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Conjunction A conjunction is a connecting word. It joins 2 single words, 2 phrases or 2 clauses. The most common conjunction is and. Other conjunctions are: and / but / because / or / if / either...or / whoever / neither....nor / whichever / when / still / yet / than / whatever / after / after / until / whenever / although/ before / through / unless / whilst / since / though / for / whether / that / why / as / however

Other conjunctions are relative pronouns: People- who, whose and whom.

Animals or things-which, that

Interjection This shows emotion and is followed by an exclamation mark! It adds interest or excitement to writing. Eg bye / ah / congratulations / bravo / farewell / drat / good morning / goodness / oops / good evening / ouch / good day / whew / hello / wow / hi / OK / howdy / yeah / pardon / sure thing / please / blast / thank you / yippee / welcome / hush / thanks / oh dear

Sentence A sentence is a word, which begins with a capital letter, ends with a full stop and usually has a subject (noun or pronoun) and a predicate (Verb and adverb). It contains a complete thought. Simple sentence: 1 noun or pronoun and a verb, expressing 1 idea eg The baby played peacefully.

Compound sentences: 2 or more clauses, expressing more than 1 thought. Use a conjunction to join ideas Eg Callum knew it was the wrong thing to do, but he did it anyway.

Declarative sentences: Make a statement. Eg We are going on holidays at Christmas.

Imperative sentences: give a command or instruction; eg Stop there. Please feed the dog before you go. Interrogative sentences: ask questions and end with a question mark. (?) eg Where have you been? What was that? Exclamatory sentences: show strong emotion and end with an exclamation mark. (!) eg Watch out! Be Careful!

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Nouns: Words to name a person, place, thing or an idea. Eg girl, home, fear, gate, plan, god. Common Noun: name of ordinary things: People/ child, doctor Places/ school, park Things/ table, summer

Proper nouns name a particular place person or thing & begin with a capital letter: People/ Ann, John Places/ Adelaide, Perth Things/ April, the Big Banana, Wednesday. Collective nouns are one word to name a group of things or animals: Anthology of stories Bunch of flowers

Choir of singers Flock of birds or sheep Litter of pups, pigs Troop of monkeys, scouts Vineyard of grapes Abstract Nouns: name a quality or feeling or condition & cannot be seen, touched or heard. Eg love / happiness / fear / anger / fun / apathy / safety / excitement

Pronoun: is used in place of a noun. Personal pronoun I /me / you / he / him / she / her / it / we / us / they / them

Possessive pronoun Shows possession but never uses an apostrophe eg mine / yours / his / hers / its / ours / theirs / whose Indefinite pronoun: is an unlimited pronoun eg somebody / anybody / nobody / everybody / someone / no-one / everyone / anything / nothing / something / everything / anyone

Verb A verb shows action or state of being. Every sentence must have a verb! Action verb: My sister laughs at my jokes. She ate the ice-cream. I enjoyed the movie. He thought about buying a puppy. Present tense: It is happening right now. Eg The baby is crying The dog is barking. Past tense: The action happened before now.

Eg The baby cried all night. The dog barked all day. Future tense: The action will happen in the future. Eg The baby will cry tonight. The dog will bark all day.

Compound Verbs: May / might / must Be / being / been Am / are / is / Does / do / did Was / were Should / could / would Has / have / had Can / will / shall Eg my brother has been talking on the phone for hours.

My mum was smiling at my dad. Noun/verb Agreement If the noun is singular, the verb must also be singular. If the noun is plural, the verb must also be plural. Eg The child is happy. Or The children are happy.

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Adjective: describes a noun or pronoun by

1. giving more information.eg tall / blue/ /light-footed / heavy / pink

2. telling us how

many or much eg sixteen / a few / many

3. originating from a proper noun eg Australian / European / Asian

4. clarifying the noun eg a / an / the

5. telling us who owns something eg my / his / our / their / her / its. These are also pronouns.

6. by comparing 2 or more things eg

+ve comparative superlative Bad worse worst Good better best Little littler littlest Brave braver bravest However some words chang entirely when moving from positive to comparative to superlative. For example- Beautiful / more beautiful / most beautiful

Adverbs: Describes the verb, explaining how, when or where the action took place. When: eg early, finally, immediately, lately How: eg quickly, quietly, sadly, gently,

roughly, lovingly, fortunately, wisely Where: eg outside, away,

Preposition This is a word, which shows the connection between a noun and the rest of the sentence: eg Along / above / in / on / by / for / with / from / to / among / over / of / about / within / across / around / against / after / before / behind / below / beneath / between / beside / into / onto / at / up / upon / down / through / off / under / without / near / far / beyond / towards

ABC = Capital letters . = full stop ? = question mark ! = exclamation mark , = comma ; = semicolon : = colon ... = ellipsis ’ = apostrophe ‘ ’ = quotation marks “ ” = quotation marks ( ) = brackets - = hyphen _ = dash Capital Letters

These are used for I and to distinguish proper names and proper nouns: eg people-Sir Elton John / Mr Simon Fitzpatrick / the Prime Minister of Australia Places- Australia / New York / Sydney Things-Sydney Harbour Bridge / Australian Flag / RMS Titanic ...and used to begin a sentence. Eg After a long day at school, I looked forward to a rest. However my mother wanted me to clean my room. Then I remembered that I had a lot of homework to do before I could relax. Full Stop: This is a big pause, used 1) at end of sentence, eg I have to work tomorrow. 2) after some abbreviations eg Sun. for Sunday / Feb. for February / Apr. for April / Tel. for Telephone / Co. for company / that is for words where the abbreviation does NOT end in the same letter as the word itself, such as Mr for Mister, Dr for Doctor. Question Mark: used at end of sentence where a question is asked. These sentences usually begin with Who? Why? Where? What? When? How?

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Exclamation Mark: or Interjection showing strong emotion! Wow! You are amazing! Watch out!

Comma: is usually a

1) short pause to make the sentence make sense. Eg The team struggled, even though they won previously. Or

2) Divides a list of items eg Maria bought milk, cheese, coffee, butter and ice-cream. Or

3) Separates spoken words eg “That is my ball”, called the boy. The girl replied, “I found it, so it’s mine now.” Or

4) Insert extra clauses This gives more information. Eg The accident scene, which was dangerously slippery, was roped off from the public. Or

5) To make statements clearer eg They left, Ryan. is quite different in meaning to They left Ryan.

Colon: marks off the main part of the sentence and introduces a list or series of topics. Eg For the party tonight, bring the following: drinks, nibbles, music and present. Or The journey was exactly as I expected: exciting, interesting and too short.

Ellipsis: this shows that words have been left out or that there is a break in thought. Eg Rachel muttered, ‘Well...I... er... forgot to do my homework.’ OR The girl ... alone at the dance ... I was afraid she would not have fun. Apostrophe:

1) Omission-shows letters have been left out. Eg

Was not wasn’t Does not doesn’t Are not aren’t Had not hadn’t Can not can’t Will not won’t Were not weren’t It is it’s It has it’s There is there’s He is he’s Who is who’s We will we’ll I will I’ll

They will They’ll Who will who’ll We are we’re You are you’re they are they’re We have we’ve You have you’ve They have they’ve We would we’d I would I’d There would there’d You would you’d I am I’m Going goin’ Coming comin’ Please note: its = belonging to it. Your = belonging to you Whose = belonging to whom Their = belonging to them There = a place in space

2) Ownership. Here the apostrophe means of eg

The dress of the girl / the girl’s dress The house of the children / the children’s house The flowers of the lady / the lady’s flowers The children of the ladies / the ladies’ children

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1. Show direct speech.

‘Come over here!’, called Jeremy. 2. Double

quotation marks show a quotation within a quotation. Eg Ann said ‘Mrs Smith said “Do your homework or fail this section.” ’

3. Indicate

special names and titles eg

My favourite song is ‘Lonely” by Akon or Did you see ‘Charlie and the chocolate factory?’

Brackets These incorporate additional information into a sentence. They act in the same way as commas. Eg The two boys (who were

brothers) were very clever at mathematics. Hyphens join two words or parts of words together with a short stroke.

1. A word: if a word goes over 2 lines a hyphen is used: enclo-sure, pediatri-cian

2. 2 or more words:

Twentieth-century Old-fashioned Sister-in-law Fifty-two Dash

1. A dash is longer than a hyphen and is used like a comma or brackets to include more information eg

The boy – who wore a silver tracksuit – was lost in the city for hours.

2. A dash can also indicate a sudden change in topic eg When I was younger I

was quite good at netball – but that’s not what I want to talk to you about.

3. It can also be used to explain an original statement eg

Athletes with a disability can excel at certain sports – for example, some are Olympic archers or shooters

Abbreviations and Acronyms: ACT –Australian Capital Territory AD –anno Domini, which means in Latin, “in the year of the Lord” ANZAC –Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ASAP-as soon as possible BBQ -barbeque BC –before Christ C –Centigrade, Celsius, century Co -Company Dec -December DVD –digital versatile disc E -East ESP –extra sensory perception GPO –General Post Office ISBN- international standard book number JP- Justice of the eace LPG- liquid petroleum gas MP- Member of Parliament PS- post script, which appears at the end of a letter after you have signed your name but wish to add some more information. St - street USA- United States of America

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Rules

1. i before e

except after c with an eee sound eg brief but receive

2. short a, e, i, o, u are followed by ck in 1 syllable words eg duck, sock, truck, sack, wreck, trick, quick.

3. when c or g are

followed by a, o or u they have a hard sound eg cinema, germ, garden

4. when c is followed by a y it has a soft sound eg cycle

5. for a hard k sound, k goes in front of e and i, while c goes in front of a, o & u eg cat, cot, cut, kick, ketch

6. k, g & p are silent in front of consonants eg n eg knee, gnaw, pneumonia

7. consonants f, l, s are doubled at end of 1 syllable words eg ball, cliff, kiss

8. most words of 2 or more syllables ending in l have only 1 final l eg initial, parallel

9. when a word ends in e, the e is usually dropped when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added eg bake + ing = baking

10. when a word

ends in e the e stays there if a the suffix begins with a consonant eg price + less = priceless but the e is dropped if the suffix begins with a vowel eg love + able = lovable

11. drop the e if you add y to a word ending in e eg ease / easy noise / noisy

12. change y to i when adding suffix except for ing eg

carry / carried, carry / carrying 13. words ending in

–ce and –ge drop the e when ing is added but keep the e when adding –able and –ous eg notice / noticing / noticeable

14. a short vowel sound should always be followed by 2 consonants when adding y ed ing or er eg run / running, jump / jumper

15. short vowels ending in a consonant have the consonant doubled when adding a suffix beginning with a vowel eg bat batted, batting, batter

16. long vowel

words ending in a consonant do not double the consonant when adding the above suffixes eg beat beater / beaten / beating

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17. adjectives ending in –le drop the e when changed to adverbs by adding –ly eg gentle / gently

18. suffix –ice is

used for nouns eg notice, practice, but –ise is used for verbs eg exercise, practise

19. words ending in

a single consonant that is not accented on the final syllable do not double the consonant when a suffix is added eg gallop / galloper / galloping / galloped

20. when the words all, fill, full, well, and till are used as suffixes or prefixes the final l is dropped eg already, fulfil

21. prefixes dis-

and mis- never drop their s even when added to a word beginning with s eg dis+ability =disability, dis+satisfied + dissatisfied

Plurals

1. add s to nouns

and words ending in –ful to make plural eg biscuits, handfuls

2. except for zero add –es to nouns ending in –ch, -sh, -s, -s, -x, or –z. eg classes, buzzes, foxes, potatoes, arches, leashes, zeros

3. change f to v for words ending in f or fe eg calf / calves, wife / wives

4. some words change their vowels eg man / men, tooth / teeth

Past Tense 1. just add -ed or

-d eg taste / tasted, walk / walked

2. Verbs with a short vowel sound followed by a short consonant sound have final letter doubled eg fit / fitted, map / mapped

3. some words use

–t eg weep / wept, sleep / slept

4. some words

change their spelling eg rise / rose, run / ran

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Words that sound the same although spelt differently Air / heir Allowed / aloud Alter / altar Aren’t / aunt Ate / eight / bare / bear Berry / bury Berth / birth Blew / blue Board / bored Boarder / border Bough / bow Boy / buoy Break / brake Buy / by Caught / court Cent / sent / scent Ceiling / sealing Cereal / serial / cheap / cheep Check / cheque Chews / choose Coarse / course Complement / compliment Council / counsel Currant / current Dessert / desert Die / dye Faint / feint

Fair / fare Fate / fete Feat / feet Flaw / floor Foul / fowl Gait / gate Guessed / guest Hair / hare Hail / hale Hear / here Heard / herd Hoarse / horse Hole / whole Hour / our Idle / idol Key / quay Knead / need / kneed Knew / new Knight / night Know / no Lead / led Load / lode Made / maid Main / mane Mare / mayor Meet / meat / mete Medal / meddle Muscle / mussel None / nun One / won Paced / paste Pair / pare / pear Paw / poor / pour / pore Peace / piece Plain / plane Practise / practice

Rap / wrap Right / write / rite Road / rode / rowed Rote / wrote Sail / sale Sauce / source Saw / sore / soar Scene / seen Sea / see Sew / so / sow Shore / sure Sight / site Son / sun Stair / stare Stake / steak Stationary / stationery Steal / steel Storey / story Straight / strait Tail / tale Team / teem There / their / they’re Threw / through Throne / thrown To / too / two Vane / vain / vein Waist / waste Wait / weight Wear / where Weak / week Weal / wheel Weather / wether / whether Which / witch Wood / would