Iris van der Vlis dhr. Schuijt FIORETTI COLLEGE LISSE | 6V2 | OCTOBER 2018

Confederate Statues WHY DID PEOPLE DECIDE TO PUT THE CONFEDERATE STATUES UP AND WHY DO PEOPLE WANT TO TAKE THEM DOWN NOW?

1

“Removing the Confederate flag from this state’s capital would not be an act of political correctness; it would not be an insult to the valor of Confederate soldiers. It would simply be an acknowledgment that the cause for which they fought — the cause of slavery — was wrong,” - Barack Obama, 44th president.

2

Acknowledgements

I’d like to thank my mentor, Daan Schuijt, for helping me without doing all the work for me. I’d like to thank Annemarie Hellemons, for spending the days right before her well-deserved trip to Curaçao reading this and getting rid of all the spelling mistakes.

3

Table of contents

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... 2

Table of content ......................................................................................................................... 3

Preamble .................................................................................................................................... 5

Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 6

Theory ......................................................................................................................................... 7

Chapter 1: Culture in the Southern States after the Civil War ................................................. 10

1.1: The Civil War ................................................................................................................. 10

1.2: Consequences ............................................................................................................... 10

1.3: (Never) Forget ............................................................................................................... 11

1.4: The Flag ......................................................................................................................... 11

1.5: Celebration .................................................................................................................... 13

1.6: The Lost Cause ............................................................................................................... 14

1.7: Non-war related culture ................................................................................................ 15

1.8: Combining this with theory ........................................................................................... 16

Chapter 2: The making of Confederate statues ....................................................................... 17

2.1: Begin small .................................................................................................................... 17

2.2: Why not? ....................................................................................................................... 17

2.3: LMA ............................................................................................................................... 18

2.4 United Daughters of the Confederacy ........................................................................... 19

Chapter 3: The Leading Culture of America right now / end 2017 .......................................... 22

3.1: The USA since the Civil War; a General Overview ........................................................ 22

3.2: A recap of 2016 and 2017 ............................................................................................. 23

Chapter 4 .................................................................................................................................. 28

4.1: Brief History of Civil Rights Movements........................................................................ 28

4.2: Black Lives Matter ......................................................................................................... 29

4.3: The Statues .................................................................................................................... 31

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 34

Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 37

Epilogue .................................................................................................................................... 38

Sources ..................................................................................................................................... 40

Books: ................................................................................................................................... 40

4

Websites ............................................................................................................................... 40

Logbook .................................................................................................................................... 46

5

Preamble

Everyone who knows me even a little bit, knows I’m awful at making decisions. Just the thought of, if I wait just a bit, there may be a better option, gives me chills. The thought of having to pick a subject for the biggest assignment in my high school-career was quickly associated with fear and insecurities.

After a while, I came up with several subjects, varying from English, to art, to history. Meanwhile the due date came closer and closer, and I got more and more nervous. How was I supposed to make a decision?

This quickly became easier, after I started to think about what I’d like to do after Fioretti. My favorite studies at the time were either history or American studies. Taking this into account, I took one look at the list of possible questions I’d come up with and one popped out: it combined a mix of the two studies and the perfect way to see if this really was something I would want to do later in life.

After all, this is a very topical subject. It’s still developing today, yet it’s also a piece of history I’m quite interested in. During 2016 and 2017, I kept coming across articles online about this very subject and at the time I was very involved in the stories. Looking back, this really was the most obvious decision for me to make.

And that’s why I chose the removal of Confederate statues as my topic.

6

Introduction

Statues are eye-catching but yet everyday things. When you go to Amsterdam and walk past the famous touristy Dam, one of the first things you’ll notice is the National Monument (Stichting 4 en 5 May, n.d). In art class, statues are often discussed and students even attempt to make small ones. Yet they are not always insignificant things.

Right now, for instance, masses of people in the United States are protesting against a handful of monuments. This is different than in Eastern Europe, where there were trails to remove communist statues, for Americans are extremely divided over theirs (Johnson, 1994). I wonder why this is and what the right solution should be.

This paper will be about these Confederate statues. The following questions will be asked:

• What was the popular culture around the time these statues were put up? • Who put the statues up? • What is the popular culture around the time these statues were put down? • Who is trying to put the statues down?

The research will be done by looking into several pieces of literature to establish a theory that will be applied to the question of the Civil War monuments. The first question is necessary to know the circumstances in which the statues were placed. It’s also convenient to know who decided to put them up and why they did it, hence chapter two. To place things into context now, you have to understand the culture and events taking place in 2016 and on. The last chapter is important for understanding who is against these statues and why. With these answers, the main question will hopefully be answered:

Why did people decide to put the Confederate statues up and why do people want to take them down now?

My hypothesis is that it has something to do with establishing traditions in a time of social change, but I’m not exactly sure what. This will be researched in this paper.

7

Theory

Before we begin to examine the previous stated questions, it’s important to know the theory that will help us answer them. For this paper, I used the theories invented by Hobsbawm and Anderson about inventing traditions and culture, and Johnson’s theory about the meaning of statues in a society.

The established idea is that traditions we see nowadays, have always been there. They ‘happen’ to exist and are merely coincidently part of our society. However, nothing could be less true. Traditions are always there for a reason, usually to establish continuity. They are also often more recent than people think, and sometimes even ‘invented’: made up to serve the purpose of the makers. Especially political traditions are generally invented, since the makers of those are institutions with purposes and goals, and thus the traditions are made much more deliberately and consciously (Hobsbawm, 2017).

One of the most visible and well-known examples of this so-called inventing showed itself in 1930’s Europe: the Nazis in Germany began to ritualize and institutionalize traditions, using them for national purposes. The most important thing they did was using daily habits, such as folksong and marksmanship, and turning those normal things into stereotypical nationalistic behavior.

This is the way traditions can be used. A process of formalization and ritualization, mixed with references to the past, can establish or ‘invent’ traditions effectively. These references to the past do not need to be exactly true, they could be semi-fictional or even made-up. By repeating this process, Hitler's’ party could count on many more followers, simply because the public could recognize themselves in the traditions Hitler's’ party seemed to be a part of.

This shows that people's behavior is often influenced by traditions. And these don’t necessarily have to be practices as a song or a flag. History has shown us that signs of club membership and belonging to a certain group have huge emotional and symbolical value in people’s lives (Hobsbawm, 2017). A flag or statue may look significant and important to a country or region, but it’s often the feeling that makes the tradition stick and that’s what makes people stick to a movement.

Yet those flags or statues are also extremely important. They are a sign of identity and represent the nationalistic feelings. Take flags, for instance. A flag can make people feel united and it can give specific meaning to a vague term as ‘nation’. (Hendriks, 2013). This is why, in this paper, flags will be considered important when viewing imagined communities, since it’s a kind of manifestation of nationalism.

Statues are of course the main focus area in this paper. Johnson argues that statues do not only have the power to unite and radiate nationalism, but are also circuits of memory. This means that a statue goes beyond being just a work of art, they are important and sometimes even fundamental to one’s community. They are “material bases for nationalist imaginings, structured symbolically” (Johnson, 1994, page 52). It’s important to have statues when a country is still occupied with nation building, since they are natural forces of authority.

8

Especially war monuments bring consciousness and are able to replace true memory with modern memory. True memory is the things in habits and self-knowledge, while modern memory is self-aware and individual. This modern memory can be different from the true one and is often the one that is inherited by new generations (Nora, 1989). This is important, because when carefully placed it can be used for creating imagined communities.

Traditions often origin from times when there is a lot of rapid change, especially if the change is socially motivated. The feeling that everything is changing makes people cling onto things they are familiar with. Around the 19th and 20th century, a lot of immigrants came to the USA, looking for a better future. Not to mention the fact that several civil-rights-advocates began to make their entrance in society and social behavior and order were rapidly changing.

Moving on, traditions are just a small part of culture. Culture means the ideas, social behavior and customs of a certain group of people or society. Culture plays a huge part in people’s lives. It makes them think, feel and relate differently than others. The “ideology”-part in culture that is especially interesting to look at regarding this assignment, is nationalism.

Nationalism is difficult to define and analyze, so says political scientist and historican Benedict Anderson. Perhaps the best comparison is religion, both form bonds and profit the ones on top. An important and yet often overlooked aspect of nationalism is death. One’s death means more when a person meant something to his community, his nation. It is almost inspirational, it gives people a sense of purpose and coherency. Especially in times of war, having a nation and a good sense of nationalism can be a great motivator. Nationalism is not just an idea or trend, it’s much more, which is why it’s so hard to define. (Anderson, 2006)

Nation is much easier, Anderson says on page 22, chapter 1: “It is an imagined political community - and imagined both inherently limited and sovereign.” These communities differ from each other simply through the way they are imagined and this is pared with cultural significance. For instance, if one would stumble upon a random person's grave, and then upon one from his community, it’s easy guesswork which one they would grieve about more. Belonging to a group or having the same culture, creates a bond, even if that is the only thing people know about each other. That’s also what nationalism does to people. The nationalism that played part in USA was not just about loving “America” as a whole, but also as the “South” and the “North” or “Union”.

In this paper, the statues of the Confederacy are the main viewing point. Those will be discussed, as will the context in which they were put up and in which they are being put down. With the theories of Hobsbawm, Anderson and Johnson in mind, it’s easy to explain how statues resemble imagined community. Quoting Nuala Johnson: “As Savage (1994) noted in the context of the American Civil War monument, a selective reading and representation of the past served to heal the wounds of a society divided (...)” (Johnson, 1994, page 61). Statues represent imagined communities described in the theories of Hobsbawm and Anderson, and if combined with Johnson’s theory about the significance of

9

statues, we’ll have all the theory we need in order to know the context in which they were placed around 1900 and removed around 2017.

10

Chapter 1: Culture in the Southern States after the Civil War

1.1: The Civil War

The Civil War has been extremely important to the United States. Even though it waged from 1861 to 1865, a long time ago, it’s still remembered vividly by both sides. Before the War, the North and South were quite different, especially socially and economically. The most important subject they could not agree on was slavery: the North wanted to abolish it, whereas the South wanted to preserve it for ‘economic reasons’. Slavery was after all cheap labor and many got rich because of that. Without slaves, the South would suffer great economic loss. When Abraham Lincoln, an anti-slavery Republican, became president, the South got cold feet. Could this man take away their slaves? The South began to organize themselves as the Confederate States of America, and when Lincoln’s presidency went on in 1860, they broke away from the federal union. As abolitionists tried to free slaves in Southern territory, a Civil War began.

Immediately the North had advantages, such as more people, a better transportation network and most importantly: the rest of the world acknowledged the United States as a country and could still trade with it, while the South did not have as many trade partners and was thus less rich. The South was very motivated though; their slaves were after all their biggest income, and the boys in the army were very enthusiastic fighters. Above all, the South had many commanders, such as Robert E. Lee, “Stonewall” Jackson and many more. These leaders gave the Union, the Northern states, a hard time, and both suffered losses in brutal bloody battles, but the South could not prevent the Mississippi River from being taken by the Yankees. After this, the Union went on further and further in Southern territory and in 1865, Lee surrendered. This marked the end of the Civil War.

1.2: Consequences

After the Civil War, the Southern states, or the South for short, were not even remotely the same. They had suffered not only financially, but also emotionally: their brothers had not returned from the war the same, and many had not returned at all. Their pride was hurt. The Southern grieve was huge and the fact that the “North” kept changing laws did not help. As more laws came through, two things happened in the South. Some people started and joined “patriot” organizations, such as the famously racist Ku Klux Klan, as a response to these interracial-democracy-attempts. Most, however, just tried to get back on their feet. They were busy overcoming their loss and raising funds for the soldiers’ graves (Foster, 1987).

This represents the attitude of many Southerners well. The Southerners were not scared of the Northern people, in fact, they still loathed them, but did not know what to do with these feelings, so they kept quiet. This, combined with a lack of money and young men, made the South rather obedient for a while. They commemorated the Civil War silently, grieving for years, but did not include the word ‘loss’ in the speeches. As a sort of self-defense, they

11

refused to believe their sons, brothers and fathers had died in vain. To say that the South had been on the morally wrong side of the War was unthinkable and since many could not handle this thought, so they casted it aside. Instead, they focused on the, according to them, real reason that had evoked the Civil War: money.

1.3: (Never) Forget

The Civil War was still branded in many minds, but the seriousness of it slipped away over the years. The war got romanticized, helped by books and drawings. Many Southerners talked about the ‘hero’-soldiers that give their lives for this country, completely and conveniently forgetting that they had fought not for the United States, but the Confederate States. These soldiers were praised more and more. After all, everyone who was alive during the Civil War could remember the Yankees from the North looting villages, burning houses and “destroying” property by freeing their slaves. The boys from the South would never do such a thing (Foster,1987). Of course, they couldn’t have, since the Confederate Army had never left their home ground, but this was never spoken of. Old-Confederate soldiers and their families recalled fighting for their own rights, to defend their state against the big government taking over. In fact, some said they had fought for the constitution of the United States, since that protects state-sovereignty. This also was not necessarily true, since the Confederate States had made their own constitution, which was completely the same as the one from the United States, except the part about slavery.

Yet their arguments worked in the public opinion and many thought that these heroes of war should not just be grieved and remembered, but also celebrated! The Memorial Day, such as Lee’s birthday, became much more festive over the years. After all, what had the South ever done wrong? Why should they be dim and sad? All that the soldiers had ever done was defend their state and property, which is what a good Southern man should do. They were brave, loyal and Christian fighters, which were all considered good qualities, especially in the South. They deserved a good celebration (Foster, 1987).

1.4: The Flag

Something that should get its own section, is the Confederate Flag. Flags had a bigger meaning back then, especially in the Civil War. They symbolized the Confederate pride and stood for many people’s believes. “Protecting your flag” was taken not only symbolically, but also literary. Losing it in battle would mean great dishonor. However, capturing the enemies’ flag would lead to big rewards, such as receiving a medal or being given a leave (Foster, 1987).

Flags usually also represent a shared history of the nation the flag belongs to, but this one was designed especially for the Civil War. A flag could mean a safe place, meaning a camp or hospital, but it also marked the battles. It was a place of recognition, a rallying point where soldiers would go to regroup or consult. Most importantly, it affirmed group identity. This flag stood for a nation without the Yankees, where the Southern people could have slaves

12

without someone far away telling them what to do. That was what was worth fighting for. Seeing another flag in a battle meant there was a whole unity fighting for the same thing. It lifted moral. For the Union, the Confederate Flag meant that they were serious. The Confederate states had left the American flag behind and got itself a new one, meaning they were an organized unit and not just a few crazy states. It meant that this wasn’t a riot, but a Civil War (Nation Park Service, n.d).

The first time this important flag was designed, it looked a lot like the American one. It had similar red and white stripes, featuring a blue square with white stars on the side (see figure 1). Although the Confederate flag only had seven stars, standing for the seven original states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas, who all joined before February 1, 1861), it still was quite indistinguishable from the Union's’ flag. They even had resembling names: Stars and Bars for the Confederates, and Stars and Stripes for the Union. Consequently. This understandably caused a lot of confusion on the battlefields. On May 1st, 1863, a new design took its place. This flag is also known as the Battle Flag, White Man’s Flag, or the Southern Cross and was made to stop this confusion. The whitish flag was definitely not regarded as similar to the Union’s, but it was a lot like a white flag of surrender, especially on windless days (see figure 2). The red and blue cross in the corner was spiked with thirteen white stars, symbolizing the new Confederate states (Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina) as a whole. To avoid the confusion of having a flag so much like the universal surrendering flag, the Confederates added a broad, red war, on the other side of the flag (see figure 3). This happened on March 4th, 1865, and since then when it hung limply, it could not be mistaken for a white flag. This third flag would also be the last flag of the Confederacy, since they surrendered about a month later.

Yet the most known, and the one that is still used today, is the Confederate Navy Jack (see figure 4). This was used from 1863 and onward. Some sources claim this flag has existed since the 1810s, but the first time it was officially spotted was as a Confederate Navy Jack during the Civil War. The Navy Jack is very similar to the Southern Cross, except that it’s enlarged and without the white. Despite never officially being recognized as one of the national flags, this is the flag people commonly refer to as “The” Confederate Flag. Its nickname is the Rebel Flag.

Figure 1: First Flag. (National Park Service, n.d)

Figure 2: Second Flag. (National Park Service, n.d)

13

1.5: Celebration

In the name of the Confederate soldiers, ceremonies were established. Once a year, entire towns came together to watch a display of speeches and to celebrate their old soldiers. These ceremonies promoted unity between the social classes and were above all: fun. People looked forward to the ceremony each year, which resulted in people really loving the Confederate soldiers and, consequently, the Confederacy. It kept the past alive, but in a fun way, without remembering all the bloodshed and horror. The Confederacy did not stand for pro-slavery and harsh fighting anymore, but it had become a celebration and a fun thing to join. Many Confederate organizations also organized what Southerners referred to as “Camp”. They were like ceremonies, but grander and there was only one per state. Confederate soldiers from the entire state came together to have fun with their old comrades and to be admired. They walked in a parade, though not in military formations, while the rest of the state crowded around them, cheering. The younger people loved the ceremonies because they could learn and honor the old soldiers, while the soldiers liked the attention. There was often a stage where the veterans would tell their stories and the public would cry and cheer and yell as much as they could.

There were also always young, pretty, unmarried girls in white dresses, often daughters of the soldiers, who would parade on stage and give the old warriors kisses. Very popular were Winnie Davis, pictured in figure 5, and Elizabeth Lumpkin. Girls would talk about their admiration of the veterans and the Confederacy. They would become the ideal image of a Southern girl: Christian, pretty, supporting, lovely to the men and above all: obedient. This did not only excite the public, but it also had a deeper meaning. These girls were a reminder of the women in the Civil War: they had been at home, taking care of the children, sewing uniforms and cooking food for the soldiers to eat. This is what the Confederacy was all about: the picture-perfect home, consisting of many kids, an obedient but strong wife and a tough man as the head of this Christian family. Viewing the pretty, typically Southern ladies on the stage reminded soldiers that they were still loved, not despite their defeat, but because of the bravery. It affirmed their manhood and made all viewers feel extremely good.

Figure 3: Third Flag. (National Park Service, n.d)

Figure 4: Rebel Flag. (National Park Service, n.d)

Figure 5: Winnie Davis, Confederate Daughter.

(United Daughters of the Confederacy, n.d)

14

The camps had a special message. Not only did it remind everyone of their common past and thus eased social tensions between the classes, it also made clear that the great South was still the best. It was a fun occasion on the surface, but an almost brainwashing festival for those who kept returning, which was almost everyone who had the money (it was free for veterans though). It was a solid reminder of the power that the Confederacy still held and the way the old South was still part of everyone's life. Where as Southerners had completely convinced themselves that the Civil War had not been about slavery, the Camp gave them confirmation. After all, where were all the African-American people? Did they not want to celebrate the greatness of the state they lived in (Foster, 1987)?

In short, these rituals of ceremonies and Camp helped to fade the scars of defeat while reassuring the veterans of their honor, and it also helped to keep the South conservative and as less changing as possible. Which is, funny enough, almost the same as what most soldiers died for in the first place.

1.6: The Lost Cause As stated in the previous paragraphs, the South had a funny way of dealing with their defeat. They collectively seemed to forget the ending of the war, meaning the surrender and defeat, and only commemorated the romantic aspects of it. They did not honor history, but selective history (Levin, n.d). The battles the Confederate Army had won, the unity of the War, the ideology, etc. Those were the things that mattered. In fact, as the years went by, more and more people almost ignored the defeat. The name that has been giving to this ideology is The Lost Cause, symbolizing the pointlessness of it. It’s defined as ‘an ideological movement that describes the Confederate cause as a heroic one against great odds despite its defeat’. After a few decades, this was, and some say this still is, the way Southerners dealt with all Civil War issues, mainly the pain of defeat and the search of identity, instead of following the general opinion.

This “forgetting” happened unplanned, since at first this was the only way people could deal with their losses, but later it was done deliberately. In 1902, historian William E. Dodd even published a paper about how great the South had acted in the Civil War, and he tried to forbid other historians to contradict him. After this, historical books almost always only featured the victories of the Confederacy. These books were often sources of inspiration to schoolbooks, and so it happened that many schoolchildren were taught that the narrative of the Lost Cause was the only true narrative. What also helped modify the memory of the Civil War and the Confederacy, were the traditions of annual festivals and celebrations. Even long after the veterans had died, a festive memory remained. This established the ideology of the Lost Cause even more, since the Southern states are still thriving, despite the Civil War (Gallagher, 2000).

15

1.7: Non-war related culture Although obviously the Civil War is extremely important when reviewing the context of Civil War monuments, it’s also important to know the other aspects of the Southern American culture.

Around the time most statues were placed, namely the period 1900-1920, there were many things in the process of changing. The small towns of many Americans in the South were expanding because of the growing industrialism and the new immigrants. Although this decreased the cultural conformism, it also left people feeling insecure; not sure where they were standing. Ever since the existence of the United States, small towns were left on their own, for traveling in the desert-like area was incredibly difficult. The so-called agrarian myth, formulated by Founding Father Thomas Jefferson, suggests that the reason for the closeness of a town or community is the fact that since the beginning of the United States, they had to rely on only themselves. Losing this idealized, sentimental and fundamental aspect of life can be considered confusing and thus gives a reason to hang on more closely to old rituals. It also ensued to either one of the following three utopias: emotional rejection of this new way of life with the differently behaving immigrants, restored faith in a bigger government who would have the power to make all this good again, or an increased national and cultural cohesion in the entire United States, according to Marchen van Rossem. The economic crisis had above all made the social contrasts clear (Van Rossem, 2012).

The inhabitants of rural America had a tough time in the last few years of the nineteenth century. The increasing need to export your goods elsewhere in the world combined with the extensive need to mechanize, made it necessary for farmers to make sizable investments. This would not have been a problem, if it weren’t for the decreasing prices and increasing interest. The general blame went to the immigrants and the rich factory owners. In 1891 the first populist movement, consisting of angry farmers and named the People’s Party, went to a convention in Omaha. Later they brought forth a presidential candidate, who only got 3% of the votes in general, but was strongly preferred by the Southern Midwestern states. Another populist movement, one more popular and with a broader reach, came up around 1900: the Progressive Movement. This party wanted to re-educate everyone, including the immigrants, into civil Americans and included the process of Americanization in their programs. To do this, like the People’s Party, they felt it was necessary to stop or reduce the immigration, since the immigrants were not American. This desire to homogenize the American population is something to keep in mind when reviewing the generic culture around 1900, as is populism. Mainly, the populist movements strove for improvement of civility and claimed to stand up for the ‘regular man’. Important Progressive was president Theodore Roosevelt, who made quite an impact on America.

Another important thing to keep in mind is the First World War. The Progressives thought this to be the perfect opportunity to improve the unity of the United States as well as the state of the world in general. While factories worked overtime, farmers were able to export more food than usual to Europe, since the need for nourishments was enormous. Overall, the prosperity of the United States improved and a quite significant effect of this is a big wave of revived nationalism: the New Nationalism. Meanwhile, the extensive need to

16

homogenize the American population grew. Radical thoughts that did not align with the Progressive Movement were regarded as hostile and thus Americanization was pursued on a high level (Van Rossem, 2012).

1.8: Combining this with theory When we combine these events with the theories made by Hobsbawm and Anderson, we see that the South really is an imagined community. It has willingly and knowingly changed aspects of history in order to appear more appealing. Especially the Lost Cause was created deliberately, since some parts of the Civil War were celebrated, while others were hidden away. In times of change and loss of identity, traditions were established in order to contribute to the Lost Cause. By having good things associated with the Confederacy, the Confederacy was still a powerful imagined community. These statues were put up in a time where the South was broken by the loss of the Civil War and there was a need to unite and nationalize. Combining this with the social and economical change during the 1900s-1920s, you have exactly the right circumstances to put such controversial statues up, according to Johnson’s theory.

17

Chapter 2: The making of Confederate statues

2.1: Begin small Right after the Civil War, there was chaos. Many soldiers had died on the battlefield and had to be buried. This happened at new cemeteries, made just for the many deceased soldiers. There were some problems though: a lot of families did not have the money to give their loved ones a beautiful grave and had to settle with a piece of wood or a small cross.

The elite was shocked by this, and possibly felt guilty for sending these young boys to war to fight for the preservation of their slaves. They began to collect money in order to honor these fallen soldiers. With the money several organizations, such as the Ladies Memorial Association and the United Daughters of the Confederacy, bought headstones for the nameless dead soldiers and even managed to get some statues at cemeteries.

These statues did not have a lot of purpose. In fact, their only reason to stand there was to offer comfort for the grieving families and to honor the fallen comrades. The works often showed a faceless soldier putting his gun down or just standing, doing nothing heroic. They were rather small and not at all eye-catching, but they weren’t meant to be. Between 1865 and 1880, 70 per cent of Confederate monuments were inside, or guarding the entrance of, cemeteries, and over 90 per cent of them had a funeral aspect (Foster, 1987).

These honoring graveyards were often the pride of the town and visitors were usually brought to it by the locals, even though these were sad statues, not triumphing ones. The cemeteries were almost never empty and towns were remarkably proud of them.

2.2: Why not? As shown in the previous chapter, the attitude of Southerners changed a lot over the years. During the time of ceremonies and camps, people started thinking about how they could make sure no one would ever forget the bravery of the veterans. The festivals only happened once a year and were not permanent and many people were illiterate, so books also did not help for everyone. At one time, maybe one person took a look at the sad, tiny statues, hidden at graveyards. These statues may have corresponded with the way the fallen ‘heroes’ were looked at years ago, but now the grieving was over and it was time for celebration.

So why should the veterans only have small funeral statues? Some Confederate soldiers were still alive after the war and the deceased ones shouldn’t be pitied. They had died fighting like a hero and deserved to be treated accordingly. Funds were raised again and this time bigger statues were built. They radiated power, heroism and importance, and were placed accordingly at towns’ squares and busy streets. It featured soldiers on horses, on foot, all standing mighty and looking powerful. Another difference was that, although there were still many displays of nameless, random soldiers, there also appeared statues showing

18

off commanders. Many Robert E. Lee’s could be seen on horse, as a reminder that the South had had some strong leaders.

After a few years, the statues became a self-fulfilling prophecy. Some may have had concern about all the praise, since technically seen the Confederates had not won the war, but none did voice it. Soldiers looked at the figure and thought: “I can’t have been on the wrong side in the Civil War, I’m a good Christian person and they made a statue in my memorial!” They thought it to be an affirmation of their greatness, a confirmation that they did good. Those who could not read and had not lived during the war, saw the display and thought that the fighters of the War must have been good people. After all, these people were honored and put on display in every town and city!

Taking Johnson’s theory in account, this explains why statues had such big part in the Civil War. After all, they are forces of authority, and authority was badly needed during this Progressive Age (Johnson, 1994). It also established the imagined community of the South.

2.3: LMA So now we know why the statues were put up, but who did this? One of the most important organization that had the responsibility to place the figures was the Ladies’ Memorial Association, or LMA for short. The LMA has it origins immediately after the Civil War in Virginia, where the war had taken many lives. Founder Mary Dunbar Williams called in a group of women to help all these fallen soldiers have a proper, honoring burial. The group decided to decorate the graves a bit more and made an advertisement in newspapers in 1865 to ask for financial aid. People started donating so much money, that in 1866 a whole cemetery was opened, called the Stonewall Cemetery. This inspired many Southern women to also start organizations like the LMA to keep honoring the graves of the young men. Soon, there were over seventy groups. Some of them had different names, such as the Soldiers’ Aid Society of Columbus, but all were part of or somehow connected by the LMA. All of them were referred to as ‘Ladies Aid Organizations’ (Foster, 1987).

The gatherings of so many women was a rather peculiar thing, since it was one of the first times women began to organize on their own. They were helped by the fact that they already had had to take care of themselves during the Civil War and knew how to handle responsibilities like that. Above all, their husbands and fathers agreed that this was a great thing to do, since it had such a great cause (honoring them) and encouraged them to keep going. Many women thought of the organization as a good family tradition, something that went on from mother to daughter, like with Laura Rutherford and, president of the LMA, Mildred Rutherford. Being part of the LMA became an honoring and trendy thing in Southern society. Those are some of the reasons explaining why the LMA became so popular. Quite quickly they had enough money to do bigger things than just cleaning graves and making headstones.

19

In Kentucky this was done by building the first Confederate monument in 1869; the LMA was no longer just supplying headstones. More followed, and in Kentucky there would soon be over sixty of them. In Montgomery, with the generous amount of $10,000, the LMA had ordered sculptor A. Doyle to make a giant statue symbolizing Johnny Reb, a veteran, in 1898 (Foster, 1987). This huge statue still stands there to this day, as seen in figure 6.

Mary Ann Williams, the corresponding secretary of the LMA in Columbus, wrote a letter in 1866, telling women to come together on April 26 to shower soldiers’ graves with flowers. This letter was in all newspapers and ever since then, Memorial Day was inaugurated. This was how big the influence of the LMA was at the time. Later, the day became known as Confederate Memorial Day, or Confederate Heroes Day in Texas, or Confederate Decoration Day in Tennessee, which is still a thing today. Some states changed the date a little bit, such as Alabama celebrating it on the fourth Monday in April, and Mississippi on the last Monday. In Texas, it happens on January 19 each year. It’s an unofficial holiday in some Southern states, but in South Carolina, Mississippi and Alabama, it’s an actual state holiday.

These are just a few examples of the work the LMA did after the Civil War that has left its marks. Not only did keeping the Confederacy alive become something of a tradition, it also became and stayed trendy. Thus, by doing so, the LMA has contributed to the imagined community of the Confederacy.

2.4 United Daughters of the Confederacy Another organization that fundamentally helped the Confederate culture to remain big, is the “United Daughters of the Confederacy”. The UDC for short was founded by C. Goodlett and L. Raines in 1894. It originated similarly as the LMA, it’s the outgrowth of several associations that helped soldiers throughout the Southern states during the Civil War. After that, they took care of the deceased, just like the LMA. The name UDC was inspired by general John B. Gordon, who introduced Winnie Davis as a daughter of the Confederacy during one of the camps, described paragraph 1.5. The Daughters’ main goals were to protect, preserve and mark the, according to the Confederates, important historic places. They did so by erecting many statues, just like the LMA had done, and had as much, or maybe even more, influence in boards and councils as the LMA. The Daughters lobbied frequently and were so good at this, that in 1914, the actual president, president Woodrow Wilson, unveiled a monument in Arlington. But their attention did not just go to statues.

The UDC also thought it to be important to keep the Southern narrative alive and make sure that the South was represented well in historic texts, and this may very well be the most

Figure 6:The first Confederate Monument made by the LMA. (Bidgood, 2017)

20

important thing they’ve done. The Daughters were extremely fixated on controlling the content of books, newspapers and publicized letters about the Confederacy, and made the general narrative either skip over slavery or include happy slaves. Essentially, the Daughters changed the historical context and even history. This is what had a tremendous influence on the general memory of the Civil War and the Confederacy as a whole. They wanted to keep children proud of their Southern heritage, while remembering the soldiers. There were also possible racial motives.

A pamphlet appeared, called “A measuring Rod to text books and reference books, to Schools, Colleges and Libraries”, written by pro-slavery historian Mildred Rutherford. It announced a textbook review committee in 1919, featuring no less than 5 Confederate generals and many more prominent Southerners (see figure 7). They instructed libraries and schools to dispose of “anti-South” books. This meant these educational institutions had to reject books stating that the South had fought to hold on to her slaves, that glorified Abraham Lincoln or that did not explicitly regard the Southern states as the best. Phrased differently: the UDC made sure no unbiased, un-propagandist book was available for the public. Consequently, only pro-Southern books were used to teach children about the Civil War, and in an almost brainwashing way the Confederacy was once again established.

For example, in the textbook “History of Georgia”, a paragraph stated:

“White and Negro children played together and many of the Massus’ children were mothered by a colored ‘mammy’. Often whites and blacks were thus even closer than friends.

The master often had a barbecue or a picnic for his slaves. Then they had a great frolic. Even while working in the cotton fields they sang songs. The beat of the music and the richness of their voiced made work seem light.”

This book was published in 1954, long after the Civil War, and it was a textbook in many elementary schools. The textbook committee did not just approve this book, but praised it for their narrative. Hundreds of young influenceable children were taught that these statements were the actual facts, which contributed to the Lost Cause ideology and the imagined community of the Confederacy (Vox, 2017).

But the UDC did not just stop there. They also founded the Children of the Confederacy, a sister-organization for children under 18 who were born in the original Confederate states. This allowed kids to become even more involved in the Confederacy. In playful games and quizzes, children were taught to respond to the “Confederate Catechism” (pictured in figure 8), a sort of book, not much unlike the Catholic Catechism, in untrue ways. This Catechism featured questions like: “Did the South fight for slavery?”. The correct answer

Figure 7: A short piece of “A measuring Rod to text books and reference books, to Schools, Colleges and Libraries”. (Vox,

2017)

21

was: “No, for had Lincoln not sent armies to the South, that country would have done no fighting at all”. Answering the questions by quoting not just answers like that, but also long paragraphs of Confederate rhetoric, could lead to big rewards for the children. This, just like the earlier celebrations and camps, linked fun and the Confederacy. The young ones were also taught songs and marched for fun. This kept not only the Confederacy alive, but also made the Civil War personal.

Perhaps that’s the most obvious proof that the UDC really was an imagined community. Resembling a religion, they deliberately made propaganda. You could become part of it and it would become part of your identity and it uses formalization, ritualization and references to the, fake, past to achieve their goals. This is what Hobsbawm states as typical behavior of imagined communities.

After World War One, the UDC was not as powerful as it used to be, but the damage was done. Thousands of kids grew up learning they were the Confederacy, and that could not be undone.

Figure 8: A Confederate Catechism. (Young, 2013).

22

Chapter 3: The Leading Culture of America right now / end 2017

3.1: The USA since the Civil War; a General Overview Since the existence of the LMA and UDC, many things changed. To understand the context of everything that has happened in 2016, 2017 and 2018, it’s important to know what exactly happened in the Southern states and USA as a whole.

During the 1920s, America experienced great financial growth. This period was also dubbed the ‘roaring twenties’, and was filled with much improvement for many families; white women achieved the right to vote. During the period of Great Migration (1910-1920), many African Americans moved to industrial cities to find jobs. Here, they faced segregation and discrimination, but in the Northern states it was better than in the Southern ones. Overall, the situation for African Americans got better, but it was still no good. For immigrants, the 1920s were a though time, since the Immigration Act of 1924 lessened the immigration flow and blocked Asian immigrants completely. (Thomson, n.d)

Then, in 1929, the financial bubble burst. What is now known as the Wall Street Crash of 1929 caused the Great Depression, a terrible financial time in America. Personal income, tax income and prices dropped, while the unemployment rate went as high as 25%. It took years to get over this. President Franklin. D. Roosevelt created the New Deal in 1933 as a possible solution, which incidentally improved the situation of some African Americans. Still, many faced discrimination (Wikipedia, 2018).

World War II had a lot of impact on the USA, considering that they did not fight until later in the war. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, changed America’s neutral attitude and they fought against the Japanese, Germans and Italians until the end in 1945. “They” here includes African Americans, who were allowed to fight in the army. Still, even in the army, fighting against Nazism and thus white supremacy, there was heavy segregation. There are even reports of African American soldiers being forced to give up their seats to Nazi prisoners. During this time, the American cities were relatively peaceful, only a few race riots occurred. After World War II, not one African American received a Medal of Honor. Those who fought against the Nazis had to wait 50 years to be rewarded, but this war did mark the ending of segregation in the US military. President Harry S. Truman issued an executive order in 1948 to end it (Brunner, n.d).

During the beginning of the Cold War, many Southern states followed the Jim Crow laws, which were both state and local laws that enforced the lesser position of African Americans. These laws mandated segregation and the US Supreme Court’s “separate but equal” attitude did nothing to stop these laws from being practiced (Archives.today, n.d). After World War II, many changed their opinion about these laws and the Civil Rights Movements gained followers (see paragraph 3.3). However, the Southern states passed other restrictions in a counter-action.

In 1954 the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka case won the right to stop segregation in schools and in 1957 a first Federal Civil Rights Act was passed. In the following years many

23

Civil Rights spokesmen and women emerged, such as Rosa Parks, Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, resulting in protests and boycotts. The last two were assassinated, which also lead to protests and riots.

During the sixties, poverty declined and the final Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed, calling an end to legal discrimination and segregation, and just four years later Shirley Chisholm, a black woman, was elected to Congress. Before 1965, some Southern states were able to stop people from voting, resulting in African Americans being unable to vote. This became illegal after the Voting Rights Act was passed, ensuing in a more democratic society. In 1967 in the Loving v. Virginia case, interracial marriage was declared legal (Brunner, n.d) and in 1968, after King had been assassinated, the Fair Housing Act was signed, meaning there were now equal opportunities for all races, believes and nationalities regarding housing (History, 2018).

All this progress eventually lead to democratic senator Barack Lee Obama being elected as the 44th president of the United States in 2008. Obama was the first black president ever in the United States.

3.2: A recap of 2016 and 2017 2016 is commonly known as a “horror” year among millennials and it shaped society as it is today. Although the title ‘horror year’ began to stick when many cultural icons, such as David Bowie and Carrie Fisher, passed away, it also had tremendous political changes that changed the world. Those will be discussed in this paragraph.

In Europe, after months of discussing and arguing about leaving the European Union, the Parliament of England decided to let the public decide on the future of Britain. Both sides campaigned for their respective sides and as the days went day, the suspense increased. Would the public vote to Remain or would Brexit win? On the 23th of June, 2016, the answer came: Great-Britain would be leaving the European Union. Although it had always been a serious option, many were nonetheless surprised by the outcome. This meant an end to 40 years of cooperation between the European countries. The message was clear: people prioritized their own countries and interests above international partnership and alliances. (Furlong, 2018). This increasing individualism and nationalism is something to keep in mind.

One common news item in both 2016 and 2017 was terrorism. The first one, and most deadly one, appeared on June 12th. The headlines announced a horrible mass-shooting in gay-club Pulse in Orlando, USA, barely a year after the legalization of gay-marriage. Then, only sixteen days later, a bombing in Atäturk Airport, Istanbul, Turkey, killing 40 people. IS, the biggest terror-organization since Al-Qaeda, is the suspected wrong-doer, but no proof has yet appeared. Not even a month later, on July 14th, another terrorist attack. This time in Nice, France, where a truck ran into a large group of people, killing at least 84. The list of shootings and attacks could go on and on, but gradually it has almost become a normal thing to wake up to these acts of terror. The feeling of fear plays a big role in people's lives, even if they’re not always visible. It’s the sort of thing that can create unity or diversity in one’s society. The us-versus-them way of thinking can be used as a powerful political tool.

24

Another reoccurring news item that’s extremely important for this paper, are the police shootings. The consequent thing about these is that it features an, often black, person, who is shot dead by a police officer. According to the Guardian, black men are nine times more likely to be shot by the police than white men, and in 2015 79 unarmed African Americans were killed (Guardian, 2016). Names like Tamir Rice, who was twelve years old, or Michael Brown, who was eighteen, sparked tremendous frustration in the black community, especially since these kids were unarmed but killed, while the white Dylann Roof, who murdered nine people out of racial motives, was arrested “smoothly”, despite him having actual weapons on him (Sanchez, 2016). The seemingly different treatment that to some appears to be depending on race only, was what prompted the Black Lives Matter organization to take action. This will be discussed later in chapter 4, but is extremely important to understand the context of the removal of the Confederate statues.

Figure 9: People killed by police by age, 2015. . (Guardian, n.d).

3.3 Donald J. Trump

Something that took place in 2016 and deserves its own paragraph, is the American president Donald J. Trump. The presidential election kept the entire nation busy, for the two candidates were extremely different. When it became clear in July that the republican candidate would be Trump and the democrats had chosen Hillary Clinton over democratic socialist Bernie Sanders, the election became remarkable. Clinton seemed to follow every

25

rule; she had the most suitable background and experience, superior fundraising and better connections (Beckwith, 2017). Meanwhile, candidate Trump had public setback after setback, including the now famous “P*ssy Grab Scandal” (a video which features Trump joking about sexual assault), rumors about his second campaign manager Paul Manafort being paid by pro-Russia parties and finally being accused of actual sexual assault. Trump was also accused of being racist, xenophobic, misogynistic and homophobic, but his increasing group of supporters declared him honest for saying the things that offended others and loved him more because of it, or they denied him being all those things. The term “witch-hunt” was and still is widely used to describe this process.

Taking her superior background in account, it was no surprise that all the polls declared Clinton as a solid winner. Her experience as an attorney, senator and First Lady made her seem like the logical option (Beckwith, 2017). However, Trump's followers made themselves known, determined to keep fighting, by having signs in their yards or wearing the now famous “MAGA”hat. By appealing to white middle-class workers and using previously mentioned us-versus-them way of thinking, he seemed to gain support. Some of those waved the Confederate flag at his rallies, or made “TRUMP”Confederate flags, as seen in figure 10. Trump did not seem to mind: he denied having made comments in 2015 about how the rebel flag should be removed (Mahaskey, 2016).

Trump is part of a newly introduced political ideology: populism. Although it was already around in the 1900s, many think of it as new, since it experienced a drop in popularity for several years until now. Populism is fairly important in today’s age when researching the removal of Confederate statues, since the counter-populism groups are the ones removing them. The ideology can stand for many things, but in western countries it often includes anti-immigration policies. Popular populists mix authoritarianism and anti-immigration nativism to appeal to the ‘forgotten’ middle class. Although populism can appear on both sides, the most successful ones are generally found in right parties. This also applies to Trump. A populist leader segregates the country in two different sorts of people: the ‘pure’ ones and the corrupt, horrible elite, according to Cas Mudde, who wrote the book “Populism: a Very Short Introduction” about it. (Molloy, 2016). Trump does all these things: he claims to “drain the swamp” and made it very clear that he’s not exactly pro-diversity. His controversial statements made him quite popular in the Southern states (see figure 11).

Figure 10: Confederate Flag with Trump’s endorsement. (Mahaskey, 2016)

26

After Trump’s win on November 8th, 2016, the ‘resistance’ rose. Many kinds of protests and marches emerged only days after. Many people who voted for Hillary Clinton felt robbed, since she had won the popular vote with 48% over 45,9%. However, because of the Electoral College, a system where every state has a few electors who vote on the next president, Trump was the fair winner with 302 votes over Hillary’s 232 votes.

Ever since his campaign, Trump has made “racially sensitive” comments, varying from calling Mexicans rapists to calling African nations “shithole countries”. He also referred to Colin Kaepernick, a football player who first kneeled during the national anthem to protest police brutality, as a “son of a bitch” (Graham, B), and when speaking about the neo-Nazi’s who murdered a girl, he said: “Some very fine people on both sides” (Gray, 2017). This, combined with the frustration of their preferred president not winning, sparked numerous protests and marches. 53 occurred in 2016, 32 of them before Trump won the election, 86 in 2017 and in 2018 26, the most recent one taking place on July 17th (Wikipedia, 2018). Using social media and more specifically hashtags, the ‘resistance’ has become quite fashionable. Although most hashtags, such as #metoo or #takeaknee, don’t immediately point to Donald Trump, it’s almost always simultaneously with a ‘Trump-scandal’. #metoo refers to the sexual abuse and misconduct, something that multiple women accuse Trump of, while #takeaknee stands for protesting the police brutality and how Trump does not seem to do anything to stop this. Trump’s followers don’t seem to mind and often agree with his policies, but it still angers the groups who will play important roles in the removal of the statues.

The general feeling among protesters of Confederate statues is that since this presidency the country has become more racially divided. “In the months since Trump took office, there has been a heightened sense of entitlement and disrespect of people of other races,” said Monica Hargrove, an African American minister from Alexandria, Virginia (Heim, Chason & Guskin, 2017). Trump himself is, as can be predicted, against removing the statues. He calls it: “So foolish!” in a series of tweets on August 23th, 2017 (see figure 12).

Figure 11: Election results per state. (New York Times, 2017)

27

Figure 12: Trump’s tweets. (Trump, 2017)

In conclusion, although the popular culture has changed a lot since the 1900s, there still is injustice and people who try to fight it. Right now, Donald Trump, using “Make America Great Again” as his slogan, has provoked talk about racism, the United States, and how those two sometimes seem combined. Was America ever great? That’s the question that keeps the nation busy.

28

Chapter 4

4.1: Brief History of Civil Rights Movements Something that has to be taken into account when observing organizations that want the Confederate Statues gone today, is the rise of Civil Rights Movements and the public opinion on them. In this paragraph a brief history of those movements will be reviewed.

Even long before the American Revolution, abolitionists were already working to end racial inequality. After the Union had won the Civil War and the Confederacy had thus lost, slavery was abolished legally, using the Thirteenth Amendment. Yet people found ways to keep the ‘blacks’ and the ‘whites’ apart, by segregation and severe discrimination (International Slavery Museum, n.d), as described in previous paragraphs. As a response to this dissatisfaction, multiple organizations emerged.

The NAACP (National Association of Advancement of Colored People) was one of the first considerable movements that took things to court. In the important Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka- case, segregation in public education was overruled. Other actions, such as the well-known Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955, were often done so without the use of violence. Prominent speakers, such as Martin Luther King and Rosa Park, advocated for this to continue (KhanAcademy, n.d). However, others thought this was too soft. Malcolm Little, better known as Malcolm X, was extremely vital to the rise of the “Black Power” movement called “Black Panther”. The Black Panther movement is vital for understanding the recent developments about Black Lives Matter. BP was founded in 1966 and had a few typical characteristics, such as the raised fist, as can be seen in figure 13. This gesture, made by clenching your fist, was first used to accompany the slogan of the Black Panther Party: “Power to the People, Black Power to Black People”. The sentiment of this, combined with the iconic pictures of the BP-member striking this pose, made the move stay relevant. Where King wanted peace, Malcolm X insisted on black pride and self-defense against whites. This was met with opposition of and protests from white supremacists, who often don’t refer to themselves as such (Ball, 2013).

After King’s assassination in 1968 public support for the Civil Rights Movement rose and finally African Americans were heard. After dismantling Jim Crow laws and passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964, racism is constitutionally not present anymore in the United States.

Figure 13: Black Panther uses the raised fist. (Ball, 2013)

29

4.2: Black Lives Matter When you’ve read paragraph 3.2, you might get an idea why a Civil Rights Movement has emerged once again. The existence of Black Lives Matter, or BLM for short, began when Trayvon Martin was killed by George Zimmerman. There was evident proof of this murder and still Zimmerman was acquitted on 13th of July 2013 (Edwards, 2016). To express the anger and absolute shock about the murder, three women, Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors and Opal Tometi created a hashtag on social media: #BlackLivesMatter. The unfair treatment did not stop at the trial of Zimmerman, according to BLM and a growing group of Americans. Here are just a few examples of deaths that took place after the murder of Martin that angered the movement:

- Terence Crutcher

Killed on September 16th 2016, by white Betty Shelby, who insulted and then shot him. Crutcher had his hands held up, which is proven by surveillance footage. A judge acquitted Shelby of first-degree manslaughter in 2017.

- Philando Castile

Killed on July 6th, 2016. Castile was pulled over for a broken tail light and told officer Yanez that he had a gun with a permit. There is footage of Yanez shooting Castile twice in the heart, while his girlfriend and child were sitting in the same car. This one made the news for days, since his daughter was just four years old, and Castile had been doing charity work for years while being a teacher. Besides the broken light, he had done nothing illegal at the time. Yanez was found not guilty of manslaughter in 2017.

- Tony Robinson

Killed on March 6th, 2015, by the Caucasian police officer Mat Kenny. Kenny followed Robinson to an apartment and entered it when he heard commotion. He claims this is when the 19-year-old attacked him physically, which Kenny believes justifies him shooting Robinson in the head and torso seven times. Two months later it was declared that Kenny would face no charges. This evoked many protests.

- Tamir Rice

Killed on November 22th, 2014. This is considered one of the most “iconic” and shocking cases. Caucasian officer in training Timothy Loehmann shot 12-year-old Rice without a warning after Rice was spotted with a BB gun. A grand jury refused to bring charges in December 2015, but, although the city did not admit any misconduct, they did fire Loehmann later.

30

- Laquan McDonald

Killed on October 20th, 2014. A dashcam video shows Jason van Dyke shooting the fleeing 17-year-old sixteen times in the back as soon as the officer left his vehicle. After the teen fell down, Van Dyke continued shooting. Eventually he was charged with murder and the trial is still going on today. Yet there have been complaints about him being able to avoid punishment so far, since Van Dyke paid bail and is able to move around freely.

- Michael Brown Jr.

Killed on August 9th, 2014. The unarmed black man was shot six times by officer Darren Wilson, after a short struggle. The Justice Department decided not to bring criminal charges on Wilson, saying they believed it to be self-defense. This was also the death that prompted the Black Live Matters into a national movement.

- Eric Garner

Killed on July 17th, 2014. Daniel Pantaleo and a couple of other unnamed officers wrestled Garner to the ground and placed him in a chokehold after allegedly selling untaxed cigarettes. Garner was unarmed and there is footage of him asking for help and reportedly saying: “I can’t breathe.”, while the policemen either laugh at his expense or ignore him completely. A medical examiner declared the death a homicide, but a jury refused to punish Pantaleo, who was the officer that had put Garner in the deadly chokehold. Many protests erupted and demonstrators wore t-shirts and signs that read “I can’t breathe” (pictured in figure 14). Garner’s death also got more attention when NBA stars also wore shirts with the same phrase during their warm-us, as pictured in figure 15.

All these deaths demonstrate precisely what BLM is protesting against: the, in their opinion, polluted justice system that keeps favoring the white killers over the black victims.

According to their website, BLM is there for all black lives; transgender and cisgender, queer and straight, female and male. Many civil rights organizations and black power institutions have men in charge and this makes the recognition for trans and queer people and women little, according to BLM. They also write that the first two years, the organization was there to protest violence in general. When Mike Brown was killed by police officer Dan Warren in 2014, BLM wanted to offer support and Patrisse Cullors organized a Black Lives Matter Ride. Over 600 people joined and when they went home, they brought their memories along. By doing so, they broadened the BLM’s reach. Ever since, the BLM organization has been spreading Black Power over the world and now, there are 40 chapters globally.

Figure 14: BlackLivesMatter using the “We Can’t Breathe”-phrase whilst protesting. (Sanburn, 2014)

31

In a way, Black Lives Matter is an imagined community. They also have a strong ideology and several signs to show this. First of all, they make themselves known by wearing shirts or bearing signs. They organize meetings, marches and protests to come together and show their community to the world. Another sign of an imagined community, described by Hobsbawm, are the literal signs and the use of sentiment. Like the Black Panthers, they use the raised fist and the key slogan “Black Power”. This using-the-past is, as said before, a way of uniting your imagined community. By using gestures and traditions like this, the community gets more established. Besides, by using the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter on various apps, such as Twitter, BLM made themselves even more known. The branding online made it seem like BLM is an establishment everywhere, which improves the popularity. Furthermore, there’s plenty of cultural significance that matters while discussing the movement. The feeling of fighting for your rights gives a person’s life meaning and violation of such rights happened plenty of times, even during this time.

4.3: The Statues First of all, it’s vital to be certain that it’s the BLM organization that is arguing for the removal of the controversial statues. Several videos and pictures have appeared of people covering or even attacking Confederate statues (see figure 16). One of the most famous one nowadays is the Robert E. Lee statue in Emancipation Park, Charlottesville. It’s right there where the far-right white-nationalists, after having a torchlight parade the day before on the University of Virginia by the statue of Thomas Jefferson, gathered to rally. They were opposed by anti-fascist groups and Black Lives Matter activists. After a violent burst of attacks, the right-wing groups left and later Heather Heyer, who was protesting the far-right rally, was killed by James Fields Jr., who drove his car into the crowd (Heim, 2017). The rally never actually started, because the police was forced to end it prematurely since the violence was getting out of hand, but fact is that statues played a big part in this rally. This Robert E. Lee statue was shrouded by a city council, but on September 12, 2017, 100 protesters wearing sings as “Black Lives Matter” and “Thomas Jefferson is racist and a rapist” decided to take down the Thomas Jefferson statue as well. Chanting “No Trump, no KKK, no racist UVA”, they took on the statue. In Houston, Texas, hundreds of protesters who represented BLM and some socialist organizations gathered in Sam Houston Park to show their unhappiness with the Confederate statue. BLM organizer Ashton P. Wood was there too and said the following to a reporter: “This is symbolic of Donald Trump and what he

Figure 15: NBA-players protesting while wearing “I Can’t Breathe”-shirts. (Sports, 2014)

32

represents. This is institutional racism in a city park and it must come to an end.” He also mentions that BLM wants the statue removed because of what it stands for; both the history and the principle (Kirk, 2017). Out of practices like this we can safely make up that indeed BLM wants to get rid of the statues.

But why now? According to Sarah Beetham, who has a Ph.D. in American Art History and has a specialization in American art, particularly Civil War monuments, the church-shooting by previously mentioned Dylann Roof is key. Since that act of violence, statues are being graffitied with links with recently performed injustices done to African Americans, Beetham says (Lerer, 2015). Since the raising of the statues there have been people wanting to alter or remove it, but with not much response. Some accusations of promoting white supremacy are even from the1960s, but dr. Beetham is certain that the shooting in June 2015 reignited the debate. In the same year, Governor McCrory signed a bill ‘prohibiting communities from removing objects of remembrance commemorating an event, person or military service that is part of North Carolina's history without permission from the General Assembly’. Ever since protests in favor of doing such things have begun (Beetham, n.d).

The diversity about the Confederate statues is huge. In a statewide poll conducted by the Washington Post and George Mason University’s Schar School of Policy and Government, 57% of the registered Virginia voters, who of course live in an old-Confederate state, said they wanted to keep them while 31% wanted to remove them. 46% thought displaying the statues was offensive to African Americans, while 41% disagreed. Here the party affiliation is visible: 89% of Republicans and 58% of Independents is in favor of keeping the statues, while the majority of Democrats (53%) think they should be removed. Race also plays a part: African American Virginian habitants find the statues more offensive than their white neighbors.

The mayor of New Orleans, Louisiana, Mitch Landrieu, wrote an article about what happened after he decided to remove four Confederate statues: of Robert E. Lee, Jefferson Davis, Pierre Gustave Toutant Beauregard and one honoring the White League, which was a white paramilitary organization. In the Guardian he writes: “When I put out a bid for contractors to take the statues down, a few responded. But they were immediately attacked on social media, got threatening calls at work and at home, and were, in general, harassed. Afraid, most naturally backed away. One contractor stayed with us – but then his car was firebombed. From that moment on, I couldn’t find anyone willing to take the statues down.” (Landrieu, 2018). This shows that indeed there are still people very passionate about keeping

Figure 16: People holding BlackLivesMatter-sings while covering up a monument. (Morton, 2017)

33

the statues, but the other side is also very persistent. One protester, a Ph.D. student in history Maya Little, even threw a mixture of her own blood and paint over a statue to “add historical context”. She said in in interview with the Daily Tar Heel that she thought the statues were against history because of the fact that white supremacy was built on violence and discrimination towards African Americans and the statue didn’t tell that story (Blake, 2018).

34

Conclusion

To take another look at the subquestions:

- What was the popular culture around the time these statues were put up?

The Civil War had just been lost by the Confederacy. Mothers grieved, fathers had died. The Southern states had suffered great losses. To deal with this, the myth of the Lost Cause was invented. The South, being an imagined community, still had a very strong bond. That aside, many things were changing. Farmers weren’t sure of their jobs and during the Progressive Era (1900-1920) everything had to be perfect.

- Who put the statues up?

In the first few years after the Civil War, statues were merely there for commemorating. They were cheap and small, because of the lack of resources and money and were often only visible in graveyards. Then organizations such as the United Daughters of the Confederacy and the Ladies Memorial Association emerged, collecting money and fundraising in order to honor the fallen soldiers with better resources. This is when the statues also started to appear in city parks and busy neighborhoods. The cause for this that it gives is often that the statues are a big part of Southern culture and heritage and that the described soldiers died for their country, meaning the Confederacy.

- What is the popular culture around the time these statues were put down?

The second half of the 2010s has changed rather fast. The rise of individualism and populism disrupts normal political processes and has great impact on people’s lives. England has left the European Union and America vouched to put itself first. Well, new president Trump promised to put America first, but many Americans disagree with his policies and protest against it. His racially controversial statements divide the country. Also controversial in the United States: gun related violence. Something that particularly that gets protested against is the shootings of black people by police officers.

- Who is trying to put the statues down?

The Black Lives Matter organization defends those people who lost their lives in (police-related) gun violence. They dislike the Confederate Statues because it fails to include the slavery aspect of the Confederacy. Some say the statues also represent Trump and that’s who they are also fighting against, others name white supremacy as the main cause of irritation of the statues.

35

Why did people decide to put the Confederate statues up and why do people want to take them down now?

Right after the Civil War, the Southern states were lost. They had not won the war and were collectively filled with grief. Giving the dead a proper funeral is a typical, good-mannered Southern thing to do, so they did; by having statues made to help the cemeteries look more honoring. After a few years the believers of the myth of the Lost Cause, meaning the ideology of thinking the South was never wrong and generally invincible, increased, resulting in a bigger pride and thus more nationalistic feelings. This meant prettier, bigger and more expensive statues who had to not just stand in distinct cemeteries, but were now supposed to flourish townsquares. Why not celebrate something you’re proud of? Several organizations consisting of mostly white women, who had grown used to taking care of things in the Civil War due to the lack of men, such as the LMA and UDC, took things into their own hands and made sure the Confederacy became part of everyone’s life again. They did not only do this by statues, but also by festivals, newspapers and textbooks. After some years, the South had no other option but to think that the Confederacy was the best, because there were no more resources to prove otherwise.

Skip a few centuries and it’s 2016. Race relations have changed a lot and there is an African-American president. However, there is still injustice, such as George Zimmerman walking free after admitting to have killed Trayvon Martin in 2012, or Dylann Roof murdering nine African American churchgoers out of racial motives in 2015. Meanwhile, there are many things changing. The rise of populism and the desire to become independent of other countries and alliances disrupts normal political behavior in many countries, such as the US and the UK. The 2016 American election is followed closely by citizens all over the world and it has a rather unexpected ending: Donald J. Trump beats former First Lady Hillary Clinton and becomes president of the United States. His remarks about women, immigrants, trade deals and race had made him quite controversial and the fact that Trump won by having less votes than Hillary doesn't make things better for him. Liberals think Trump should not be president, partly because of the sexism, party because of the racism, and hold protests, while the right has rallies to show their satisfaction and happiness with their chosen president. Protests and counter-protests emerge all over the country, but that does not change the fact that Trump is president.

Something that also gets protested at a lot in the last few years is police brutality. This is when a police officer harms another person. In the most well-known and thus most protested cases, the victim was African American, sometimes unarmed, while the police officer was white. To show sympathy to the families of the deceased, the Black Lives Matter movement takes shape. This movement started online, due to the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter becoming trendy on social media. Because of social media and mobile phones in general, news seems to hit much closer to home, and thus the liveliness of this happening was and is big. Nowadays, BLM is mainly focused on protesting police brutality, but is also interested in Confederate statues. Or better said; removing them. Some followers of BLM or other, often socialist, organizations, dislike the statues because they represent Trump and his ideals. Trump had said that he thinks the statues should stay and many

36

Republicans support this, so this is a valid reason. Interesting here is the influence of the Confederacy: white people in old Confederate states seem to like the monuments more than African-Americans. Others think the statues promote white supremacy, since they were built to honor proslavery fighters, and think it’s not appropriate to have these in townsquares anymore. Often it’s a combination of those two.

In conclusion, the Confederate statues were put up with two goals. To honor the soldiers that had died fighting for the Confederacy and to reestablish the South’s greatness. The masterminds of this plan were all women, who organized themselves because they were not yet allowed to be political. This imagined community knew how to keep themselves together. Nowadays right-winged populists have included themselves in the government and not everyone is satisfied with this. Also an imagined community, but of a whole different kind: Black Lives Matter. They wants the statues gone, because they believe it represents both the far-right party and Trump, and white supremacy, and the statues symbolize those hated things.

37

Discussion

I’m rather satisfied with the outcome of this paper. I only used literature, so by a do-over of this research, the results should be the same. My hypothesis was proven right, but there is much more to the putting up of statues that I ever could have imagined. I’m glad I decided to research everything, including things I thought I knew without prove, because sometimes I was proven wrong and that’s why, hopefully, there is no wrong information in this paper.

After researching so many things, I have come to conclude that I find some things more interesting than others. Follow-up studies could include:

- The way LMA and UDC used their resources - The camps and festivals held by the Confederates after the Civil War - The “brainwashing” aspect of the LMA and UDC, or brainwashing in general - The Civil War in general - The change of statues (from anonymous to well known figures) - The use of social media in activism - How feminism relates to Black Lives Matter - How Trump is changing the world - Effects of populism

Something that I could have done differently is my planning. I never made one, since I don’t stick to them anyways and I knew I could finish this paper on time without it. To be fair, this did turn out to be true, yet although I did not have any major time-issues and finished this about two weeks before the deadline, I do wish I’d have started sooner. I spend the first couple of months doing basically nothing for the paper and I was forced to do almost everything after (and during) the summer break. With a little more planning I could have finished this even sooner and have a little rest and more time for all the other schoolwork of my final year, but I’m okay with the final outcome. I also would have liked to include a short interview with either the BLM movement or the UDC, but I’m afraid I emailed them too late and they have not yet replied to my questions. The next time I have to make a paper, I will make sure to contact the persons I’d like to question earlier. Other than those two things, I’m happy to say I thought the process of making this paper went rather smoothly, mainly because I often enjoyed spending time making it. This made it easy for me to spend a few hours a day on the paper.

38

Epilogue

Well, here we are. The end of this never-ending paper. First of all, I’m going to write down my opinion about the events, because I’ve been waiting to do that the entire paper.

In my opinion, the whole collective memory of the Confederacy is extremely funny. They had lost the War, but were afraid for their ego and honor, so they made an excuse to still be called heroes. I don’t understand the logic at all, which is why I find it hilarious, yet also a bit dangerous. All (original) sources point to one thing: the Confederacy was there to keep the slaves as property and protect the system of white supremacy. That’s it. Sure, the soldiers of the South had fought bravely and all that, but in my opinion that shouldn’t matter. If you begin defending people and their motives by saying how loyal they were to their country, you can’t stop at just Confederates. If you follow that logic, you’ll have to include actual nazi’s to these heroes and that’s just dead-wrong. I think including Southern veterans in the ‘heroes of America’ completely dismisses the actual heroes, like Harriet Tubman, who put her life at risk by freeing numerous slaves, Abraham Lincoln and many more people who actually fought for, as I see it, morally right values. Also, I don’t understand why everyone seems to be forgetting the fact that the Confederacy did not fight for America, but against it. It wanted to become another country, that was almost the entire point of the war. This makes me feel weird, because I fail to understand how people can overlook this crucial fact.

Also, honoring someone who was fond of slavery seems like an odd message to send to a society, especially as, if the Southern slave-owners would be alive today, they would be sentenced to maximum jail-time. Also, since the United States has become much more diverse nowadays, it looks rather peculiar to promote or celebrate discrimination like that. To me, it just seems like a strange part of history to be proud of, even if people died bravely because of it. I understand the reference isn’t completely waterproof, but once again: you don’t see today’s Germany honoring their fallen Nazi soldiers. It just does not seem like the history you would want to commemorate happily.

This is why I’m really glad organizations like Black Lives Matter are taking action to put those statues away, and I’m even happier to see that cities are actually listening. I personally think it just sends a better message and makes everyone generally more comfortable.

Something that also shocked me was the frequency of the police killings. I’ve seen messages come by a couple of times, but after doing some research I stumbled upon so many names I barely included a fraction of them in this paper. I was almost weirded out by the reluctantcy of the United States Court about punishing the wrongdoers. I also found out that the gun Zimmerman used to shoot Martin to his death was actually sold by Zimmerman for over $250.000,-. The fact that this man was actually making profit of and having advantages from the murder astonished me. This not-so-fun-fact was just one of the many things that left me speechless. I made the mistake of watching the video that shows Philando Castile’s death. It only shows the car, but you can hear the Castile screaming how he has no intention of hurting the officers, then gunshots and people screaming. The thing that really struck me

39

was Castile’s daughter getting pulled out of the car to get her safe, by another officer. I did not know how to react to this, I felt completely at loss for words.

That video, and all the pictures that are featured in this paper, truly show the pain and devastation that these people experience. I understand why they want the statues gone, because they manifest and celebrate times where racism and discrimination was even worse than today. I also understand the other side of the story. I get why you would want to keep this statue, after all you might have lost family and the statue represents that. I understand the nationalism and pride behind it. However, I do believe that it can be interpreted as a sign of discrimination and that that should solely be reason enough to get rid of it, especially in these times where racism is denied so much in the United States.

Although it was hard work, and I did not enjoy it all the time, I did have fun making this paper. I learned a lot about things I thought I already knew plenty about and realized things about my academic self I was not aware of before, such as that I did have the concentration to spend three whole hours non-stop focused on a school-assignment, and that I actually rather enjoy doing literature-research. This is definitely something I’ll take with me when searching for a study. Something I thought I’d find boring is Chapter 2, but in the end that’s one of the things I enjoyed most. I thought the brainwashing aspect was incredibly interesting to research and that’s also something I’ll be taking with me. Something I also didn’t suspect was how easy English for me was. Let me explain: I chose to do this paper in English when I realized all my books would be in English. After I’d read the first two, it became clear to me that translating words like ‘imagined community’ and ‘Lost Cause’ would be extremely difficult to translate and throwing that many English terms around in a Dutch paper didn’t feel right to me, so English it was. Although it wasn’t that difficult to write in English, I did find it somewhat challenging to stick to British or American English and I had to google many synonyms to stop myself from repeating every word a thousand times. All in all, I’m proud of all the work I put in and the outcome is definitely more than I expected (particularly the amount of pages).

To look back on my introduction, I do think there should be a solution that pleases both sides. Personally, I think the Confederate statues should replaced, like BLM advocates for, but with statues that also represent historically great figures from the South. For example, replace Robert E. Lee with Harper Lee, the writer of famous novel “How to kill a mockingbird”, born in Alabama. Albert Sidney Johnston with Helen Keller, the well-known deaf and blind journalist, who happens to be daughter of a Confederate soldier. John B. Gordon with civil rights activist Martin Luther King, who was like the soldier from Atlanta (Biography, n.d). All of these can be great solutions, but I do think the anti-removal groups won’t be satisfied with it.

I’d like to thank my mentor once more, because the collaboration went pretty much perfect, I could ask for help and get things that were actually useful, without him doing all the work. I also must say I did rather enjoy the great WhatsApp conversations (figure 17).

Figure 17: box!

40

Sources

Books:

- Anderson, B. (2006). Imagined Communities. (3e druk). Londen: Verso.

- Edwards, S.B. (2017). Black Lives Matter. (1e druk). Minnesota: Abdo Publishing.

- Foster, G. M. (1987). Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause, and the

Emergence of the New South 1865 to 1913. New York: Oxford University Press

- Gallagher, G.W. (2000) The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War History.

Indianapolis: Indiana University Press

- Hendriks, I.G. (2013). Zuidoost-Azië actueel. (4e druk). Amersfoort:

ThiemeMeulenhoff

- Hobsbawm, E. & Ranger, T. (2017). The Invention of Tradition (27e druk). Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

- Johnson, N. (1994). Cast in stone: monuments, geography, and nationalism. (2e

druk). London: University Press.

- Nora, P. (1989). Between memory and history: les lieux de memoire. California:

University of California Press.

- van Rossem, M. (2012). De Verenigde Staten in de twintigste eeuw. Amsterdam:

Nieuw Amsterdam Uitgevers

Websites

- AAREG. (n.d). The American Civil War: a brief summary! Reviewed on 2 September

2018, retrieved from: https://aaregistry.org/story/the-american-civil-war-a-brief-

summary/

- Archives.today, (n.d). Jim Crow History Resources. Reviewed on 10-09-18, retrieved

from: https://archive.is/20021004051643/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/

history.htm

- Ball, J. (2013, 25 September). The “Terrorist” Label And The Criminalization of

Revolutionary Black Movements in The USA. Reviewed on 26 September 2018,

retrieved from: https://imixwhatilike.org/2013/10/15/dhoruba2/

41

- Beckwith, D. (2017, 2 February). United States Presidential Election of 2016.

Reviewed on 16 September 2018, retrieved from: https://www.britannica.com/

topic/United-States-presidential-election-of-2016#ref336739

- Beetham, S. (n.d). Silent Sam is down. How will communities respond? Reviewed on 9

October 2018, retrieved from: https://sarahbeetham.com/author/sbeetham/

- Biography (n.d). Southern (U.S.). Reviewed on 9 October 2018, retrieved from:

https://www.biography.com/people/groups/Southerners

- Black Lives Matter. (n.d). Herstory. Reviewed on 26 September 2018, retrieved from:

https://blacklivesmatter.com/about/herstory/

- Blacke, S. (2018, 5 January). We talked to Maya Little about protesting Silent Sam and

her arrest Monday. Reviewed on 9 October 2018, retrieved from:

http://www.dailytarheel.com/article/2018/05/maya-little-quanda-0501

- Brunner, B. (n.d) Timeline: Key Moments in Black History. Reviewed on 7 October

2018, retrieved from: https://www.infoplease.com/spot/timeline-key-moments-

black-history

- Chia, J. (2016, 24 May). George Zimmerman 'sells Trayvon Martin gun for $250,000 to

a mother planning to give it to her son for his birthday' and claims he auctioned it off

because he's sick of Hillary Clinton's anti-gun rhetoric. Reviewed on 3 October 2018,

retrieved from: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3607507/George-

Zimmerman-sells-gun-250-0000-mother-planning-pistol-son-birthday-claims-

launched-auction-s-sick-HIllary-Clinton-s-anti-gun-rhetoric.html

- Furlong, C. (2018, 22 May). Brexit: the pros and cons of leaving the EU. Reviewed on

16 September 2018, retrieved from: http://www.theweek.co.uk/brexit-0

- GOT Sports. (2014, 9 December). Derrick Rose, LeBron James, Kyrie Irving Wear “I

Can’t Breathe” Shirts in Protest of Eric Garner Decision. Reviewed on 3 October 2018,

retrieved from: http://gossiponthis.com/2014/12/09/james-rose-irving-cant-breathe-

shirts-protest-eric-garner/

- Graham, B. (2017, 23 September). Donald Trump blasts NFL anthem protesters: ‘Get

that son of a bitch off the field’. Reviewed on 21 September 2018, retrieved from:

https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/sep/22/donald-trump-nfl-national-

anthem-protests

42

- Gray, R. (2017, 15 August) Trump Defends White Nationalist Protesters: “Some Very

Fine People On Both Sides”. Reviewed on 21 September 2018, retrieved from:

https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/08/trump-defends-white-

nationalist-protesters-some-very-fine-people-on-both-sides/537012/

- Hafner, J. (2018, 30 March). Police killings of black men in the U.S. and what

happened to the officers. Reviewed on 3 October 2018, retrieved from:

https://eu.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2018/03/29/police-killings-black-

men-us-and-what-happened-officers/469467002/

- Heim, J. & Chason, R. & Guskin, E. (2017, 27 October). Talking about race in an era of

Confederate statues, Black Lives Matter. Reviewed on 9 October 2018, retrieved

from: https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/virginia-politics/talking-about-race-in-

an-era-of-Confederate-statues-black-lives-matter/2017/10/27/f2d7ce9c-b904-11e7-

a908-a3470754bbb9_story.html?utm_term=.588972e73b2d

- Heim, J. (2017, 14 August). Recounting a day of rage, hate, violence and death.

Reviewed on 9 October, retrieved from: https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/

2017/local/charlottesville-timeline/?utm_term=.c763afe2c328

- History. (2018, 21 August). Civil Rights Movement Timeline. Reviewed on 24

September 2018, retrieved from: https://www.history.com/topics/civil-rights-

movement/civil-rights-movement-timeline

- International Slavery Museum. (n.d) Abolition of slavery in the Americas. Reviewed

on 24 September 2018, retrieved from: http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/ism/

slavery/americas/abolition_americas.aspx

- Kersten, E. (2016, 28 December). Jaaroverzicht 2016. Reviewed on 10 September

2017, retrieved from: https://www.ad.nl/home/jaaroverzicht-2016~ab9a99a9/

- KhanAcademy. (n.d) Introduction to Civil Rights Movements. Reviewed on 24

September, retrieved from: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-

history/postwarera/civil-rights-movement/a/introduction-to-the-civil-rights-

movement

- Kirk, B. (2017, 19 August). Black Lives Matter Protesters Demand Confederate Statue

Removal From Sam Houston Park. Reviewed on 9 October 2018, retrieved from:

https://patch.com/texas/houston/hundreds-take-sam-houston-park-demand-

Confederate-statues-removal&prev=search

43

- Landrieu, M. (2018, 14 March). What I learned from my fight to remove Confederate

monuments. Reviewed on 9 October 2018, retrieved from:

https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/commentisfree/2018/mar/24/new-orleans-

mayor-louisiana-Confederate-statues-removal-never-stop-confronting-racial-injustice

- Lerer, M. (2015). Confederate Monuments and the Black Lives Matter Movement:

Interview with Sarah Beetham, Ph.D. Reviewed on 9 October 2018, retrieved from:

https://publicartdialogue.org/newsletter/fall-2015/Confederate-monuments-and-

black-lives-matter-movement

- Levin, K.M. (n.d). Confederacy Preservation. Reviewed on 4 September, retrieved

from: http://cwmemory.com/http:/www.amazon.com/Dixies-Daughters-United-

Confederacy-Preservation/dp/0813028124/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid

=1211539860&sr=8-3

- Mahaskey, M. (2016, 16 July). How the Rebel Flag Rose Again—and Is Helping Trump.

Reviewed on 19 September 2018, retrieved from: https://www.politico.com/

magazine/story/2016/06/2016-donald-trump-South-Confederate-flag-racism-

charleston-shooting-213954

- Molloy, D. (2016, 6 March). What is populism, and what does the term mean?

Reviewed on 21 September 2018, retrieved from: https://www.bbc.com/news/

world-43301423

- Morton, V. (2017, 12 September). Black Lives Matter protesters deface Jefferson’s

statue at UVa. in Charlottesville. Reviewed on 9 October 2018, retrieved from:

https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2017/sep/12/black-lives-matter-

protesters-defaced-jefferson-st/

- National Park Service. (n.d). Symbols of battle: Civil War flags. Reviewed on 2

September 2018, retrieved from: https://artsandculture.google.com/partner/

symbols-of-battle-civil-war-flags

- New York Times. (2016, 6 August). Results. Reviewed on 21 September 2018,

retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/elections/results/president

- Sanburn, J. (2014, 11 December). New York Cop says He Didn’t Put Eric Garner in a

Chokehold. Reviewed on 3 October 2018, retrieved from: http://time.com/

3630505/eric-garner-daniel-pantaleo-chokehold/

44

- Sanchez, R. (2016, 16 December). Who is Dylann Roof? Reviewed on 16 September

2018, retrieved from: https://edition.cnn.com/2015/06/19/us/charleston-church-

shooting-suspect/index.html

- Stichting 4 en 5 May. (n.d) Amsterdam, Nationaal Monument op de Dam. Reviewed

on 2 October 2018, retrieved from: https://www.4en5May.nl/oorlogsmonumenten/

monumenten_zoeken/oorlogsmonument/1621/amsterdam%2C-nationaal-

monument-op-de-dam

- Swaine, J., & Laughland, O, & Lartey, J, & McCarthy, C. (2015, 31 December). Young

black men killed by US police at highest rate in year of 1,134 deaths. Reviewed on 16

September 2018, retrieved from: https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/

dec/31/the-counted-police-killings-2015-young-black-men

- The Guardian. (n.d). People killed by the police in the US. Reviewed on 16 September

2018, retrieved from: https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/ng-interactive/2015/

jun/01/the-counted-police-killings-us-database

- Thomson, A. (n.d) Significant Historical Events in the US 1950-2013. Reviewed on 12

September 2018, retrieved from: https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/significant-

historical-events-in-the-us-from-1950-2013

- Trump, D.J. (2017, 17 August). Tweets. Reviewed on 21 September, retrieved from:

https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump

- United Daughters of the Confederacy (n.d) History of the UDC. Reviewed on 5

September 2018, retrieved from: https://www.hqudc.org/history-of-the-united-

daughters-of-the-Confederacy/

- United States Government. (n.d). Presidential Election Process. Reviewed on 21

September 2018, retrieved from: https://www.usa.gov/election

- VOX. (2017, 16 December). How Southern socialites rewrote Civil War history.

Reviewed on 9 September 2018, retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/

watch?v=dOkFXPblLpU

- Wikipedia (2018). The Great Depression. Reviewed on 16 September 2018, retrieved

from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression

- Wikipedia. (2018, 7 August). Timeline of protests against Donald Trump. Reviewed on

21 September 2018, retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_

of_protests_against_Donald_Trump

45

- Young, P. (2013, 6 January). How was the Confederate Catechism used? Reviewed on

9 September 2018, retrieved from: https://civilwartalk.com/threads/how-was-the-

Confederate-catechism-used.112941/

46

Logbook

Datum Uren Uren (cumulatief)

Wat gedaan

? 3 3 Nagedacht over onderwerp pws, standbeelden gezocht.

23/03/18 1 4 Overleg met begeleider Daan Schuijt, hoofdvraag verzonnen.

09/04/18 1,5 6,5 Deelvragen verzonnen. Plan van aanpak en opzet gemaakt.

10/04/18 0,5 7 Plan van aanpak verder.

12/04/18 0,5 7,5 Plan van aanpak af, ingeleverd in Somtoday en gemaild naar begeleider.

16/04/18 0,5 8 Artikelen zoeken op Google Scholar.

01/05/18 0,5 8,5 Artikelen en boeken zoeken op Google Scholar. Begeleider gemaild.

25/05/18 0,5 9 Voorwoord en inhoudsopgave geschreven.

01/07/18 1,5 10,5 Lezen “The Invention of Tradition”, aantekeningen maken

28/07/18 2 12,5 Lezen “The Invention of Tradition”, aantekeningen maken

11/08/18 2 14,5 Lezen “The Invention of Tradition, aantekeningen maken

12/08/18 1,5 16 “The Invention of Tradition” uitgelezen

13/08/18 1 17 Beginnen aan “Ghosts of the Confederacy”

47

25/08/18 2 19 Beginnen theoretisch kader

26/08/18 3 22 “Imagined Communities” gelezen en afmaken theoretisch kader

27/08/18 0,5 22,5 “Imagined Communities” uitgelezen

28/08/18 2 24,5 Verder lezen aan “Ghosts of the Confederacy”

01/09/18 2 26,5 “Ghosts of the Confederacy” uitgelezen

02/09/18 4,5 31 Maken Chapter 1 en begin Chapter 2

03/09/18 0,5 31,5 Writing the epilogue

04/09/18 1,5 33 Verder aan Chapter 2

05/09/18 1,5 34,5 Verder aan Chapter 1

09/09/18 2,5 37 Verder aan Chapter 2

09/09/18 3 40 Filmpjes kijken en interpreteren over UDC en LMA, verder aan Chapter 2

10/09/18 1 41 Verder aan Chapter 3, spellingscheck

12/09/18 1 42 Verder aan Chapter 3

13/09/18 1 43 Profielwerkstuk- gesprek met meneer Schuijt

16/09/18 2 45 Verder aan Chapter 3, bronnen in APA-norm

18/09/18 1 46 Verder aan Chapter 3, voorblad gemaakt

19/09/18 0,5 46,5 Verder aan Chapter 3

21/09/18 3 49,5 Verder aan Chapter 3

24/09/18 0,5 50 Verder aan Chapter 4

48

26/09/18 3 53 Verder aan Chapter 4

27/09/18 0,5 53,5 Profielwerkstuk-gesprek

2/10//18 1 54,5 Cast in Stone gelezen

3/10/18 4 58,5 Verder aan Theory

4/10/18 1 59,5 VS in de 20e eeuw gelezen

5/10/18 1,5 61 VS in de 20e eeuw gelezen

7/10/18 4,5 65,5 Herlezen & aanpassingen gedaan

8/10/18 8 73,5 Chapter 4 afgemaakt, Discussion en Epilogue afgemaakt

16/10/18 2 75,5 Opmaak gemaakt

17/10/18 2 77,5 Opmaak gemaakt