Conducting and Reading Research Conducting and Reading Research in Health and Human Performancein Health and Human Performance

Chapter 1Chapter 1

The Nature and Purpose of The Nature and Purpose of ResearchResearch

Consumer of Research InformationConsumer of Research Information

Advil– “Nothing is proven more effective or longer lasting than

Advil.”

Oral-B Toothbrush– “You can buy a fancier toothbrush. But you can’t buy a

more effective one.”

Duracell Battery– “No other battery lasts longer.”

Revlon Skin Cream– “In just one week, fine dry lines and wrinkles are reduced

by over 38%.”

Essence of a ProfessionEssence of a Profession

The pursuit of knowledge and its dissemination is a unique characteristic of a “profession”

Research is the basis for advancing the body of knowledge of a profession

What is your vision of a What is your vision of a researcher????????researcher????????

Research Defined Research Defined

Not really a universal definition – A structured way of answering questions, a

systematic method of inquiry– Research is nothing more or less than finding

answers to a question in a logical, orderly, and systematic fashion

Two key components– Systematic in nature– Focuses on a question of interest

Sources of KnowledgeSources of Knowledge

Myth or tradition

Authority

Observation or personal experience

Logic or deductive reasoning

Scientific inquiry– Objective– Data Gathering– Controlled Nature

Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning

Uses logic that moves from general to specific

Model for review of literature . . . enables the researcher to organize and synthesize available information, theorize about the problem, and deduce hypotheses to be tested by the research

Categorical Syllogism– Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are mammals.

Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.

Inductive ReasoningInductive Reasoning

Uses logic that moves from the specific to general

Fundamental principle of scientific method . . . based upon observations of a small group, generalizations are made to a larger population

Categorical Syllogism– Every rabbit that has been observed has lungs.

Therefore, every rabbit has lungs

Imperfect vs. Perfect Induction

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

A way of solving problems and acquiring knowledge that involves both deductive and inductive reasoning in a systematic approach to obtaining information

Stages of the Scientific MethodStages of the Scientific Method

Question Identified

Hypothesis Formed

Research Plan

Data Collected

Results Analyzed

Conclusions

New Questions Arise

Stages of the Research ProcessStages of the Research Process

Question defined - this involves selecting the question and precisely defining the problem

Hypothesis stated – literature reviewed to provide rationale for study and basis for anticipated solution or predicted outcome

Research plan developed – methodology is developed which will permit examination of stated problem and to test hypothesis

Data are collected – the research plan is executed and the researcher will test, measure, or observe the phenomena in question in order to gather data

Results analyzed – appropriate statistical analysis is applied to the collected data in order to base a decision to confirm or refute the hypotheses (new questions often arise)

Conclusions – the findings of the research are interpreted based upon the data analysis, thus providing answer to original question

Research and TheoryResearch and Theory

Through scientific inquiry (research), facts are discovered– The interpretation or explanation of these facts is the

basis for theory, which is a belief about how things relate to each other

– Theory is not law, but could become law through additional research and experimentation

– A theory establishes a cause and effect relationship between variables for the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena (Best & Kahn, 1998)

Theory in ResearchTheory in Research

Ultimate goal of science is the formation of theory based upon the synthesis and interpretation of facts and information

HHP research has often neglected theory

Greater attention should be given to the theoretical basis of research in HHP and the explanation of facts and relationships

Types of ResearchTypes of Research

Several research classifications have been proposed– Basic vs. Applied– Quantitative vs. Qualitative– Experimental vs. Non-experimental

None of the various research categories are mutually exclusive

Basic ResearchBasic Research

Purpose is to discover new or fundamental knowledge

Practical application is NOT a goal

Usually in highly controlled laboratory settings

Applied ResearchApplied Research

Purpose is to find answers to practical problems

Practical in nature . . . most common in HHP

Inferences or generalizations are made to the intended population

Action Research– similar to applied research except in a local setting– very pragmatic and less controlled– no interest in generalizing findings

Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research

Positivist paradigm

Traditional model of research

Hypothesis directed

Based on empirical evidence

Measured with numbers

Analyzed statistically

Seeking generalizations

Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research

Naturalistic paradigm

Descriptive in nature

Reliance on qualitative, non-numerical data

More subjective approach

Variety of methodologies– in depth interviews– direct observation

Situational specific … little generalizability

Experimental ResearchExperimental Research

The purpose of experimental research is to investigate cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating certain variables to determine their effect on another variable – attempts to establish causality– manipulation of independent variable– control of extraneous variables is vital – often uses a control group– often uses randomization procedures– major limitation is often unnatural environment, thus

limiting generalizability

Non-Experimental ResearchNon-Experimental Research

Tends to observe, analyze, and describe what exists rather than manipulating the variable under study

Lack of control is often cited as a limitation

Various types common in HHP– Causal-comparative– Descriptive– Correlational– Historical

Casual-Comparative ResearchCasual-Comparative Research

Seeks to investigate cause-and-effect relationships similar to experimental research

However, researcher cannot manipulate the independent variable because it is something the subject already has– Attribute or organismic variable

Gender

Ethnicity

Medical condition

Also called “ex post facto” research

Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research

Seeks to describe specific phenomena or characteristics of a particular group of subjects– Answers the question “what is”– No manipulation of an independent variable

Wide range of methodologies– Surveys– Direct measurement– Observation– Interviews

Correlational ResearchCorrelational Research

Seeks to determine whether, and to what extent, a relationship exists between two or more variables– No manipulation of an independent variable– May be descriptive or predictive in nature

Cannot establish causality

Historical ResearchHistorical Research

Seeks to explore events and information from the past in order to provide a better understanding of the present with implications for the future– Answers the question “what was”

Limited to synthesis and interpretation of data that already exists– Primary sources– Secondary sources