbonnombre sedestine aux tudes asia-
tiques, seraitenmesuredevousfournirdiciun anlesenquteursncessaires.34
RivettraveledtoIndochina laterforthefirsttimethatsameyeartopreside
overthefirstmeetingofthePrhistoriensdelExtrmeOrient.Heusedthe
opportunitytoconduct a four-month-longethnographicmission andcame
backcompletelyseducedbythecountryhehaddiscovered andthefieldwork
hehaddone. In 1932 Pasquier signed a decree creating the Hanoi ethno-
graphicmuseum, whichwasplacedunderthe authorityoftheEFEO. Mean-
whileRivetdevotedhiscoursethenextyear attheInstitutetotheMoi and
Muongpeoples;he alsosettoworkcreating a gallerydevotedtotheethnog-
raphyofIndochina attheMET.35 In additionto lobbyingthe authorities in
Indochina, RivetwrotetothegovernorsgeneralofWestAfrica andMadagas-
car (whose subsidies to the IE were second and third largest respectively,
35,000 francs and 20,000 francs) aboutsendingstudentsthere aswelltofound
a properly scientificethnographicmuseum ineachcolony.36 Maussdidhis
parttoo. Hebestirredhimselfin 1930 tovisitMorocco. Thereoneofhisbest
students, CharlesLe Coeur (a graduateof thecole Normale Suprieure as
well asoftheIE andtheEPHE)hadbeen appointedmatredeconfrences atthecoledesHautestudesMarocainesinRabat, toyfairecoursetpourdonner
M. leRsidentGnraldes avissurlesservicesethnographiquesduMaroc.37
Once again, itwasRivetwhowouldfollowupwith a museuminitiativethere
AliceL. Conklin38
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aswell;in 1931 heinstructedhissubordinate, Georges-HenriRivire, tosend
museographicalinstructionstoLucienCochain, yet anotherformerIEstudent
whowasintentonfounding a museum atRabat.38 By 1939, whenFrencheth-
nologistswereinvitedtointroducethemselvesthrough a displayofposters at
theWorldsFairinNewYork, a keycollaborator attheMuse, MH andIEstu-
dentAnatoleLewitsky, drewup a diagramoftheinstitutionalorganizationof
French anthropology. TheIE andtheMHfigured atthecenter, withnofewer
than 21 centresdtudesethnologiques in theempire listedunder them,
withwhomRivetwasinregularcontact.39
Theimpulsetofoundproperlyscientificethnographicmuseums andinsti-
tutesinthecoloniesfurtherconfirmstheprofessionalizing ambitionofinterwar
ethnology, atleast asitwasemanatingfromthemetropole. OnegoaloftheIE
andTroca andtheiremergingcolonialsatellitesseemedtobetoget asmany
people aspossiblewitheithercolonialconnectionsorcuriosity aboutother
culturesto learnpropercollecting anddocumentingstrategies intheempire
beforeitwastoolate. Atthesametime, thesecombinedinstitutionsgavethe
mostgiftedstudents anoutlet forpublishing and theopportunity topursue
higherdegreesthatwouldallowthemtoenteracademiaor, morerealistically,
giventhe absenceofteachingpositionsinthefield, totakeonmuseumdirec-
torships, especially astheynowbegantoopenupinthecolonies. Therewas
littleintheInstitutescurriculum, certainly, that addressedhow a buddingeth-
nologistmight advise a colonial administrationseekingtooverseerationally a
processofmodernizationorencouragestudentstothinkintermsofcolonial
careers;thosecourses, iftheyexisted, werethepreserveofthecoleColoniale,
andpresumablyifonehad anyinterestincolonialservice, onewouldenroll
there. Veryquickly theheartof Institute teachingbecame MausssInstruc-
tionsdethnographiedescriptive,whichdevotedlittletimetotheimpactof
colonialismuponindigenoussocieties andcultures.40 ThatMausshimselfsaw,
andwishedtopreserve, thedistinctionbetweenpuresciencetheprovince
of ethnologistsandapplied sciencetheprovinceof administratorsis
manifestintwodifferentletters. Inone, againtohisstudentCharlesLeCoeur,
he referred to thepossibility for Institute studentsofgetting scholarships to
carryoutfieldworkfromtheInstitutInternationalpourltudedesLangueset
des CivilisationsAfricaines, whose specificmandate was todocument the
impactofEuropean culturesuponAfricanones in these years. Il sagirait,
Mausswrotewitheringly, defairedelethnographieintensive, suividece
quelon appelledanscetinstitutditscientifiqueetmi-moraletmissionnaire,
desconclusionspratiques.HeneverthelessrecommendedLeCoeurto apply
and
pub
lish
h
ispr
act
icalcon
clu
sion
ssep
ar
at
ely.
41
Mor
er
evealings
t
ill, incorr
e-
spondencewithA. R. Radcliffe-Brown, Maussdiscussed a recentletterhehad
gottenfrom a Ms. RosenfelsoftheDepartmentofAnthropology attheUniver-
sityofChicago. Theletter askedhimfornamesofFrench anthropologistswho
mightbeinterestedinaseminarbeingorganizedonracialandculturalcon-
tactsin allpartsoftheworld.MausswrotetoRadcliffe-Brown asfollows:
TheNewEthnologyandLaSituation Colonialein InterwarFrance 39
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Veuilleztrouver icima rponse MissRosenfels. Sestudessonteneffet impor-
tantesetdetouteurgence, etdun intrtcapitalpour lAdministration. Lenreg-
istrementdecesfaitsestvidemmentundevoirpournousquipermettra demieux
asseoirla politiqueprsenteetlhistoirefuture. C
estd
autrepartunsujetopeu-
ventsexercernonseulementlesindignesdresssparvousmais aussiceux denos
jeunesethnographesquinesontpastout faitcapablesduntravailsociologique
approfondi. Neleleurditespas, maiscestbiencequejepense. La sciencecom-
portedailleursdesdegrs et cestplutt les gnrationsquinous suivrontqui
serontjugsquenous.42
Untravailsociologique approfondi:thisiswhatMausshopedforfromthe
best andbrightestoftheethnologiststhathewasforming, and apparentlyhe
didnotfeelthatracial andculturalcontactbetweenEuropeanimperialists
andlocalsocietieslentitselftothiskindofin-depth analysis. Thisimpression
is confirmed in another exchangeof letters, this timebetweenBernard
Maupoil, a colonial administratorinAOFpreparing a doctoratewithMaussin
the 30s, andhismentor. Maupoil wrote that M. de Coppet [thePopular
FrontgovernorgeneralinWestAfrica]mappelle Dakarpourfaireuntravail
sur lescoutumes. Jenesaispasencoredequoi ilsagit. Jevoustiendrai au
courantdecette activitpseudo-ethnographique.Maussreplied, in a rather
pessimisticvein, that ithadtakentheDutch at least 30 yearstocompile a
decentcoutumierof60 volumes, preparedby 200 yearsofbonne administra-tioninIndonesia.43
Incitingthesepassages, Idonotwantin anywaytosuggestthatMauss
wascontemptuousofcolonial administratorsor automaticallyrelegatedthem
tojuniorpartners in the workof collecting and analyzing social facts. But
thereweredefinitelytwolevelsofscientificcompetencerecognized amongthe
studentswhocame to IEcoursescompetence incollecting anddescribing
objects andcustoms and competence forundertaking sociological analysis.
Manycolonial administrators acquiredonlythefirst, simplybyvirtueofthe
lackoftime availabletothemtodoresearch. Throughouttheinterwaryears
Mauss and Rivet nevertheless remained tireless advocates of any
studentwhetherenrolled in thecolonial serviceornotwhoseworkmet
theirhigh academicstandards. Overtime, moreover, itmaybethat anincreas-
ingnumberofthebeststudentswere administrators, becausethepercentage
ofcoleColonialestudentsenrolledinInstitutecourseskeptgoingup.44 Inhis
capacity asdirectorofthecoleColoniale, GeorgesHardyinparticularsought
closetiesbetweenthetwoinstitutions. Thiswasdueinpart, asIhave argued
elsewhere, tothefactthatitnowsuitedinterwarcolonialpolicymakersonthe
spot to think in termsofhow to stabilize traditional societies, and they
soughtreinforcementfromwhatthebestsciencehadtosayonthesubject.45
Mauss, Rivet andLvy-Bruhl were sufficientlyopen toHardysovertures to
makehim a memberoftheDirectorsCouncilin 1930. Yetdespitethisincreas-
ingColopresence, atnopointdoesit appearthateitherRivetorMausscon-
sidered seriously what kindsof ethnographic knowledgemightbemost
AliceL. Conklin40
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directlyusefultocolonialgovernanceorinthebestinterestsofthosesub-
jectedtoFrenchrule. Theywere, perhaps, toobusyworrying aboutwhatwas
inthebestprofessionalinterestoftheirfledglingscience.
WasRivets and Mausss attitude towardFrench colonialism largely an
instrumentalistone, then, one inwhich theyneither asked themselves the
hardquestions abouttheempirenorconsideredthefutureinterestsofthecol-
onized, becausetodosowouldhavecompromisedthecolonialmoniesand
colonialsitessonecessaryforinstitutionalizingtheirnewscience?The answer
is surely, on some level, yes. Yet it is important to remember that they
belongedto a generationthatstillbelievedthatthecitizen/scientistcould and
should keephisorher research andpolitical commitments separate. For
Mauss, Rivet, andLvy-Bruhl, thefoundingofethnologyfellundertherubric
of thepursuitof pure science, which in turn required thedistance from
reallifethatonlytheivorytowercouldprovide. Theythuscreatedinstitu-
tions andmuseums in theempireproper thatechoedcomparablescientific
establishments athome andencouragedthekindofsociologicalresearchthat
wouldproducescholarlymonographsforlike-mindedprofessionals. Practical
conclusions alsohadtheirplace, buttheInstitutewasdeterminedfromthe
outsettoproducemorethanlocalknowledge. Meanwhile anempireinquest
ofprestigehaditsownreasonsintheinterwaryearsforsupporting anemer-
gent academicscienceofmanparticularlyonethattooktraditionalsoci-
eties as itsobjectof study. To insiston thesepoints isnot todenyFrench
ethnologistscomplicityincolonialism. Butitistorestoretoviewthehistor-
ically specific colonial configurationof ethnology at itsbirth: thatof an
inside/outsidescience, with a far-flungnetworkofcontactsintheoverseaster-
ritories andeventheColonialMinistry, yetrigorousresearchstandards and an
agenda thatdidnotrequire(butcouldinclude)immediate anddirect applica-
tionoftheirfindingstooverseas administration. Born atthemarginsofthe
academy andtheempire, ethnologyinthelate 1930swasimplicatedinboth
butthehandmaidenofneither.
TheNewEthnologyandLaSituation Colonialein InterwarFrance 41
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Bodies andBehavior:Essays in BiologicalAnthropology, ed. George W. Stocking(Chicago:UniversityofWisconsinPress, 1983), pp. 18-55;MarcelFournier, MarcelMauss (Paris:Fayard, 1994). On thehistoryofphysical anthropology: Claude
Blanckaer
t,
L
Anthr
opologieper
sonnifie:P
aulBr
oca et la biologiedu genr
ehumain,preface toMmoiresdanthropologie, byPaulBroca (Paris: Jean-MichelPlace, 1989), pp. i-xiii and Mthodedesmoyennesetnotiondesriesuffisanteen
anthropologiephysique, inMoyenne, milieu, centre:Histoiresetusages, eds. Jacque-lineFeldman, GrardLagneau, andBenjaminMatalon(Paris:ditionsdelEHESS,
1991), pp. 213-43;JoyHarvey, RacesSpecified, EvolutionTransformed:TheSocial
ContextofScientificDebatesOriginatingintheSocitdAnthropologiedeParis
(1859-1902) (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1983); Jean-PierreBocquet-Appel,
LanthropologiephysiqueenFranceetsesoriginesinstitutionnelles, Gradhiva 6(1989): 23-34;MichaelHammond, Anthropology as a WeaponofSocialCombat
inLateNineteenth-CenturyFrance, JournaloftheHistoryoftheBehavioralSciences
16 (1980): 118-32;DeniseFrembach, LeLaboratoiredanthropologielcolepratiquedes hautestudes(LaboratoireBroca)(Paris:[n.p.], 1980);WilliamH. Schneider, Qual-ityandQuantity:TheQuest forBiologicalRegeneration in Twentieth-CenturyFrance(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress, 1990).
8. CollgedeFrance, ArchivesMarcelMauss, Correspondance, ArnoldVanGennep
MarcelMauss, 5 March 1907;see alsoFournier, MarcelMauss, p. 355, n. 1.9. CollgedeFrance, ArchivesMarcelMauss, MarcelMauss MinistredelInstruction
Publique, typescript, n.d. [1913], 2 pages, onp. 2.
10. MarcelMauss, LethnographieenFranceet ltrangerI,RevuedeParis (1913),p. 549.
11. MarcelMauss, LethnographieenFranceet ltrangerII,RevuedeParis (1913),pp. 820-21.
12. Mauss, LethnographieII, p. 821.
13. CollgedeFrance, ArchivesMarcelMauss, ProjetdecrationdunBureauouInsti-
tutdethnologie, typescript, n.d. [1913], 7 pages, onp. 1.
14. ArchivesduMuseMH (AMH), CorrespondancePaulRivet, LucienLvy-Bruhl
PaulRivet, 26 December 1925, Lapremirefoisquejevousaidemandvotrecon-
cours, sijemesouviensbienctait unerceptionBd. St. Germaindansla maison
desAmricains.
15. CollgedeFrance, ArchivesMarcelMauss, PaulRivet MarcelMauss, 10 October
1913.
16. OnRivetslifeandwork, see, inadditiontoZerilli, IlLatooscuro, ChristineLaurire,PaulRivet, vieetoeuvre, Gradhiva26 (1999): 109-28; andJeanJamin, Lesavantetlepolitique:PaulRivet(1876-1958),BulletinsetMmoiresdelaSocitdAnthro-pologiedeParis 1, 3-4 (1989): 277-94.
17. ArchivesduRectoratdeParis (ARP), Institutdethnologie, carton 26, Projetde
crationlUniversitdInstitutdethnographie,ConseildelUniversitdeParis,
sancedu 24 novembre 1924 and Institutdethnologie, ProjetdeStatut.
18. ARP, Institutdethnologie, carton 26, Institutdethnologie, Modifications aupro-
jetderglement, ConseildelUniversitdeParis, sancedu 27 avril 1925;C. Gal-
lois, RapportsurleprojetderglementdelInstitutdethnologie, 18 May 1925;
Dcretportantcration lUniversitdeParisdunInstitutdethnologie, 1 August
1925.19. I amcurrently atworkonthehistoryofthetransformationoftheMETintothe
MH. Some aspectshavebeentreated inthefollowingworks:JamesClifford, ThePredicamentofCulture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UniversityPress, 1989); JeanJamin, LEthnographiemodedemploi:Dequelquesrapportsdelethnologie avec
lemalaisedans la civilisation, inLeMaletlaDouleur, eds. JacquesHainard andRolandKaehr(Neuchtel:Musedethnographie, 1986), pp. 45-79;JeanJamin, La
TheNewEthnologyandLaSituation Colonialein InterwarFrance 43
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missiondethnographieDakar-Djibouti 1931-1933, CahiersEthnologiques5 (1984):1-179;JeanJamin, LeMusedethnographieen 1930:lEthnologiecommescience
etcommepolitique,inLaMusologieselon Georges-HenriRivire:coursdemusolo-
gie, texteset tmoinages (P
ar
is:Dunod, 1989), pp. 110-21;Jean Jamin, Lesobjetsethnographiquessont-ilsdeschosesperdues?inTempsperdu, tempsretrouv, eds.JacquesHainard andRolandKaehr(Neuchtel:Musedethnographie, 1985), pp.
51-74; JamesHerbert, Gods in the Machine at thePalaisde Chaillot, MuseumAnthropology 18, 2 (1994): 16-36;Elise Dubuc, Le futur antrieurdumusedelhomme, Gradhiva 24 (1998): 64-96; Nathalie Duparc, Musede lHomme,MusenationaldesArtsAfricains etOcaniens, Muse MunicipaldAngoulme:
Troispartisprismusologiquesdiffrents (Mmoiredematrise, Universitde
Paris, 1986). Forpublished contemporary accountsof the transformation, Paul
Rivet, Ethnologie, inLaSciencefranaise (Paris:Larousse, 1933), pp. 2:5-12 andLethnologieenFrance, Bulletin duMusum, 2esrie(January 1940): 38-52;Paul
Rivet andGeorges-HenriRivire, La rorganisationduMusedethnographiedu
Trocadro, Outremer (1930): 138-49;PaulRivet, PaulLester andGeorges-HenriRiv-ire, Le laboratoiredanthropologiedu Musum, NouvellesarchivesduMusumdhistoire naturelle 12 (1935): 507-31; andPaulRivet, Ltudedes civilisationsmatrielles:Ethnographie, archologie, histoire, Documents 3 (1929): 130-34.
20. For a moredetailed analysisofthecolonialconnectionsoftheMET andMH, see
Alice Conklin, Civil Society, Science, and Empire:The Foundation of Paris
MuseumofMan, Osiris 17 (2002): 255-90; andBenotdelEstoile, Desracesnon
pasinfrieuresmaisdiffrentes:DelExpositionColoniale auMusedelhomme,
inLespolitiquesdelanthropologie, ed. Blanckaert, pp. 391-476. De lEstoile arguesthattheColonialExpositionof1931 represented a criticalstepinthesubsequent
institutionalizationofethnologyattheMusedelhommein 1937. CertainlyRivetadoptedmanyofthethemes anddisplaymethodsoftheExpositionwhensetting
uptheMusedelhomme, butthedifferencesbetweentherepresentationsofcolo-
nialpeoplesinthesetwovenues are asinteresting astheirsimilarities.
21. AMH, 2 AM 1 A 2, PaulRivet MauriceFoulon, Sous-secrtairedtat auTravail, 24
October 1931, # 1905. AumomentolExpositioncolonialevafermersesportes,
ilestindispensablequunorganismepermanentdcentencontinueluvreduca-
tive, dautantplusquela plupartdescollectionsquiyonttruniesvontnoustre
transmises. Thesame argumentismadeinAMH, 2 AM 1 A 2, PaulRivet M. le
Snateur(sentto allsenators), 5 December 1931, # 2210 bis.
22. AMH, 2 AM 1 A 11, PaulRivet douardDaladier, PrsidentduConseil, 5 May
1938, # 825.
23. LucienLvy-Bruhl, LInstitutdethnologiedelUniversitdeParis,Revuedethno-graphieetdestraditionspopulaires 23-24 (1925): 233-36.
24. Ihavenotyetfound anyofLvy-Bruhlscorrespondencewitheitherhisstudentsor
colonialofficialscomparabletoMausssandRivets, whichwouldallowmetofol-
lowhissubsequentinvolvementintheInstitutdethnologie afteritsfounding.
25. ARP, Institutdethnologie, Carton 26, Annexedudcret du 1er aut 1925,
Rglement.
26. The Conseildadministration always included the following: theRecteur (Prsi-
dent), thedeansofthe four facults (Lettres, Sciences, Droit andMdecine), one
member
eachdesignat
edbyt
heEP
HE
(Fif
t
hsect
ion),t
heCollgedeFr
ance,
coledesLangues OrientalesVivantes, the Musum, thecole Coloniale, thecole
FranaisedExtrme-Orient, theministerofpubliceducation, thecolonialminister;
eachoftheGovernmentsGeneral(Indochine, AOF, AEF, Madagascar), aswell asthe
governorgeneralofAlgeria, andtheresidentgeneralofMorocco, andtheresident
generalofTunisia designated a member aswell. Finally, thecolonialministerwould
designatetwodelegatestorepresenttheothergovernments.
AliceL. Conklin44
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27. ARP, Institutdethnologie, Carton 25, Sancedu Conseildadministration, 25
November 1925.
28. Thetypicalsubsidywas 10,000 francsorless;ARP, InstitutdEthnololgie, Sancedu
Conseildadminist
r
ation, 27 May 1927.29. PierreSingaravlou, LcoleFranaisedExtrme-Orient, ou linstitution desmarges
(1898-1956):Essaidhistoiresocialeetpolitiquedelasciencecoloniale (Paris:Harmat-tan, 1999), p. 76.
30. Lvy-Bruhl askedFinot tojoin theConseildadministration inNovember 1925,
andhebecame a memberoftheConseildedirection in 1926. CamilleGuy also
joinedthelatterin 1926, whenDelafossedied.
31. CollgedeFrance, ArchivesMarcelMauss, LouisFinot MarcelMauss, 3 February
1925.
32. CollgedeFrance, ArchivesMarcelMauss, LouisFinot MarcelMauss, 14 October
1925.
33. AMH, 2 AM 1 D 14/f, arrtcrantunmusedethnographieenIndochine, Vu
larrtdu 8.7.29 instituantunecommissionchargedtablirunmusedhistoire
naturelleetdethnographie.
34. AMH, CorrespondancePaulRivet, PaulRivet PierrePasquier, 23 March 1931.
35. AMH, 2 AM 1 A 3, PaulRivet GouverneurGnraldelIndochine, 24 May 1932,
# 1074.
36. AMH, 2 AM 1 A 1, PaulRivet GouverneurGnraldelAOF, 30 June 1930, # 1006;
PaulRivet GouverneurGnraldeMadagascar, 18 July 1932, # 1554.
37. CollgedeFrance, ArchivesMarcelMauss, Correspondance, MarcelMauss Prsi-
dent(EPHE), 27 March 1931.
38. AMH, 2 AM 1 A 3, Georges-HenriRivire LucienCochain, 26 May 1932, # 1100.
39. AMH, 2 AP 5 D, PapiersAnatoleLewitsky, ActivitduMuseMH. Thenamesoftheinstitutionswere:LUniversitdAlger, leMusedeBardo Alger, la SocitdeGo-
graphiedAlgeretdelAfriqueduNord, la SocitHistoriqueAlgrienne, la Socit
dHistoireNaturelledelAfriqueduNord, InstitutScientifiqueChrifien auMaroc,
lInstitutdesHautestudesMarocaines, lInstitutdtudesSahariennes, lIFAN, la
SocitdtudesSoudanaises, laSocitdtudes Camerounaises, laSocitdes
Recherches Congolaises Brazzaville, lAcadmie Malgache Tananarive, Mada-
gascar, lInstitutFranaisde Damas, Syrie, lInstitutFranaisdIndianismede
Karikal, Indes, lInstitutBouddhiquedePnomPenh, Indochine, lAssociationdes
AmisduVieux Hu, Indochine, SectiondEthnologie LcoleFranaisedExtrme-
Orient, laSocitdestudesOcaniennesPapeete, Tahiti, laSocitdestudes
Melansiennes Nouma, NouvelleCaldonie.
40. In 1926-27, Mauss taught 30 lessons indescriptive ethnography; while three
lessons were taught in ethnographyofAfrica, by Camille Guy, and five in
InstructionsdAnthropologiebyPaulRivet. Thefollowingyear, Mausstaught 50
lessons, whilethenumberoflessonsinothercoursesstayedthesame. Archivesdu
Rectorat, Institutdethnologie, Carton 26, rapports annuels for 1926 and 1927.
SeventypagesoftypednotesfromMaussscoursein 1929-1930 weretakenbyY.
Oddon andT. Rivire. SeeAMH, 2 AP 2 A, Yvonne Oddon/1a.
41. CollgedeFrance, ArchivesMarcelMauss, Correspondance, MarcelMauss Charles
LeCoeur, 9 July 1931.
42. CollgedeFr
ance,Ar
chivesMar
celMauss, Corr
espondance, Mar
celMauss R
ad-
cliffe-Brown, 2 January 1935.
43. CollgedeFrance, Archives Marcel Mauss, Correspondance, Bernard Maupoil
MarcelMauss, 3 December 1936;MarcelMauss BernardMaupoil, 11 December
1936. Jesprequecela deviendra srieux. Dites-luibiendema partquepourrdi-
geruncoutumierdela valeurdeladatdugouvernementnerlandaisdelInde, il
faudra 30 ansdetravailet 60 vols.
TheNewEthnologyandLaSituation Colonialein InterwarFrance 45
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44. ThenumberofstudentsfromthecoleColoniale amongtotalstudentsenrolled
increased as follows: 1927-1928, twooutof67; 1928-1929, tenoutof89; 1929-
1930, 32 outof114; 1931-1932, 28 outof145; 1933-1934, 61 outof1959. ARP,
Institutd
ethnologie, Ca
r
ton 26,r
appor
ts annuels.45. AliceL. Conklin, AMission toCivilize:TheRepublican IdeaofEmpirein Franceand
WestAfrica, 1895-1930(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress, 1997).
AliceL. Conklin46