conflict resolution in tha cold war - wall ens teen
TRANSCRIPT
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 1/18
Conflict Resolution and the End of the Cold War, 1989-93Author(s): Peter Wallensteen and Karin AxellReviewed work(s):Source: Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 31, No. 3 (Aug., 1994), pp. 333-349Published by: Sage Publications, Ltd.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/425381 .
Accessed: 06/12/2011 15:48
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].
Sage Publications, Ltd. is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of Peace
Research.
http://www.jstor.org
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 2/18
? Journalof Peace Research,vol. 31, no. 3, 1994, pp. 333-349
Conflict Resolution and the End of the Cold War,1989-93*
PETER WALLENSTEEN & KARIN AXELL
Department of Peace and Conflict Research, Uppsala University
This articlepresentsbasic data on 90 armedconflicts in the period 1989-93, revisingand updatinga report n JPR vol. 30, no. 3 (1993), pp. 331-346. In 1993 there was not one single inter-stateconflict. All 47 active armedconflicts were internal.Fifteenof 18 conflicts fought in Europefrom1989-93 were in the territories f the formerSoviet Union andex-Yugoslavia.Therend n increasingnumbersof armedconflicts reported arlierwas not continued hrough1993. A systematicanalysisof conflict terminationhows that the numberof peace agreementswas low (6 of 41 cases of termi-nation),but thatvictorywas not the typicaloutcome(17 of 41 outcomes).Otherendingswere morefrequent. Conflict resolutionefforts aiming at peace agreementoften saw positive outcomes in
longstanding isputes.Thedataconfirma
pictureof more fluid conflict
patternst the endof the Cold
War.They also support he notion that it is easier to starta war thanto stop it.
1. IntroductionThe past five years bridge a dramatically
changing situationin global relations. Follow-
ing the end of the Cold War, and the disso-lutionof the Soviet Union, an increasednumberof armed conflicts was witnessed globally(Wallensteen & Axell, 1993). Changing greatpower relations also opened new possibilitiesfor conflict resolution. What then is the record
for the initiationas well as resolutionof armedconflicts during this five-year period?
This article revises and updates a previousreport and ventures into the issue of conflict
resolution.' The focus is on armed conflicts,defined as armed contested incompatibilitieswhich concern government andlor territory,where the use of armed force by two parties,of which at least one is the government of a
state, results in at least 25 battle-relateddeaths.
Appendix 1 records such armed conflicts for
the period 1989-93. Appendix2 gives the defi-nition and Appendix 3 lists rejected or am-biguous cases. The recorded armed conflictsare grouped into three categories:* minor armed conflicts, where the battle-relateddeaths duringthe course of the conflictare below 1000;* intermediate conflicts, where there are morethan 1000 battle-related deaths recorded dur-ing the course of the conflict, and where 25but less than 1000 deaths have occurred dur-ing a particular year;
*wars, where there are more than 1000 battlerelated deaths during one particular year.
For convenience, the two latter categoriesare sometimes referred to as major armedconflicts.2
2. Armed ConflictThe classical inter-statewarwas a small group,there were only four inter-state armed con-flicts for the whole period 1988-1993. Strik-
ingly, not one inter-state armed conflict was
going on in 1993. In all, 90 armed conflictstook place during the five years, 1989-93, in61 locations around the world, and more than60 governments participated in at least onearmedconflict. This means that aboutone third
of the memberstates of the UN were involvedin armed conflict and/or had battles on their
territory n this period.A considerablenumber
of non-governmental forces were active. Theprecise number is difficult to estimate. Ap-pendix 1 identifies ca 175 such groups, but
the real number is considerably higher. For
instance, the government of India estimated
that there were 180 groups active in Kashmir
in 1992. Also alliances and fronts are forgedfor shorteror longerperiods,makingthe count-
ing difficult. Strength and legitimacy of these
actors vary, some in fact controlling land and
constituting functioning governments, others
approachingbanditry.
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 3/18
334 Peter Wallensteen&KarinAxell
Figure 1. Number of Armed Conflicts by Level of
Activity and Year
60- I I I
50 -V
1?0L MinorArmed
c<?~~~~4U
~Conflict
Q 30 - IntermediateAnnedConflict
; 20 W arz
10
O
-89 -90 -91 -92 -93
Year
Table I. Numberof ArmedConflictsby Level of
Activity and Year
1989 1990 19911992 1993
Minor Armed Conflicts 14 16 18 23 15IntermediateArmedConflicts 14 14 12 12 17
War 19 19 20 20 15All Armed Conflicts 47 49 50 55 47
Figure 1 and Table I show the developmentof the number of armed conflicts during the
period. Throughout he period,the totalnumberof armedconflicts per yearremainedon a veryhigh level, the annual total on average 50 (or,more precisely, 49.6). The variationsaresmall,but interesting. The total number of armedconflicts increased in 1992 but was somewhatlower in 1993, thus breakingthe trendtowards
increasing numbers. This pattern is clearerwhen the data is broken down into different
categories of intensity. The number of warswas reduced in 1993, as was the number of
minor conflicts. Instead the category of pro-tracted, intermediate conflicts increased.
The change between 1992 and 1993 needs
some further comment. First, there were twonew wars recorded in 1993, both due to
changed political configurations in existingconflicts (the break-up of the Croat-Bosnianalliance in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and theformation of the Freedom Alliance in South
Africa). In additionthere were five new minor
conflicts, including the battle for the Supreme
Soviet Building (the 'White House') in Mos-cow in October, 1993, and the revival of aconflict that had been dormant for some time
(Kurdishgroup in Iran). Second, 16 conflicts
active in 1992 have been dropped from thelist for 1993. Third, there was considerableshift in intensity in nine conflicts: two esca-lated from minor conflicts to wars (Georgia(Abkhazia) and Algeria), whereas othersshowed less violence (e.g. India (Punjab),Myanmar/Burma(Karen), Philippines, Libe-
ria, Rwanda,Somalia andGuatemala).3In all,there was considerable fluidity in the globalconflict situation. Although the trend to in-
creasing numbers was broken, it cannot betaken for granted that this is more than coin-
cidental. It is not easy, furthermore,to find acommon explanation for these developments.The challenge of why conflicts terminated
during the period is taken up in section 3below.
Figure 2 shows a regional breakdown. Eu-
rope as a region was in stark contrast to the
others, with a uniform increase in the numberof armed conflicts, totalling ten active con-flicts in 1993.4 The Americas showed the re-verse pattern,with threeconflicts recorded in1993 comparedto eight in 1989. Asia had themost variationwith a large reduction in 1991,an upsurge in 1992 and again a reduction in1993. The latter was in particularassociatedwith the ending of conflicts in Myanmar/Burma. Not withstanding the general image,conflicts in Africa continued to decline innumbersas well as in intensity (e.g. five warsin 1993 compared to nine in 1991). It shouldbe remembered,however, thatthese data cover
only armed conflicts, not the experience of
repression or massacres of civilians. Thus,
particularinhumane events in parts of manycontinents are not included. A case in mind is
the events in Burundi in 1993.The contested incompatibilitiescontinued to
be equally divided among control over gov-ernment and control over territory.In Europe,the Middle East and Asia, issues of territorydominated hroughout he period,in Africa andthe Americas issues of government were
central. In Europe two of the new conflictsconcernedgovernment(in Azerbaijanand Rus-
sia), and in Asia some of the territorialcon-
flicts were winding down (e.g. in Myanmar).
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 4/18
ArmedConflict 989-93 335
Figure2. ArmedConflictsby Level of Activity, Regionand Year
] MinorArmedConflict
E IntermediatermedConflict
* War
-89 -90 -91 -92 -93
Europe
-89 -90 -91 -92 -93Middle East
-89 -90 -91 -92 -93 -89 -90 -91 -92 -93Asia Africa
-89 -90 -91 -92 -93Amrica
Table II. Numberof ArActivity and Year
EuropeMinor ArmedConflict!
IntermediateArmedConflicts
WarAll Armed Conflicts
Middle EastMinorArmed ConflictIntermediateArmedConflicts
WarAll ArmedConflicts
AsiaMinorArmedConflictIntermediateArmed
ConflictsWarAll ArmedConflicts
AfricaMinor Armed ConflictIntermediateArmedConflicts
WarAll ArmedConflicts
AmericaMinor Armed ConflictIntermediateArmedConflicts
War
All ArmedConflicts
med Conflictsby Level of 3. Conflict Resolution
The total number of conflicts during the pe-
1989 1990 19911992 1993 rnodwas 90, but the number active in 1993was 47. This means that duringthe period 43
0 2 4 5 4 conflicts were dropped from the list. Forty-
one of these could be regardedas ended in the1 1 1 2 2 sense that no activity meeting the criteria for1 0 1 2 4 inclusion occurred in 1993. What happened,
and what are the implications? Two forms of
s O 1 1 2 1 conflict terminationare of interest:victory andmutual agreement (peace accord). Victory
3 4 3 4 5 refers to the dissolution of one party or its1 1 3 1 1 acceding to the demands of the other party.4 6 7 7 7 Mutual agreement (peace accord) refers to
peace agreements between the parties, eithers7 5 5 7 6 in the form of treaties or processes agreed
6 74
65 (Wallensteen 1992,
p. 24). In-between these6 6 6 7 4 two clear-cut outcomes there are many other19 18 15 20 15 possibilities, includingcease-firearrangements,
inactivity of one party,low activity among the5 4 7 7 8 4 warring parties (i.e. less than 25 battle-related
2 1 1 0 4 deaths). In the statistics, changes of parties8 9 9 7 4 leading to the reclassification of the conflicts
14 17 17 15 12 are not included. Table mII hows the result.As expected the number of agreements is
s 3 1 1 1 0 low. Arriving at an amicable settlement is amajor achievement, and takes considerable
2 1 3 0 1effort. The six cases with agreements should
8 5 5 4 3 be recognized:Lebanon,Mali, Morocco/West-
20-
18-
16-
14-
0U
u
c
E
s
_ __
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 5/18
336 PeterWallensteen& KarinAxell
Table III. Termination f ArmedConflicts 1989-93by RegionalDistribution
Not Ter-Agree- minated
Victoryment Other Total in 1993
Europe 3 0 5 6 10Middle East 1 1 1 3 7Asia 2 0 9 11 15Africa 6 3 4 13 12CS America 5 2 1 8 3Total 17 6 20 41 47
Note: 'Other':no victory,no agreement, ctivitybelowthreshold n 1993. Excludes two conflicts in Europewherethepartieschangeddueto the dissolutionof theSoviet Union and Yugoslavia.These conflicts weretransformedo as to be coded as new ones, but wherenot 'ended'. 'Other'also includesconflictswherepar-ties have reachedagreementon procedures nd cease-
fires, but violationswere reported.
ern Sahara, Mozambique, El Salvador and
Nicaragua. Such cases of conflict resolutionhave been achieved after protractedconflict
and, in some cases, with international nvolve-
ment, by regional or internationalactors. UN
peace-keeping operationsor otherUN activitywas importantin five of these cases. In addi-
tion there were agreements also in the
category of 'other': i.e. cease-fires and agree-
ments on procedures (e.g. Moldova, Bangla-desh).
Victory was achieved in 17 of 41 cases ofconflict termination. This is low. Actors gointo armed conflicts with the expectation of
winning. Victory in a large number of casesturns out to be elusive and more difficult than
expected. In fact, non-victory outcomes to-
gether constitute the more common outcome.If we add the large number of conflicts that
were still active in 1993, victory appearseven
more elusive. However, it does occur, and ismore frequent han the reachingof agreements.In some cases, victories today appear clear-
cut anddefinitive (some regimes such as thoseof Ceausescu in Romania, Mengistu in Ethio-
pia, and Noriega in Panama were eliminated;
opponents such JVP in Sri Lanka were de-
feated; Slovenia and Eritrea achieved inde-
pendence). Sometimes that could mean that anew conflict may eventually return(Iraqwas
defeated in 1991 but refused to accept UN
conditions on the border with Kuwait; oppo-
nents were defeated in Uganda, but low level
activity continued). The higher frequency ofvictoriescompared o agreementsdoes not nec-
essarilymean more lasting peacefulconditions.There are also conflicts which show an on-
off pattern, becoming active after a lull. Atypical example is the relations between Indiaand Pakistan, with a patternof continued ten-sion. Kurdish groups in Iran show similar
cycles, as does the East Timor resistance.Whereas the ending of the Cold War imme-
diately seemed to have spurred conflicts in
many parts of the world, it also gave an im-
pulse to conflict resolution.The major powerswere interestedin extracting themselves fromlocal situations, which were now of lesser
importanceto them. There was an impetus to
resolve conflicts in Central America (e.g.Nicaragua and El Salvador), Southern Africa
(e.g. in Mozambiqueand South Africa) and inthe Middle East (following the Second Gulf
War). In other cases, outside powers with-drew leaving unsolved incompatibilities andwell-armed factions behind to fight to the
'bitter end'. In Ethiopia this resulted in thedownfall of the regime, in Angola and Af-
ghanistan it resulted in protractedwars where
no side has yet prevailed and where peaceaccords have been overturned. In Cambodia
the peace agreement gave room for nationalreconciliation,but one groupremainedantago-nistic, and thus a conflict has continued. Inthis sense, the shadow of the Cold War stillhovers over parts of the world. The resort tothe United Nations contributedto talks, settle-ments and promising peace processes in someinstances. In other cases, the local parties had
acquired sufficient autonomy not to be easilyconvinced to join a peace accord. Victory stillwas on the minds of some actors, which also
had found independent support and finances(cf. UNITA in Angola in control of the dia-
mond trade,the KhmersRouges in Cambodiawhich controls gem trade with Thailand, andfactions in Afghanistanwith obscurefinances).It seems that the responsibility for workingout solutions in these conflicts cannot only beleft to the local parties, but have to involvethe former adversaries of the Cold War.
In addition, the end of the Cold War
generated a set of new conflicts, often aroundterritorial issues. State constructions held to-
gether by Cold War tension andpolitical struc-
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 6/18
ArmedConflict1989-93 337
turesthrivingon external threatsdisintegrated:the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia and Yugo-slavia were in this category. The newly cre-ated states inherited borders that previouslyhad been internal and
meaningless. Suddenlythey became importantand the willingness to
accept them was not always evident. In thatsense the dissolution of Yugoslavia and theSoviet empire was different from the
decolonization of Western Europeanempiresin Africa and Asia. In the latter case, theborderswere generally accepted and therehad
been considerable time to get used to thembefore independence. In the wake of the Yu-
goslav and ex-Soviet situations no such ac-
ceptance was immediately available in cases
where a dominant ethnic group was threat-ened with territorialdivision. Of the 18 con-flicts in Europe 1989-93, 15 were fought onthe territory of what was previously the So-viet Union and Yugoslavia. By 1994 not one
peace accord had been signed in these con-flicts, testifying to the availability of weap-ons, the complexity of the incompatibilities,and the lack of a united internationalstand onan appropriate solution. UN peacekeepingoperations covered 25 of the 90 armed con-flicts active during this period.5 In addition,
CSCE representativesand EU observers werein place in many situations. The primaryambition of the internationalcommunity ap-pears to be in these cases to avoid furtherspread of the conflicts, to provide humanitar-ian assistance, and, possibly, to work outcease-fire arrangements,giving room for re-flection and diplomatic initiatives.
Also other post-Cold War conflicts con-tinued to generate problems, and solutionsseemed to be distant. In Algeria, the conflictset Muslim groups againstthe militaryregime.In Rwanda and Somalia disintegration of thestate was close or actually took place, at greathumancost. It appearssymptomaticthat peaceaccords were achieved in some long-standingand fairly localized situations, e.g. Lebanonand Western Sahara. In these cases, there wasa greater risk of outside actors being drawninto the conflict, rather than the battlefieldspreading over a wider area. There was lesslikelihood of finding a solution to new orrecently militarized conflicts. At best, such
outcomes of these conflicts could be located
in the 'other'categories:cease-fires, withdraw-als, etc appearedthe more typical short-termoutcome, unless the conflicts simply contin-ued. Thus, Table Ill supports the notion thatit is easier to initiatearmedaction than to
stopit or return to peaceful conditions.The role of internationalorganizationsand
third parties thus might take on different di-mensions, depending on the age of the con-flicts. Conflicts initiatedduringthe Cold War,whetherpartof thatconfrontationor not, couldwell have reached a stage where more effec-tive internationalaction was welcomed. Themediation successes recorded in late 1993 or
early 1994 in the negotiations between Israel-PLO and in South Africa occurred between
partiesthatknew each other all too well. Morerecent conflicts were in more unpredictablephases and confronted an international com-
munity less attuned to the new conditions.Successes in the latter case had more to dowith containing regional effects of the con-flicts, and to limiting theirintensity, thanfind-ing lasting solutions.
NOTES
1. Revisions have been made andthe presentAppen-dix 1 replaces Table I of the previous report(Wallensteen& Axell, 1993).
2. In theSIPRIYearbook1994dataarepublished ormajorarmedconflictsin 1993, i.e. armedconflictswhere more than 1000 battle-related eathshavebeen incurredduringthe course of the conflict.There is no criterion or intensityper year.
3. In Rwanda,agreementswere concluded in mid-1993,and a UN peacekeeping perationwas putinplace.Following hekillingof a number f govern-mentmembers n 1994the conflicthas againesca-lated.
4. It canof coursebe debatedwhetherEuropehadan
historically ow level of conflicts duringthe ColdWarandthusnowbeginsto returno a more 'typi-cal' level. ProbablyJohnL. GaddisandJ. DavidSingerwouldbothagreeto sucha proposition,butwith differentexplanations; ee their contributionsin Kegley (1991).
5. A total of 25 peacekeepingoperationswere dis-patched r in place n 1989-93. Insomecases therewas no active armedconflict registered Cyprus,GolanHeights,Iran-IraqndNamibia).Most mis-sionswere sentto locationswhere ightinghadtakenplaceor continuedduring he UN operation.Somemissions overed everal onflicts e.g.UNPROFORfor ex-Yugoslavia).Some conflicts saw consecu-
tive missions(e.g. Angola,Somalia).
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 7/18
338 PeterWallensteen& KarinAxell
Appendix 1. Complete List of Armed Conflicts in the World, 1989-93*
Location/ IncompatibilityOppositionOrganization Yearof Activity
Government 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
Europe
Azerbaijan Territory
Government
Territory
Territory
Territory
Territory
Government
Republicof Nagorno-KarabakhGovernment f Armenia
Husseinovmilitary action
SerbianRepublicof Bosnia andHerzegovinaSerbian rregulars
Yugoslavia
CroatianRepublicof Bosnia andHerzegovinaCroatia
Croatianrregulars
AutonomousProvinceof WesternBosnia
Serbian rregularsSerbianRepublicof KrajinaYugoslavia
Anti-governmentlliance2
Zviadists
Territory Republicof SouthOssetia
(SouthOssetia)
(Abkhazia) Republicof Abkhazia
Moldova Territory DniestrRepublic
Romania Government NationalSalvationFront/National rmedForce
Russia Government Parliamentaryorces
Soviet Union Territory Azerbaijani opularFront(Azerbaijan)
(Nagorno- Government f Armenia nd ANM(Armenian
Karabakh) NationalMovement)
I I MinorArmedConflict
Intermediate Armed Conflict | Major Armed Armed Conflict
War JConflict
* 0
* 0
* 0
* S
* S
0
*
*
..
*
0
* 0
m
LIZ
I I I
* Organization ctive in yearsindi-cated by a dot. (This notation sused only where two or more or-
ganizations are involved.)
With thesupport f thegovernment f Croatia,Croatianrregulars nd Muslim rregulars2 The anti-government lliancein Georgiaconsistsof a faction of the NationalGuard,the forcesof Vazha Adamiaand
Mkhedrioni.
Bosnia and
Herzegovina1
Croatia
Georgia
es
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 8/18
ArmedConflict1989-93 339
Location/ IncompatibilityOppositionOrganization Yearof ActivityGovernment 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
Spain Territory
(Basque)
ETA (Euzkadi a Azkatasuna:BasqueNationandLiberty) I I I
United Kingdom Territory
(N. Ireland) PIRA(Provisional rishRepublicanArmy)INLA(IrishNationalLiberationArmy)
I::::::::::3::.:.^:!:;:;:;:^:;:.::1:.::;::::.:::.t:::: 1:-::::::
* * * * *I I~~
Yugoslavia Territory
(Croatia) Republicof Croatia
Croatianrregulars
(Slovenia) Republicof Slovenia
Middle East
Egypt Government
al-Cama'a al-lslamiyya(IslamicAssociation)'al-Jihad al-lslamiy(IslamicJihad,HolyWar)Tala 'i al-Fath(Vanguards f Conquest,New Jihad)
Iran Government MujahideenKhalq
Territory KDPI(KurdishDemocraticPartyof Iran)
Tenrritory
(Kurdistan) DPK (Al-hizbal Dimuqraatial-kurid:DemocraticParty
of Kurdistan)2PUK(PatrioticUnionof Kurdistan)
Government SAIRI SupremeAssemblyfor the IslamicRevolution n
Iraq)3
* * * * 0
* * * * 0
- '1''"i'i 1
?~~~~~~~~~~~~~.........
Groups oinedas PLO(MunazamatTahir Falastin:
PalestineLiberationOrganization) r withunclearrelationswithPLOe.g. UNLU(UnifiedNational
Leadership f theUprising connected o theIntifada)Othernon-PLOgroupsand/orwith unclearevel of
organization .g. Hamasand IslamicJihad
II-
* * * * I
* * * * *
* S S 0 0
Government
LebaneseArmy(Aoun)Lebanese orces
* 0
* 0
1Some 40 Muslimgroupscooperate n Gama'aal-Islamayya2 In 1987 an umbrellaorganization f eightKurdish roups, he Kurdistanront,was formed, andapart rom DPK and PUK
othergroupswithintheFrontweremilitarilyactiveduring1991 and 1992.3 Unclear numberof deaths during 1992, possibly more than 1000. SAIRI is the largest of several Shia rebel groups
reportedly ctivein Southern raq.4 Kuwait in 1991 supportedby: Argentina,Australia,Bahrain,Bangladesh,Belgium, Canada,Czechoslovakia,Denmark,
Egypt, France,Greece, Honduras, taly,Morocco,Netherlands,Niger, Norway,Oman,Pakistan,Portugal,Qatar,Saudi
Arabia,Senegal, Spain,Syria,UnitedArabEmirates,he UK andthe USA.
S
III
Iraq
*I
* 0
* m
(....:I..::....:...:.........I:
LIII l:I::-:-:::I:I:
Iraq-Kuwait4 Territory
Israel Territory
Lebanon
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 9/18
340 Peter Wallensteen & Karin Axell
Location/ IncompatibilityOppositionOrganization Yearof Activity
Government 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
Druzemilitia(PSP:ProgressiveSocialistParty)
Amal
HizbollahLCP(LebaneseCommunistParty)
Groups oinedas PLO (MunazamatTahirFalastin:
PalestineLiberationOrganization)PFLP-GC PopularFront or theLiberation f Palestine
GeneralCommand)SLA(SouthLebaneseArmy)Government f SyriaGovernment f Israel
Government f Iran Revolutionary uards)
SyrianSocialistNationalistPartyLebaneseNationalResistanceFront
PopularNasseriteOrganizationLebaneseBaathParty
Territory PKK (orApocus:KurdishWorkersParty)
Government DevrimciSol (Revolutionaryeft)
* *
* *
* *
* 0
* *
* *
* 0
* 0
* 0
*.
.
0
*
1'' [
l l l
Asia
Afghanistan Government
MlujahideenAfghanistan-based)
Mujahideen Pakistan-based)
Mujahideen Iran-based)
Military action
1Iezb-i-lslamiHezb-i-Wahdat
Jumbush-eMilli
Bangladesh Territory JSSISB ParbattyaChattagram ana SanghatiSamiti:
ChittagongHillTractsPeople'sCoordination
Association/ShantiBahini(PeaceForce)
Cambodia Government
India Territory(Kashmir)
KR(KhmersRouges:RedKhmers)/PDKParty f
DemocraticKampuchea)KPNLF KhmerPeople'sNationalLiberation ront)
FUNCINPEC Front Uni Nationalpourun Cambodge
Independant,Neutre,Pacifiqueet Cooperatif:United
NationalFront or an Independent, eutral,Peaceful
andCooperativeCambodia)ANS (ArmeeNationale
Sihanoukiste:NationalSihanoukistArmy)
Kashmirnsurgentsl
* * * 0
* * * 0
* * * 0
* *
0 0
[.~~~~~~\,r................. ;..;1..,-,x,',',{...''''..'.'.'.'.'.'b..'
* * 0 * 0
* * *
* * 0
(Punjab) Sikhinsurgents2
1 A largenumberof groupsexist; according o the government, pproximately 0 in 1990, 140 in 1991 and 180 in 1992.
Someof themost important retheJammuand KashmirLiberation ront JKLF)andtheHizbulMujahideen.2 A large numberof groupsexist, reportedlymore than 24 organizations nd splintergroups in 1992. Some of the most
important re the KhalistanLiberationForce(KLF)and theKhalistanCommandoForce(KCF).
Turkey
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~??
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 10/18
ArmedConflict1989-93 341
IncompatibilityOppositionOrganization
(Assam)
ABSU (All BodoStudentsUnion)
BPAC(BodoPeople'sActionCommittee)ULFA(UnitedLiberaton rontof Assam)BSF (BodoSecurityForce)ULFA faction
(Manipur) PLA(People'sLiberationArmy)
(Nagaland/ NSCN (NationalSocialistCouncilof Nagaland)
Manipur)
(Tripura) ATTF(All TripuraTribalForce)
(Jharkhand) JharkandMuktiMorcha
Yearof Activity
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
II~~
* S
*
* * 0
* *
* *
L li i i
l l l l l
LI
Government 111Naxalites/PWGPeople'sWarGroup) * * * * *
MCC(MaoistCommunistCentre) *
India-Pakistan Territory 1,,l:l. llll 1 II]
Indonesia Territory Fretilin FrenteRevoluciondrioTimorensede Liberta^do Ii [Z(EastTimor) e Independencia:Revolutionary ront or an
Independent astTimor)
(Aceh) Aceh Merdeka FreeAceh) Li.
Laos Government ULNLF UnitedLao NationalLiberation ront) I-I
I-
Myanmar Territory NMSP(New Mon StateParty) I I
(Arakan) Arakan nsurgents1 I I
(Kachin) KIO/KIA Kachin ndependenceOrganization/Army) |,-| |1 1 1
(Kaya) KNPP(KarenniNationalProgressiveParty) [ ]
(Karen) KNU (KarenNationalUnion/KarenNationalLiberation | I1 ]Army)2
Government ABSDF(All-BurmaStudentsDemocraticFront)
Papua New Territory BRA (BougainvilleRevolutionaryArmy)
Guinea (Bougainville)
The Philippines Government
NPA(New People'sArmy)RAM-SFP ReformMovement f theArmedForces
Soldiersof theFilipinoPeople), n 1991 renamedRAM
(Revolutionary lliancesof the Masses)
Military action
I l I
I I I I I l
* * * * 0
* * X
1 At least6 groups.RohingyaSolidarityOrganization, SO,is the largest.
2 Possiblymorethan1000deaths n 1991.
Location/Government
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 11/18
342 Peter Wallensteen & Karin Axell
Location! IncompatibilityOppositionOrganization Yearof ActivityGovernment 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
Sri Lanka Territory LTTE LiberationTigersof TamilEelam)
Government JVP(JanataVimukhti eramuna:SinhalesePeople'sLiberationFront)
Tadzhikistan Government PopularDemocraticArmy
Africa
Government
FIS(Jibhatal-lnqath;FrontIslamiquedu Salut: Islamic
SalvationFront)1
Expiationand Sin
Exile andRedemptionThe Faithfulof the SermonTheBrigadesof God
GIA(Croupeislamiquearme:ArmedIslamicgroup)
EIi* 0
0
0
0
*
Government
UNITA(UnidoNacionalpara a IndependenciaTotal de
Angola: NationalUnion for the TotalIndependence f
Angola)FNLA(FrenteNacional da Libertaaiode Angola:
NationalFront or theLiberation f Angola)
Territory FLEC Frenteda Libertacdodo Enclave de Cabinda:
Front or the Liberation f the Enclaveof Cabinda)
Ubumwe
Palipehutu Partipour la LiberationdupeupleHutu:
Party orthe Liberation f theHutuPeople)
Military action, ater n 1989developing nto Revolu-
tionaryForcesof April1st
MOSANAT Mouvement our la SalvationNationale
Tchadienne:Movement or the NationalSalvationof
Chad)2IslamicLegionCSNPD (Conseilde salut nationalpour la paix et la
democratie: Committee f NationalRevival for PeaceandDemocracy)
CNR (Comite' ational de redressement:Nationalcouncilforrecovery)
FNT (FrontNational Tchadien:ChadNationalFront)MDD (-FANT)(Mouvement our la Democratieet le
Development:Movement orDemocracy ndDeve-
lopment) Forces ArmeesNationales du Tchad: Chad
NationalArmedForces)
*
* 0
IIIS
* 0
* S
* 0
* 0
* a
* *
1 SeveralarmedIslamicgroupsarebrought ogetherunder he command tructure f theFISmilitarywing2 The militaryfactionand MOSANATjoined in an alliance,which in 1990 was namedMPS (MouvementPatriotiquedu
Salut: PatrioticSalvationMovement)and led by Deby. Deby overthrew he president n December1990 and thereafter
formed hegovernment.
Algeria
Angola
Burundi
* * * * 0
*
Government
Chad Government
l
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 12/18
Location/Government
Comoros
Djibouti
Ethiopia
Liberia
Mali
Mauritania-
Senegal
Morocco/
Western Sahara
Mozambique
Niger
Rwanda
Senegal
IncompatibilityOppositionOrganization
Government Presidential uard
Government FRUD(Frontde Restaurationde 1'Uniteet de la Demo-
cratie: Front or the Restoration f Unityand
Democracy)
Territory EPLF(Eritrean eople'sLiberation ront)
(Eritrea)
(Afar) ALF(AfarLiberation ront)
Government
TPLF TigrayPeople'sLiberationFront)EPDM(EthiopianPeople'sDemocraticMovement)
formingEPRDF EthiopianPeople'sRevolutionaryDemocraticFront)
Military action
EPRP EthiopianPeople'sRevolutionary arty)
OLF(OromoLiberation ront)
Government
NPFL(NationalPatrioticForcesof Liberia)'
BurkinaFasogovernmentINPLF IndependentNPFL)
Territory MPA(MouvementPopulairede I'Azaouad:Azawad
People'sMovement)
Territory
Territory FrentePolisario (PopularFront or theLiberation f
Saguiael HamraandRio de Oro,orPolisarioFront)
Government RENAMO ResistenciaNacionalMocambicana:
MozambicanNationalResistance,MNR)
Territory FLAA(Frontde Liberationde I'Airet I'Azawad:Ar ane
AzawadLiberationFront)
Government FPR(FrontPatriotiqueRwandais:RwandanPatriotic
Front)
Territory MFDC(Mouvement es Forces Democratiquesde la
ArmedConflict1989-93 343
Yearof Activity
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
LI
I
Casamance:Movementof theDemocraticForcesof the
Casamance)
Sierra Leone Government RUF(RevolutionaryUnitedFront)
* * a
* * *
0
* 0
* * 0
* 0 * * 0
* 0
* .
I I
[:j:j::::::::;i::j
C I I I
1Possiblymorethan1000 deathsduring1993.
/
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 13/18
344 Peter Wallensteen & Karin Axell
Location/ IncompatibilityOppositionOrganization Yearof ActivityGovernment 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
Somalia Government
South Africa Government
Government/
Territory
Sudan
Togo
Uganda
Territory
SNM(SomaliNationalMovement)
Military action,developing nto SPM(SomaliPatrioticMovement)
SSDF(SomaliSalvationDemocraticFront)USC (UnitedSomaliCongress) ledby Madhi)USC (UnitedSomaliCongress) ledby Aidhi) SNA
(SomaliNationalAlliance)
ANC (AfricanNationalCongress)PAC(PanAfricanistCongress
Azapo(AzanianPeople'sOrganization)
FA (FreedomAlliance)1
SPLA SPLM(SudanesePeople'sLiberation
Army/Movement)Factionof SPLA/SPLM
Government Military action
Government
Factionof UPDA(UgandaPeople'sDemocraticArmy)UPA (UgandaPeople'sArmy)HSM(HolySpiritMovement), n 1990 renamedUDCM
(UnitedDemocraticChristianMovement)and n 1991renamedUPDCA(UgandaPeople'sChristian
DemocraticArmy)
Central and South America
Colombia Government
FARC(FuerzasArmadasRevolucionariasColombianas
RevolutionaryArmedForcesof Colombia)ELN (Ejercitode LiberacionNacional: National
LiberationArmy)EPL(EjercitoPopularde Liberacion:PopularLiberation
Army)Factionof FARC
Factionof ELN
MAO(Movimientode AutodefensaObrera:Workers'
Self-DefenceMovement)QuintinLame
* 0* *
* * *
0 0
* 0 0
* * * * *
* *
* *
* * * 0
* * S
-I-)* i
* * 0
* * 0
0: 0 * 0 0
0
0
* * * 0
* 0
0
0
1 FreedomAlliance:ConservativeParty, InkathaFreedomParty,AfrikaanerVolksFrontand the leadersof the homeland
governments f BophuthatswanandCiskei.
2 No exact death iguresexist for 1993.However,all sourcespoint clearly o that hefightingcausedmorethan1000 deaths.
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 14/18
ArmedConflict1989-93 345
Location/ IncompatibilityOppositionOrganization Yearof ActivityGovernment 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
El Salvador Government
FMLN(Frente FarabundoMartipara la Liberaci6n * *
Nacional: FarabundoMartiFront or NationalLiberation)1
GeradoBarriosCivicFront
Guatemala Government URNG(UnidadRevolucionariaNacional I l lllliI iGuatemalteca:GuatemalanNationalRevolutionary
Unity)2
Haiti Government [ ITontonMacoute
Military action
Nicaragua Government FDN (FuerzasDemocr6ticasNicaraguenses:
NicaraguanDemocraticForces)orContras
Panama Government Military action L I
Panama-USA Government L I
Paraguay Government Military action |
Peru Government
Sendero Luminoso ShiningPath) . . . .
MRTA(MovimientoRevolucionarioTupacAmaru: a a * a a
TupacAmaruRevolutionaryMovement)
Trinidad and Government Jamaat al-Muslimeen Societyof Moslems) |
Tobago
Venezuela Government Military action(Revolutionary olivarianMovement [ i
1 FMLN consistsof ERP (EjercitoRevolucionariodel Pueblo:People's RevolutionaryArmy),FAL (FuerzasArmadasde
Liberaci6n:ArmedLiberationForces), FARN (FuerzasArmadasde Resistencia Nacional: Armed Forces of National
Resistance),FPL (FuerzasPopularesde Liberaci6nFarabundoMartf:FarabundoMartiPopularLiberationForces) and
PRTC(PartidoRevolucionariode Trabajadores entroamericanos:evolutionary artyof CentralAmericanWorkers)2 UNRG consistsof EGP (EjercitoGuerrilleros e los Pobres:GuerrillaArmyof the Poor),PGT (PartidoGuatemaltecodel
Trabajo:GuatemalanWorkersParty),FAR (FuerzasArmadasRebeldes:Rebel ArmedForces)andORPA (Organizaci6ndel Puebloen Armnas:rganization f ArmedPeople)
* The list of conflicts1989-91 is a revisedversionof Table3.1 in Heldt,1992;mostchangesare dueto the introduction f a
lower tresholdof 25 deaths.For 1989 the followingpersonswereresponsibleorchecking he locationswithmajorarmedconflicts:RamsesAmer forCambodia;BirgerHeldt forRomania,Israel/Palestine, ngola,Panama-USA;KarinLindgrenfor Iraq, Lebanon, Turkey, Bangladesh,Myanmar,Morocco/Western ahara;Kjell-Ake Nordquistfor Colombia, El
Salvador,Guatemala,Nicaragua,Peru;PeterWallensteen or UK, Afghanistan, ndonesia,Philippines,Ethiopia,Somalia,SouthAfrica,Sudan;G. KennethWilson for India,SriLanka,Chad,Mozambique,Uganda.For 1990 the followingpersonswere responsible:ChristerAhlstrtomor India, India-Pakistan;Ramses Amer for Cambodia,Laos; Birger Heldt for
Afghanistan,Angola, Liberia, Mozambique,Uganda; Karin Lindgrenfor Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Turkey, Bangladesh,
Myanmar,Morocco/Western ahara;Kjell-AkeNordquist or Israel/Palestine,Colombia,El Salvador,Guatemala,Peru;Peter Wallensteen or UK, Philippines,Ethiopia,Somalia,SouthAfrica,Sudan;G. KennethWilson for Sri Lanka,Chad.
For 1991: ChristerAhlstrom or India;RamsesAmer forCambodia;BirgerHeldtfor UK, Yugoslavia, Iraq,Iraq-Kuwait,
Afghanistan,Sri Lanka, Chad,Liberia,Morocco/Western ahara,Rwanda,Uganda;MasakoIkegami-Anderssonor Iran,
Turkey, Bangladesh;Karin Lindgrenfor Myanmar,Kjell-Ake Nordquistfor IsraeVl/Palestine,olombia, El Salvador,
Guatemala,Peru;ThomasOhlssonfor Angola,Mozambique,SouthAfrica;Peter Wallensteen or Indonesia,Philippines,
Ethiopia,Somalia, Sudan. For 1992 BirgerHeldt was responsible or checkingall locationswith majorarmedconflicts,
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 15/18
346 PeterWallensteen& KarinAxell
exceptfor thefollowingcases: ChristerAhlstrom orIndia;BjornHolmbergorIsrael/Palestine;rikMelanderfor Bangladesh,Cambodia, ran,Laos, Yugoslavia,as well as the statesof the formerSoviet Union. ErichSchultzwas responsible or the minor conflictsin Centraland SouthAmericaandAsia in 1992. An initialrevisionof the 1989-91 list, Table 3.1 in Heldt, 1992, was madeby BirgerHeldtbased on the 25 deaths
treshold,and the unclearcases were revisedby KarinAxell. For 1993 BirgerHeldtwas responsible or the
conflict locationsof Liberia,Rwanda,SudanandNorthern reland;ErikMelander or Azerbaijan,Croatia,Georgia,Tadzhikistan nd Bosniaand Herzegovina;ThomasOhlssonfor Angola and SouthAfrica;Kjell-Ake Nordquist or Colombia,Guatemala, eruandIsrael;CarlAsbergfor India;AshokSwain andSarbajitPattnaikprovidedassistance n the case of India.KarinAxell was responsible or the remainingconflictlocations.Data were collectedup to 16 May 1994.
REFERENCES
Heldt, Birger, ed., 1992. States in ArmedConflict ArmedConflicts1986-91',pp. 13-29in Heldt,1992.1990-91. Uppsala:Department f Peace and Con- Wallensteen,Peter& KarinAxell, 1993. 'ArmedCon-flict Research,UppsalaUniversity. flicts after the Cold War'. Journal of Peace Re-
Kegley, CharlesW., Jr., ed., 1991. TheLongPostwar search, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 331-346.Peace. ContendingExplanationsand Projections. Wallensteen, eter& KarinAxell, 1994.'MajorArmedNew York:HarperCollins. Conflicts', SIPRIYearbook1994. Oxford:Oxford
Wallensteen,Peter, 1992. 'The Security Council in UniversityPress.
Appendix2. KARIN AXELL: Defining Armed Conflict1Armedconflicts are contestedincompatibilitieswhich concerngovernmentand/orterritorywhere the use of
armedforceby two parties,of whichat leastone is the government f a state,results n at least 25 battle-related
deaths2.
The separateelementsof the definitionare operationalized s follows:
(1) Use of armedorce: use of weapons n order o promote heparties'generalposition n theconflict,resultingin deaths.
(1.1) Weapons:any lethal means otherthan those of corporalstrengthand/orpsychologicalpower, e.g.manufacturedweaponsbut also sticks, stones, fire, water,etc.
(2) 25 deaths: A minimumof 25 battle-related eathsper year andper incompatibility.
(3) Actor: A governmentof a stateor any organization r allianceof organizations.(3.1) Government:Central overnment f a state,or localgovernmentn thatstate.A localgovernmentwhich
has proclaimedtself sovereignor independentromthe centralgovernment nd whose statedoes not meet the
criteriafor a 'state' indicatedbelow, is not consideredas being a state actor.(3.2) Organization:Any groupof people havingannounced namefor theirgroupandusing armed orce.
(4) State: A state is(4.1) an internationallyecognizedsovereigngovernment ontrollinga specifiedterritory,
or(4.2) an internationally nrecognized overnment ontrollinga specifiedterritorywhose sovereignty s not
disputedby another,nternationallyecognized overeigngovernmentpreviouslycontrolling he same territory.(5) Incompatibility oncerning governmentand/or territory:The incompatibility, s statedby the parties,mustconcerngovernmentand/or erritory.
(5.1) Incompatibility:he statedgenerally ncompatiblepositions.(5.2) Incompatibility oncerning government: ncompatibility oncerning ype of political system, the re-
placementof the centralgovernmentor the change of its composition.(5.3) Incompatibilityoncerning erritory: ncompatibilityoncerning he statusof a territory, .g. thechangeof the state in controlof a certain erritory inter-state onflict), secession or autonomy intra-state onflict).The conflicts in TableI are listed by locationin alphabetical rder,withinsix geographical egions:* Europe:Geographicdefinition, ncluding he states in the Caucasus.* MiddleEast: Egypt, Iraq,Iran,Israel,Lebanon,Syria,Turkeyand the statesof the ArabianPeninsula.* Asia: Geographicdefinition, ncludingAustralia,New Zealandand Oceania.* Africa:Geographicdefinition, ncludingComoros,but not includingEgypt.* Centraland SouthAmerica:Geographicdefinition, ncludingstates in the Caribbean.
The locationcolumnstatesthe governmental ctorand the oppositionorganization olumngives the opposingactoror actors.Subsetsof armedconflicts are definedas follows:* MinorArmedConflict:shownby a white rectangle.At least 25 battle-related eathsper yearand less than
1000 battle-related eathsduringthe courseof the conflict.*
IntermediateArmedConflict:shown
bya shaded
rectangle.At least 25 battle-related eaths
per yearand
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 16/18
ArmedConflict1989-93 347
an accumulatedotalof at least 1000deaths,but less than1000per year.(Whenconflictsappearas intermediatearmed conflicts after 1989 they have in most cases been reactivated fter a periodof relativeinactivity.)* War: shown by a black rectangle.At least 1000 battle-related eathsper year.* MajorArmedConflictsincludesthe two most severe levels of conflict, i.e. intermediate rmedconflict andwar.
In the case of an inter-state onflict,bothpartiesarepresentedn the location-column,witha dash between thetwo countrynames.Names of the oppositionorganizations re given in a local language, f available,and in English.For a conflict wheremultipleactors are involved,the actors'activityin a given year is indicatedby a dot.
NOTES
1. The list of conflicts 1989-93 is a revisedversionof Table 3.1 in Heldt,1992.The revisionshavebeen madein co-operationwith BirgerHeldt.Manyconflictswere excludedas a consequenceof theminimumrequire-ment of 25 deathsper year.
2. The definitionand its operationalization ere first published n Lindgren,1991, then slightly amended n
Heldt, 1992. The changeswere designedto make the definitionas shortand clear as possible. The lowerthresholdof 25 deathsper year has been introduced o increasethe reliabilityof the coding.
Appendix3. KARIN AXELL: Rejected or Ambiguous Conflicts
For most of the conflicts listed here rather hanin Table II we have reportson the use of armed orce, whileinformation n the numberof deaths s missing.In othercases the activitiesof certaingroupsareunclear,whileothergroups'activitiesin the same conflictmay be known.In the case of, for example,Fretilin n Indonesia,the activityandthe numberof deathsareknownfor the years 1989 and 1992,while it is unclear f the number
of deathsmeets the criterionduring he two yearsin between.ThereforeFretilin s found both in Appendix1and in Appendix3. Myanmar ndLaos are otherexamplesof countries ound in both lists. In Myanmar,hereare severalconflicts andmanyactive groups,but the informations scarce,as is also the case with Laos. Forsome of theseconflictsit was unclear f theymet theminimum hreshold riterion f 25 annualdeaths.Forsomeof them it was unclearwhether herewas any activityat all duringa given year.Forothers,there were morethan 25 deaths,but it was unclear f the use of force was organized.
Location Incompatibility OppositionOrganization Year of
Possible
Activity
Angola Territory FLEC-faction(FrenteNacional da Libertagdode Angola: 1993
NationalFrontfor the Liberation f Angola)
Burundi Government Military action 1993
China Territory IslamicPartyof East Turkistan 1990
(Sinkiang)
Congo Government Oppositionmilitias 1993
Haiti Government Military action(Leopard orps) 1989
Military action(Dessalinesbattalion) 1989
India Territory JharkhandCo-ordinationCommittee 1989
(Jharkhand) All Jharkhand tudentsUnion 1989
JharkhandMukti Morcha 1989, 1992
Territory TNLF(TripuraNationalLiberationFront) 1989
(Tripura) ATTF(All TripuraTribalForce) 1992
Indonesia Territory Fretilin FrenteRevoluciondrioTimorensede Libertaqaoe Inde- 1990-91
(EastTimor) pendencia:RevolutionaryFront or an IndependentEast
Timor)
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 17/18
348 Peter Wallensteen & Karin Axell
Territory OPM(OrganisasiPapuaMerdeka:FreePapuaMovement) 1989-92
(WestIrian)
Iran Territory KDPI(KurdishDemocraticPartyof Iran) 1989, 1991
(Kurdistan) Komala(KurdishDemocraticPartyof Iran) 1989
Laos Government Oppositiongroup,probablyULNLF(UnitedLao National 1992
LiberationFront)
Free DemocraticLao NationalSalvationForce 1992
Libya Government Military action 1993
Mali Territory MPA(MouvementPopulairede I'Azaouad:AzawadPeople's 1991
(Azawad) Movement)
FPLA(FrontPopulairede I'Azaouad:The PopularFrontof 1991
Azawad)
FIAA(FrontIslamiqueArabe de I'Azaouad: slamicArabic 1991
Frontof Azawad)
Myanmar Government BCP(BurmaCommunistParty) 1989
Government ABSDF (All-BurmaStudentsDemocraticFront) 1993
Territory NMSP(New Mon StateParty) 1991, 1993
(Kaya) KNPP(KarenniNationalProgressiveParty) 1993
(Nagaland) Naga insurgents, probablyNSCN, National Socialist Council 1992
of Nagaland)
(Shan) SSA (ShanStateArmy) 1989-90
Niger Territory FLAA (Frontde liberationde lAir et l'Azawad:Airand 1993
AzawadLiberationFront)
Philippines Territory MNFL (MoroNationalLiberationFront) 1989-90
(Mindanao) 1993
Senegal Territory MFDC(Mouvement es Forces Democratiquesde la 1991
(Casamance) Casamance:Movementof the DemocraticForcesof the
Casamance)
Surinam Territory SLA (SurinameseLiberationArmy) 1989
Vietnam Territory FULRO FrontUni pour la Libe'ration es Races Opprimees: 1989
(Central United Front or the Liberationof the OppressedRaces)
Highlands)
SOURCES
The following general books and reports were consulted:
Amnesty International Arsrapport 1990, 1990 [Annual report 1989, 1990]. Stockholm: Amnesty International.
Brogan, Patrick, 1989. World Conflicts. London: Bloomsbury.
Gantzel, Klaus-Jurgen & Jorg Meyer-Stamer, eds, 1986. Die Kriege nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg bis 1984.
Munich: Weltforum.
8/2/2019 Conflict Resolution in Tha Cold War - Wall Ens Teen
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/conflict-resolution-in-tha-cold-war-wall-ens-teen 18/18
ArmedConflict 989-93 349
Gunson, Phil; AndrewThompson& Greg Chamberlain, 989. The Dictionary of ContemporaryPolitics ofSouthAmerica.London:Routledge.
Geldard, an, 1990, 1991, 1992. Chronologyof Terrorism.London:INTEL.Internationalnstitute or StrategicStudies, 1990, 1991. The MilitaryBalance. London:Brasseys.Janke,Peter, 1983. Guerrilla and TerroristOrganisations:A World Directory and Bibliography.Hemel
Hempstead:Harvester.Jongman,Bert, 1982. War,Armed Conflictand Political Violence.Groningen:PolemologicalInstitute,Uni-
versity of Groningen.Kaye, G. D.; D. A. Grant& E. J. Emond, 1985. MajorArmedConflict,A Compendium f Interstateand
IntrastateConflict 1720 to 1985, ReportR95. Ottawa:OperationalResearchand Analysis Establishment,CanadianDepartmentof National Defence.
Keesings, 1983. Political Dissent. Harlow, Essex:Longman.Lindgren,Karin,ed., 1991. States in ArmedConflict1989. Uppsala:Department f Peace and Conflict Re-
search, UppsalaUniversity.Minority Rights Group, 1989. WorldDirectoryof Minorities.Harlow,Essex: Longman.Munro,David & Allan J. Day, 1990. A WorldRecordof MajorConflictAreas. London:EdwardAmrnold.Revolutionaryand Dissident Movements:An InternationalGuide,1991. Harlow, Essex: LongmanCurrent
Affairs.The Statesman'sYearbook,annual.London:Macmillan.Shafritz,Jay M.; E.F. Gibbons& GregoryE. J. Scott, 1991. Almanacof ModernTerrorism.New York:Facts
On FileSmall, Melvin& J. David Singer, 1982. Resortto Arms:International nd Civil Wars, 1816-1980. Beverly
Hills, CA: Sage.
The following journals,newspapersandnews agencieswere consulted:ACENSIAGGuatemala);AfricaCon-
fidential (London);AfricaEvents(London);AfricaWatch/Human ightsWatch London);AfricaNews (Dur-
ham); AfricaResearchBulletin (Oxford);AfricaReporter New York);AfricanDefense (Paris);AIMMozam-
bique File (Maputo);AmnestyPress (Stockholm);ArmedForces (London);Asian Defence Journal (Kuala
Lumpur);Asian Recorder(New Dehli); Balkan War Report (London);Boston Globe (Boston, MA); BBC
WorldService News (London);BurmaFocus (Oslo);BurmaIssues (Bangkok);CentralAmericaReport(Gua-
temalaCity); CentroamericaHoy, CSUCAPax (San Jose, Costa Rica); ChristianScience Monitor(Boston,
MA); ConflictInternationalEdgware);Dagens Nyheter(Stockholm);Dialog Information ervices Inc. (Palo
Alto, CA); The Economist(London);Facts and Reports(Amsterdam); ar EasternEconomicReview(HongKong); Financial Times(London& Frankfurt);TheGuardian(London);Hornof AfricaBulletin (Uppsala);
India Today (New Delhi); IndianExpress (New Delhi); Janes Defence Weekly (Coulsdon,Surrey); IDSAJournal (New Delhi); TheIndependent London); nternationalDefenceReview(Geneva);InternationalHer-
ald Tribune Paris);Jane'sIntelligenceReview(Coulsdon,Surrey); euneAfrique Paris);Kayhan nternational
(Teheran);Keesings Contemporary rchives Harlow,Essex); KNUBulletin Bangkok);Latin AmericaWeeklyReport(London);Le MondeDiplomatique Paris);Mexicoand CentralAmericaReport(London);The Middle
East (London);MIO MozambiqueNews Review (London);New Statesman& Society (London);Newsweek
(New York); MoscowNews (Moscow);New Times (Moscow);New YorkTimes(New York); NyheterfranLatinamerikaStockholm);Pacific Report Canberra);acificResearch Canberra);anoramaCentroamericano
(INCEP, Guatemala);RFEIRLResearch Report(Munich);SA. Barometer(Johannesburg); electionsfromRegionalPress (Instituteof Regional Studies:Islamabad);SouthernAfricanEconomist (Harare);Southern
Africa Political & EconomicMonthly (Harare);SouthScan(London);Der Spiegel (Hamburg);Sri Lanka
Monitor (London); The Statesman(Calcutta);SvenskaDagbladet (Stockholm);TeheranTimes (Teheran);TerrorUpdate (London);Time(New York); The Times(London);UpsalaNya Tidning (Uppsala);US News
& WorldReport (Washington,DC); WashingtonPost (Washington,DC); WeeklyMail (Johannesburg) nd
WorldAerospace& Defense Intelligence (Newtown,Conn.).
In additionwe have used variousresearch eportson particularonflictsandother nformation vailable n the
Department f Peace and ConflictResearch,Uppsala University.
PETER WALLENSTEEN, b. 1945; PhD in Political Science (Uppsala University, 1973); Dag
Hammarskjold Professor of Peace and Conflict Research, Uppsala University (1985-). Most recent
book in English: Peace Research: Achievements and Challenges (ed., Westview, 1988). Current
research interests: armed conflict and conflict resolution.
KARIN AXELL, b. 1962; Fil.kand in Peace and Conflict Research (Uppsala University, 1991);
Research Assistant in the Department of Peace and Conflict Research, Uppsala University.