C++

Presentation

BY : ASHNA

Index:• Chapter – 1 Computer Overview

• Chapter – 2 Working With Operating System

• Chapter – 3 Data Representation

• Chapter – 4 Microprocessor Basics: Input, Output and

Memory Devices

• Chapter – 5 General OOP Concepts

Chapter – 1 Computer Overview

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Computers are Everywhere

1.3 What is a Computer?

1.4 Functioning of a Computer

1.5 The Generations of Modern Computer

1.6 Types of Computers

Index

1.1 Introduction!Computers have made great inroads in our everyday life and thinking. They

are put to use for all sorts of applications ranging from complex

calculations in the field of frontline research, engineering simulations down

to teaching, printing books and recreational games. Any task that can be

carried out systematically, can be performed by a computer. It is essential

for every education person today to know about a computer, its strength, its

weaknesses and its internal structure.

1.2 Computers are EverywhereIt’s almost impossible to imagine that we could live without computers.They are not just those devices you have sitting on your desk, they arefound in everyday items that we use without thinking about it. Today,almost anything can be done using computers. You can order a pizza usingyour computer, your parents can work from home with the help oftheir computer, you can watch movies and videos through the computer,you can listen to music through your computer, you can read novels andbooks through e-books, you can play games, you can also contact peopleand talk to them through your computer etc. But these are just but a fewthings that can be done with the help of computers. Computers are alsofound in many of the machines we use all the time. You might findcomputer chips controlling your washing machine, your oven andother household appliances. But they also control cars, trains, trucks andother vehicles. They can even be worn! When you look, you’ll find themalmost everywhere.

1.3 What is a Computer?A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the

ability to store, retrieve, and process data. You probably already know that you can

use a computer to type documents, send email, play games, and browse the Web.

You can also use it to edit or create spreadsheets, presentations, and even videos.

1.4 Functioning of a ComputerA typical digital computer consists of:

a) A central processor unit (CPU)

b) A memory

c) Input/output (1/0) ports

The memory serves as a place to store Instructions, the coded pieces of information that direct the activities of the CPU, and Data, the coded pieces of information that are processed by the CPU. A group

of logically related instructions stored in memory is referred to as a Program. The CPU "reads" each instruction from memory in a logically determined sequence, and uses it to initiate processing actions.

If the program sequence is coherent and logical, processing the program will produce intelligible and useful results. The memory is also used to store the data to be manipulated, as well as the instructions

that direct that manipulation The program must be organized such that the CPU does not read a non-instruction word when it expects to see an instruction. The CPU can rapidly access any data stored in

memory; but often the memory is not large enough to store the entire data bank required for a particular application. The problem can be resolved by providing the computer with one or more Input

Ports. The CPU can address these ports and input the data contained there. The addition of input ports enables the computer to receive information from external equipment (such as a paper tape reader

or floppy disk) at high rates of speed and in large volumes. A computer also requires one or more Output Ports that permit the CPU to communicate the result of its processing to the outside world. The

output may go to a display, for use by a human operator, to a peripheral device that produces "hardcopy," such as a line-printer, to a peripheral storage device, such as a floppy disk unit, or the output may

constitute process control signals that direct the operations of another system, such as an automated assembly line. Like input ports, output ports are addressable. The input and output ports together

permit the processor to communicate with the outside world. The CPU unifies the system. It controls the functions performed by the other components. The CPU must be able to fetch instructions from

memory, decode their binary contents and execute them. It must also be able to reference memory and 1/0 ports as necessary in the execution of instructions. In addition, the CPU should be able to

recognize and respond to certain external control signals, such as INTERRUPT and WAIT requests. The functional units within a CPU that enable it to perform these functions are described below.

1.5 The Generations of a Modern Computer

1.5.1 First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes:

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up

entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of

heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level

programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time.

Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts. The UNIVAC

and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial

computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

1.5.2 Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor was invented in1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuumtube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage,it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for inputand printouts for output. Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic,or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languageswere also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the firstcomputers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic coretechnology. The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

1.5.3 Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were

miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of

computers. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers

through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many

different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time

became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

1.5.4 Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a

single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel

4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory

to input/output controls—on a single chip. In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in

1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many

areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors. As these small computers became more

powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet.

Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

1.5.5 Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial

Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some

applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is

helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically

change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond

to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

1.6 Types of ComputersSr. No. Type Specifications

1 PC (Personal Computer) It is a single user computer system having moderately

powerful microprocessor

2 WorkStation It is also a single user computer system which is similar to

personal computer but have more powerful microprocessor.

3 Mini Computer It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of

supporting hundreds of users simultaneously.

4 Main Frame It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of

supporting hundreds of users simultaneously. Software

technology is different from minicomputer.

5 Supercomputer It is an extremely fast computer which can execute

hundreds of millions of instructions per second.

Chapter 2 – Working with Operating System

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Introduction to Windows 7 Operating System

2.3 Directory Structure of Windows OS

2.4 Explore your Computer

2.5 Starting and Closing Programs

2.6 Managing Files and Folders

2.7 Creating Shortcuts

2.8 Shutting Down The Computer

2.9 Types of Software

2.10 The Need of Operating System

2.11 Types of Services

2.12 Operating System’s Functions

2.13 Processor Management

2.14 Storage Management

2.15 Information Management

2.16 Some Commonly used Operating Systems

Index:

2.1 Introduction! An operating system (OS) is the software component of acomputer system that is responsible for the management andcoordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of thecomputer. The OS acts as a host for application programs thatare run on the machine. As a host, one of the purposes of an OSis to handle the details of the operation of the hardware. Thisrelieves application programs from having to manage thesedetails and makes it easier to write applications. Almost allcomputers use an OS of some type.

2.2 Introduction to Windows 7 Operating System

Windows 7 (codenamed Vienna and also known as Blackcomb[8]) is a personalcomputer operating system developed by Microsoft. It is a part of Windows NT familyof operating systems. Windows 7 was released to manufacturing on July 22,2009,[9] and became generally available on October 22, 2009,[10] less than three yearsafter the release of its predecessor, Windows Vista. Windows7's server counterpart, Windows Server 2008 R2, was released at the same time.

Windows 7 was primarily intended to be an incremental upgrade to the operatingsystem, intending to address Windows Vista's critical reception (such as performanceimprovements), while maintaining hardware and software compatibility. Windows 7continued improvements on Windows Aero (the user interface introduced in WindowsVista) with the addition of a redesigned taskbar that allows applications to be "pinned"to it, and new window management features. Other new features were added to theoperating system, including libraries, the new file sharing system Home Group, andsupport for multi-touch input. A new "Action Center" interface was also added toprovide an overview of system security and maintenance information, and tweaks weremade to the User Account Control system to make it less intrusive. Windows 7 alsoshipped with updated versions of several stock applications, including Internet Explorer8, Windows Media Player, and Windows Media Center.

2.3 Directory Structure of Windows OSDirectory Description

C: Root of the system drive

\PerfLogs Windows performance logs

\Program Files

32-bit architecture: 32-bit user

applications

64-bit architecture: 64-bit user

applications

\Program Files (x86)

32-bit architecture: absent

64-bit architecture: 32-bit user

applications

\ProgramData Global application data

\Users User folders

\Public Shared user folders

\Windows System files

\Boot Boot loader files

\System32 System kernel and drivers

2.4 Explore your ComputerTo begin exploring your computer, perform the following: Click Start to bring up the Window shown below, and then click

My Computer. After clicking MY Computer, you will see the Window below. Exploring Your Computer This is what is

shown on my desktop computer, yours may be different. We all have a C‐drive and a CD or DVD drive but I have 4 hard

drives. Page 2 of 7 Exploring Your Computer In the figure below, this is what I’d see if I double‐clicked my C‐drive. It

contains both Folders and Files. In this figure, I’ve double‐clicked my D‐drive. I’m looking for a folder labeled Pictures.

Page 3 of 7 Exploring Your Computer In the figure below, I’ve double‐clicked a folder on my D‐drive. Here I’m viewing

the contents of the Africa folder in the Filmstrip view. You can see that I’ve renamed my files to Africa 01, Africa 02, etc.

Page 4 of 7 Exploring Your Computer Here’s a folder where the files still have the original Filenames as created by the

camera. This view is the Thumbnail View. Page 5 of 7 Exploring Your Computer Here, is the same folder as shown

above with Windows XP configured to show File Extensions. Notice that all extensions are JPG except for a video

which is an AVI. Without file extensions showing, it’s difficult to tell what type of file you’re looking at. If you were to

double‐click a file, technically its icon, any one of a number of things can happen depending on your computer’s setup

and the software you have installed. This is a subject for another time. FILENAMES When an image is saved, the

camera assigns it a filename so you can identify it later. Filenames have two parts, an 8‐character filename and a

3‐characterextension. Think of them as first and last names. The name is unique to each file, and the extension,

separated from the name by a period, identifies the file’s format. For example, a JPG extension means it’s a JPEG

image file, and TIF means it’s a TIFF image file. File Names and Extensions can be in lower or upper case Extensions

play another important role. An extension can be associated with a program on your system so if you double‐click a file,

the associated program opens. Also, when you use an application program to open files, it often lists only those files

with extensions that it can open. (You can list other file types Page 6 of 7 Exploring Your Computer Page 7 of 7 but is

usually requires an additional step or two.) If you change the extension, your system may no longer know what to do

with the file. The first four characters in an image file’s name, called free characters, can only be uppercase letters A– Z.

The last four characters form a number between 0001 and 9999 and are called the file number. Canon uses the first

four free characters IMG_ followed by the file number, Nikon uses DSCN, and Sony uses DSC0. Once transferred to

your computer, you can rename images with longer and more descriptive names.

2.5 Starting and Closing Programs-Open an Application via the Desktop

Let’s review a few concepts we covered on a previous lessons.

The Desktop is the image you see when your computer powers on. Located

on your Desktop are Icons and these Icons are graphic images that when

clicked will Open or “start” a program. Placed on your Desktop is an Icon to

a commonly played card game called Solitaire. We will use this application to

practice Opening and Closing an application.

Click on the Solitaire Icon to open the application.

-Close an Application

After clicking on the Solitaire Icon, the application will Open or start. A screen

similar to below will appear. On the screen in the upper right corner is a red X

: . Click on the to close the application. Closing the application will stop

or end the program, putting it away.

2.6 Managing Files and FoldersI know - being organized can be boring, but after you have created countless amounts of files, stored all over your

computer and you have 754 "New Folders, you'll see the point in being organized!

Just like with everything else in your house, it is nice to know where to find things.

Your windows operating system even makes things easy for you by giving you several pre-made folders like "My

Documents" and inside that folder, you will find "My Music", "My Pictures" etc. Of course you can make your own

folders for pictures and music files, too, if you want.

Double-click your "My Documents"

Icon on your desktop

- and you will see all the folders already provided for you.

When you want to save a document or a file you have created, you have several choices to where you want to save it.

Double-click your "My Computer" icon on the desktop

The window will be showing you YOUR drives. The picture above is just an example.

Some computers will have a D: drive under the section of hard disk drives (sometimes called a Data drive) - like in my

example above. If you have one, I suggest to you to use that drive for storage. If you DON'T have a D: drive use the

"My Documents" folder.

If you have a D: drive, you can store you files in folders you create.

WARNING

Your "My Documents" folder is a system folder. You can store files, create new sub folders inside it, and even back-up

(make a copy) of that whole folder to another location, just don't move that folder to any other location on your

computer! If you remove it or move it somewhere else, you'll might mess up your system!

2.7 Creating ShortcutsTo create a shortcut on the desktop to other objects (such

as a folder or computer), follow these steps:

Use My Computer or Windows Explorer to locate the object to

which you want to create a shortcut.

Right-click the object, and then click Create shortcut.

Drag the new shortcut to an open area on the desktop.

2.8 Shutting Down the Computer

Use the Shut down button on the Start menu

To turn off your computer using the Start menu, click

the Start button , and then, in the lower-right corner of the Start

menu, click Shut down.

When you click Shut down, your computer closes all open programs,

along with Windows itself, and then completely turns off your computer

and display. Shutting down doesn't save your work, so you must save

your files first.

Click the arrow next to the Shut down button for more options.

2.9 Types of SoftwareThe term 'software' refers to the set of electronic program instructions or data a computer

processor reads in order to perform a task or operation. In contrast, the term 'hardware' refers to

the physical components that you can see and touch, such as the computer hard drive, mouse,

and keyboard.

Software can be categorized according to what it is designed to accomplish. There are two main

types of software: systems software and application software.

Systems Software

Systems software includes the programs that are dedicated to managing the computer itself,

such as the operating system, file management utilities, and disk operating system (or DOS).

The operating system manages the computer hardware resources in addition to applications and

data. Without systems software installed in our computers we would have to type the instructions

for everything we wanted the computer to do!

Applications Software

Application software, or simply applications, are often called productivity programs or end-

user programs because they enable the user to complete tasks such as creating documents,

spreadsheets, databases, and publications, doing online research, sending email, designing

graphics, running businesses, and even playing games! Application software is specific to the

task it is designed for and can be as simple as a calculator application or as complex as a word

processing application.

2.10 The Need of Operating System

Your computer's operating system (OS) manages all of

the software and hardware on the computer. Most of the

time, there are many different computer programs running

at the same time, and they all need to access your

computer's central processing unit (CPU), memory, and

storage.

2.11 Types of Services1. Program Execution: The purpose of computer system is to allow the users to execute programs in an efficient manner. The operating

system provides an environment where the user can conveniently run these programs. The user does not have to worry about

the memory allocation or de-allocation or any other thing because these things are taken care of by the operating system.

2. I/O Operations: Each program requires an input and after processing the input submitted by user it produces output. This involves the use

of I/O devices. The operating system hides the user from all these details of underlying hardware for the I/O. So the operating system makes

the users convenient to run programs by providing I/O functions. The I/O service cannot be provided by user-level programs and it must be

provided by the operating system.

3. File System Manipulation: While working on the computer, generally a user is required to manipulate various types of files like as opening

a file, saving a file and deleting a file from the storage disk. This is an important task that is also performed by the operating system. Thus

operating system makes it easier for the user programs to accomplish their task by providing the file system manipulation service. This service

is performed by the 'Secondary Storage Management' a part of the operating system.

4. Communication: Operating system performs the communication among various types of processes in the form of shared memory. In

multitasking environment, the processes need to communicate with each other and to exchange their information. These processes are

created under a hierarchical structure where the main process is known as parent process and the sub processes are known as child

processes.

5. Error Detection: Operating system also deals with hardware problems. To avoid hardware problems the operating system constantly

monitors the system for detecting the errors and fixing these errors (if found). The main function of operating system is to detect the errors like

bad sectors on hard disk, memory overflow and errors related to I/O devices. After detecting the errors, operating system takes an appropriate

action for consistent computing.

6. Resource allocation: In the multitasking environment, when multiple jobs are running at a time, it is the responsibility of an operating

system to allocate the required resources (like as CPU, main memory, tape drive or secondary storage etc.) to each process for its better

utilization. For this purpose various types of algorithms are implemented such as process scheduling, CPU scheduling, disk scheduling etc.

7. Accounting: Operating system keeps an account of all the resources accessed by each process or user. In multitasking, accounting

enhances the system performance with the allocation of resources to each process ensuring the satisfaction to each process.

8. Protection System: If a computer system has multiple users and allows the concurrent execution of multiple processes, then the various

processes must be protected from one another's activities.

2.12 Operating System’s FunctionsThe basic functions of an operating system are:

-Booting the computer.

-Performs basic computer tasks example, managing the various

peripheral devices like mouse and keyboard.

-Provides a user interface, e.g. command line, graphical user interface

(GUI).

-Handles system resources such as computer's memory and sharing

of the central processing unit (CPU) time by various applications or

peripheral devices.

-Provides file management which refers to the way that the operating

system manipulates, stores, retrieves and saves data.

2.13 Processor ManagementProcess management is an integral part of any modern-day

operating system (OS). The OS must allocate resources to

processes, enable processes to share and exchange

information, protect the resources of each process from other

processes and enable synchronization among processes.

2.14 Storage ManagementThe term storage management encompasses the technologies

and processes organizations use to maximize or improve the

performance of their data storage resources. It is a broad category that

includes virtualization, replication, mirroring, security, compression,

traffic analysis, process automation, storage provisioning and related

techniques.

By some estimates, the amount of digital information stored in the

world's computer systems is doubling every year. As a result,

organizations feel constant pressure to expand their storage capacity.

However, doubling a company's storage capacity every year is an

expensive proposition. In order to reduce some of those costs and

improve the capabilities and security of their storage solutions,

organizations turn to a variety of storage management solutions.

2.15 Information Management

Information management (IM) concerns a cycle of

organizational activity: the acquisition of

information from one or more sources, the

custodianship and the distribution of that

information to those who need it, and its ultimate

disposition through archiving or deletion.

2.16 Some Commonly used Operating Systems

Examples of popular modern operating systems

include Android, BlackBerry 10, BSD, Chrome OS,

iOS, Linux, OS X, QNX, Microsoft Windows, Windows

Phone, and z/OS. The first eight of these examples

share roots in UNIX.

Chapter 3 – Data Representation

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Digital Number Systems

3.3 Number Conversions

3.4 Binary Representation of Integers

3.5 Binary Representation of Real Numbers

3.6 Representing Characters in Memory

3.7 ISCII

3.8 UNICODE

Index:

3.1 Introduction Early computer systems used electrical switches and when electrical switches were

replaced by less mechanical devices such as vacuum tubes, than the transistor, the

integrated circuit, the concept of switching on and off remained with computers but a

representation of the on/off behavior of computers had to be made.

The term, digital, in computing and electronics applies to converting real-world information

to binary numeric form.

The binary (base-2) number system represents two discreet values using two symbols or

digits -- 0 and 1.

Because this is relatively simple to implement in electronic circuitries made up of switches,

the binary system maps on quite easily to all modern digital computers.

The binary number system, where a zero symbolizes no electrical current (OFF) and a one

represents electrical current exists (ON) developed and became the standard means of

representing internal computer workings.

By combining a series of these 0s and 1s (OFF/ON), the computer is capable of

representing a number of complex things.

All computer data (alpha-numeric symbols and characters, audio, graphics and video) are

represented or encoded using sequences of binary digits that are interpreted according to

appropriate software.

Below are some simple examples illustrating how binary numbers may be used to

represent different data according to different interpretive systems.

3.2 Digital Number SystemsA digital system can understand positional number system only where

there are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent

different values depending on the position they occupy in the number. A

value of each digit in a number can be determined using. The digit. The

position of the digit in the number.

3.3 Number ConversionsThere are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert

numbers from one base to another.

Decimal to Other Base System

Other Base System to Decimal

Other Base System to Non-Decimal

Shortcut method - Binary to Octal

Shortcut method - Octal to Binary

Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal

Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

3.4 Binary Representation of Integers

When working with any kind of digital electronics in which numbers are

being represented, it is important to understand the different ways

numbers are represented in these systems. Almost without fail,

numbers are represented by two voltage levels which can represent a

one or a zero (an interesting exception to this rule is the new memory

device recently announced by Intel which uses one of four possible

voltage levels, thereby increasing the amount of information that can

be stored in a given space). The number system based on ones and

zeroes is called the binary system (because there are only two

possible digits).

3.5 Binary Representation of Real Numbers

Representing (or encoding) a number means to express it

in binary form. Representing numbers in a computer is necessary in

order for it to be able to store and manipulate them. However, the

problem is that a mathematical number can be infinite (as great as

desired), but the representation of a number in a computer must

occupy a predefined number of bits. The key, then, is being able to

predefine a number of bits, and how to interpret them, so that they can

represent the figure as efficiently as possible. For this reason, it would

be foolish to use 16 bits to encode a character (65536 possibilities)

when less than 256 bits are typically used.

3.6 Representing Characters in Memory The data in a computer are not recognized with the help of

alphabets.

To represent the data there are many code representation available.

These codes are called alphanumeric codes.

It has 26 lower case characters, 25 uppercase characters, 10 digits,

7 punctuation marks and anywhere from 20 to 40 other characters.

The various code formats are available:

○ ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

○ ISCII (Indian Script Code for Information Interchange)

○ UNICODE

3.7 ISCIIIndian Script Code for Information Interchange (ISCII) is a coding

scheme for representing various writing systems of India. It encodes

the main Indic scripts and a Roman transliteration. The supported

scripts are: Assamese, Bengali

(Bangla), Devanagari, Gujarati, Gurmukhi, Kannada, Malayalam, Oriya

, Tamil, and Telugu. ISCII does not encode the writing systems of India

based on Arabic, but its writing system switching codes nonetheless

provide for Kashmiri, Sindhi, Urdu, Persian, Pashto andArabic. The

Arabic-based writing systems were subsequently encoded in

the PASCII encoding.

3.8 UNICODEUnicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding,

representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the

world's writing systems. Developed in conjunction with the Universal

Character Set standard and published as The Unicode Standard, the

latest version of Unicode contains a repertoire of more than

120,000 characters covering 129 modern and historic scripts, as well

as multiple symbol sets. The standard consists of a set of code charts

for visual reference, an encoding method and set of

standard character encodings, a set of reference data files, and a

number of related items, such as character properties, rules for

normalization, decomposition, collation, rendering,

and bidirectional display order (for the correct display of text containing

both right-to-left scripts, such as Arabic and Hebrew, and left-to-right

scripts).[1] As of June 2015, the most recent version is Unicode 8.0.

The standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium.

Chapter 4 – Microprocessor Basics: Input, Output and

Memory Devices

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Microprocessor Basics

4.3 Input Devices

4.4 Output Devices

4.5 The Memory Devices

4.6 Ports

Index:

4.1 Introduction

Computers have made great inroads in our everyday life and thinking.

They are put to use for all sorts of applications ranging from complex

calculations in the field or front line research, engineering simulations

down to teaching, printing books and recreational games. The ease

with which computes can process data, store and retrieve it painlessly

have made them inevitable in office and business environments. The

areas of applications of computers are confined only by limitations on

human creativity and imagination.

4.2 Microprocessor Basics

4.3 Input Devices

In computing, an input device is a peripheral (piece of computer

hardware equipment) used to provide data and control signals to

an information processing system such as a computer or information

appliance. Examples of input devices

include keyboards, mice, scanners, digital cameras and joysticks.

Many input devices can be classified according to:

Modality of input (e.g. mechanical motion, audio, visual, etc.) whether

the input is discrete (e.g. key presses) or continuous (e.g. a mouse's

position, though digitized into a discrete quantity, is fast enough to be

considered continuous) the number of degrees of freedom involved

(e.g. two-dimensional traditional mice, or three-dimensional navigators

designed for CAD applications).

4.4 Output DevicesAn output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used

to communicate the results of data processing carried out by

an information processing system (such as a computer) which

converts the electronically generated information into human-readable

form. Some types of output are text, graphics, tactile,[4] audio,

and video. Text consists of characters (letters, numbers, punctuation

marks, or any other symbol requiring one byte of computer storage

space) that are used to create words, sentences, and paragraphs.

Graphics are digital representations of non-text information such as

drawings, charts, photographs, and animation (a series of still images

in rapid sequence that gives the illusion of motion). Tactile output such

as raised line drawings may be useful for some individuals who are

blind. Audio is music, speech, or any other sound. Video consists of

images played back at speeds to provide the appearance of full

motion.

4.5 The Memory Devices

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and

instruction. Computer memory is the storage space in computer where

data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are

stored.

The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is

called cell. Each location or cell has a unique address which varies

from zero to memory size minus one.

For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64

* 1024=65536 memory location. The address of these locations varies

from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of two types

Internal Memory - cache memory and primary/main memory

External Memory - magnetic disk / optical disk etc.

4.6 PortsIn computer hardware, a port serves as an interface between the computer and other computers or peripheral devices. In computer terms, a port generally refers to the female part of connection. Computer ports have many uses, to connect a monitor, webcam, speakers, or other peripheral devices. On the physical layer, a computer port is a specialized outlet on a piece of equipment to which a plug or cable connects. Electronically, the several conductors where the port and cable contacts connect, provide a method to transfer signals between devices.

Types of ports

Digital Visual Interface

DisplayPort

E-Sata

IEEE 1394 interface (FireWire)

PS/2

Serial

VGA

SCSI

HDMI

Audioport

Chapter 5 – General OOP Concepts

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Evolution of Software

5.3 Programming Paradigms

5.4 Basic Concepts of OOP

5.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of OOP

Index:

5.1 Introduction

With the rapidly changing world and the highly competitive and

versatile nature of industry, the operations are becoming more and

more complex. In view of increasing complexity of software systems,

the software industry and software engineer continuously look for the

new approaches to software design and development. The increased

complexity had become the chief problem with computer programs in

traditional languages. The latest programming approach, Object-

Oriented Programming (OOP), offers a new and powerful way to cope

with this complexity.

5.2 Evolution of SoftwareThe aim of software evolution would be to implement (and revalidate) the

possible major changes to the system without being able a priori to predict

how user requirements will evolve. The existing larger system is never

complete and continues to evolve. As it evolves, the complexity of the system

will grow unless there is a better solution available to solve these issues. The

main objectives of software evolution are ensuring the reliability and flexibility

of the system. During the 20 years past, the lifespan of a system could be on

average 6–10 years. However, it was recently found that a system should be

evolved once every few months to ensure it is adapted to the real-world

environment. This is due to the rapid growth of World Wide Web and Internet

Resources that make it easier for users to find related information. The idea

of software evolution leads to open source development as anybody could

download the source codes and hence modify it. The positive impact in this

case is large amounts of new ideas would be discovered and generated that

aims the system to have better improvement in variety choices.

5.3 Programming ParadigmsA programming paradigm is a fundamental style of computer

programming, serving as a way of building the structure and elements

of computer programs. Capabilities and styles of various programming

languages are defined by their supported programming paradigms;

some programming languages are designed to follow only one

paradigm, while others support multiple paradigms.

Programming paradigms that are often distinguished

include imperative, declarative, functional, object-

oriented, procedural, logic and symbolic programming.[1][2][3] With

different paradigms, programs can be seen and built in different ways;

for example, in object-oriented programming, a program is a collection

of objects interacting in explicitly defined ways, while in declarative

programming the computer is told only what the problem is, not how to

actually solve it.

5.4 Basic Concepts of OOP

Object Oriented programming is a programming style that is associated with the concept of OBJECTS, having data fields and related member functions.

Objects are instances of classes and are used to interact amongst each other to create applications. Instance means, the object of class on which we are currently working. C++ can be said to be as C language with classes. In C++ everything revolves around object of class, which have their methods & data members.

C++ can be said to be as C language with classes. In C++ everything revolves around object of class, which have their methods & data members.

Objects

Classes

Abstraction

Encapsulation

Inheritance

Overloading

Exception Handling

5.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of OOPObject Oriented Programming has great advantages over other programming styles:

Code Reuse and Recycling: Objects created for Object Oriented Programs can easily be reused in other programs.

Encapsulation (part 1): Once an Object is created, knowledge of its implementation is not necessary for its use. In older programs,

coders needed understand the details of a piece of code before using it (in this or another program).

Encapsulation (part 2): Objects have the ability to hide certain parts of themselves from programmers. This prevents programmers

from tampering with values they shouldn't. Additionally, the object controls how one interacts with it, preventing other kinds of errors.

For example, a programmer (or another program) cannot set the width of a window to -400.

Design Benefits: Large programs are very difficult to write. Object Oriented Programs force designers to go through an extensive

planning phase, which makes for better designs with less flaws. In addition, once a program reaches a certain size, Object Oriented

Programs are actually easier to program than non-Object Oriented ones.

Software Maintenance: Programs are not disposable. Legacy code must be dealt with on a daily basis, either to be improved upon

(for a new version of an exist piece of software) or made to work with newer computers and software. An Object Oriented Program is

much easier to modify and maintain than a non-Object Oriented Program. So although a lot of work is spent before the program is

written, less work is needed to maintain it over time.

Object Oriented Programming has several disadvantages which made it unpopular in the early years.

Size: Object Oriented programs are much larger than other programs. In the early days of computing, space on hard drives, floppy

drives and in memory was at a premium. Today we do not have these restrictions.

Effort: Object Oriented programs require a lot of work to create. Specifically, a great deal of planning goes into an object oriented

program well before a single piece of code is ever written. Initially, this early effort was felt by many to be a waste of time. In addition,

because the programs were larger (see above) coders spent more time actually writing the program.

Speed: Object Oriented programs are slower than other programs, partially because of their size. Other aspects of Object Oriented

Programs also demand more system resources, thus slowing the program down.