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    • Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines (1642 - 1945) – Calculating Clock - Wilhelm Schickard (1592 - 1635).

     – Pascaline - Blaise Pascal (1623 - 1662).

     – Difference Engine - Charles Babbage (1791 - 1871), also designed but

    never built the Analytical Engine.

     – Punched card tabulating machines - Herman Hollerith (1860 - 1929).

    Hollerith cards were commonly used for computer input well

    into the 1970s.

    1.1 Historical Development (Cont …)

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    • The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945 - 1953)

     – Atanasoff Berry Computer (1937 - 1938) solved

    systems of linear equations.

     – John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry of Iowa State

    University.

    1.1 Historical Development (Cont …)

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    • The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945 - 1953)

     – Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer

    (ENIAC)

     – John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert

     – University of Pennsylvania, 1946

    • The ENIAC was the first general-purpose computer.

    1.1 Historical Development (Cont …)

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    • The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945 - 1953)

     – The IBM 650 first mass-produced computer. (1955)

    ° It was phased out in 1969.

     – Other major computer manufacturers of this period include UNIVAC,

    Engineering Research Associates (ERA), and Computer ResearchCorporation (CRC).

    ° UNIVAC and ERA were bought by Remington Rand, the ancestor

    of the Unisys Corporation.

    ° CRC was bought by the Underwood (typewriter) Corporation,

    which left the computer business.

    1.1 Historical Development (Cont …)

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    • The Second Generation: Transistorized Computers (1954 - 1965)

     – IBM 7094 (scientific) and 1401 (business)

     – Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-1

     – Univac 1100

     – Control Data Corporation 1604.

     – . . . and many others.

    1.1 Historical Development (Cont …)

    These systems had few architectural similarities.

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    • The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit Computers (1965 - 1980)

     – IBM 360

     – DEC PDP-8 and PDP-11

     – Cray-1 supercomputer

     – . . . and many others.

    • By this time, IBM had gained overwhelming dominance in the industry.

     – Computer manufacturers of this era were characterized as IBM

    and the BUNCH (Burroughs, Unisys, NCR, Control Data, and

    Honeywell).

    1.1 Historical Development (Cont …)

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    • The Fourth Generation: VLSI Computers (1980 - ????)

     – Very large scale integrated circuits (VLSI) have more than 10,000

    components per chip.

     – Enabled the creation of microprocessors.

     – The first was the 4-bit Intel 4004.

     – Later versions, such as the 8080, 8086, and 8088 spawned the idea of

    “personal computing.”

    1.1 Historical Development (Cont …)

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    • Moore’s Law (1965)

     – Gordon Moore, Intel founder 

     – “The density of transistors in an integrated circuit will double every

    year.”

    • Contemporary version:

     – “The density of silicon chips doubles every 18 months.”

    But this “law” cannot hold forever ...

    1.1 Historical Development (Cont …)

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    Question

    • Name the breakthrough technologies for first, second, third and fourth

    generations of computer development?

     – First Generation: Vacuum tubes

     – Second Generation: Transistors

     – Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (ICs) – Fourth Generation: Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)

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    1.2 Computer Components - System Bus (Cont …)

    •The heart of any motherboard are the various buses that

    carry signals between the components.

    •The PC has ahierarchy ofdifferent buses

    ordered by theirspeed.

    ISA System busPCI System bus

     AGP System busProcessor System bus

    •Each device in the system is

    connected to a bus

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    1.2 Computer Components - I/O Interfaces (Cont …)

    The adapter interfaceis a way to connectone piece ofhardware to another

    PS/2

    Serial Ports

    USB

    •Parallel Ports use a DB25-pin, female connector

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    1.2 Computer Components – Cache (Cont …)

    A cache is a small area of veryfast memory to store some of the

    current working set of code and

    data that the CPU expects to call

    for in the immediate future.

    Cache can be located in RAM, on a disk , or in dedicated chips. When the

    cache is in a separate, dedicated chip, the speeds of the cache memory can bedisassociated from the motherboard’s clock speed, therefore this allows cache

    memory chips to process instructions faster than main memory.

    .

    Cache chips on XEON Processor 

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    1.2 Computer Components – Cache (Cont …)

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    1.2 Computer Components - L1 Cache (Cont …)

    All modern processors include an

    integrated L1 cache and controller.Because L1 cache is built into the

     processor die, it runs at full-core speed of

    the processor 

    This prevents the processor from having to wait for code and data from much

    slower main memory. Without L1 cache, a processor frequently would be forced

    to wait until system memory caught up. This eliminates “wait states”

    .

    L1 Cache built into Processor 

    Using cache memory reduces a traditional

    system bottleneck because system RAM often

    is much slower than the CPU

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    1.2 Computer Components - L2 Cache (Cont …)

    To mitigate the dramatic slowdown every

    time an L1 cache miss occurs, asecondary L2 cache can be used

    With the redesign of the Pentium II, Intel improved a computer’s performance by

    moving the L2 cache from the motherboard directly into the processor and

    running it at the same speed as the main processor.

    L2 cache was placed originally on

    the Motherboard 

    Typically L2 cache is 512k of SRAM for data

    that is predictable but can’t fit into L1 cache.L2 cache allows the CPU to continue

     processing without waiting for transfers from

    very slow system RAM.

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    1.2 Computer Components - L3 Cache (Cont …)

    • As more and more processors begin to include L2 cache into

    their architectures, Level 3 cache is now the name for the

    extra cache built into motherboards between the

    microprocessor and the main memory.

    • Level 3 or L3 cache is specialized memory that works hand-in-

    hand with L1 and L2 cache to improve computer performance.

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    1.2 Computer Components - Integrated Circuits (Cont …)

    • Most electronic components inside a

    computer are integrated circuits - thin

    slices of silicon crystal packed withmicroscopic circuit elements – wires

     – transistors

     – capacitors – resistors

    Why isn’t the system unit filled with a lot of wires?

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    • Chips are housed on a circuit board called amotherboard . – contains processor chip

     – computer memory chips

     – chips that handle basic input/output

     – contains expansion slots for peripheral devices

    • Some chips are soldered (permanent), some areremovable (can be upgraded)

    How do the chips fit together to make a computer?

    1.2 Computer Components - The Motherboard (Cont …)

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    1.2 Computer Components  – Motherboard (Cont …)

    North Bridge

    PowerConnector

    ProcessorSocket/Slot

    BIOS

    Expansion BusSlots

    SouthBridge

    SuperI/O

    MemorySockets

    CMOS/RTC

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    1.2 Computer Components  – Processor Sockets/Slots (Cont …)

    The CPU is installed in either a socket or aslot, depending on the type of chip.

    Socket

    Slot 1

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    1.2 Computer Components  – BIOS

    (Basic Input / Output System) (Cont …)

    First system computer scanswhen turned on.

    Determines systemsconfiguration

    Stored in a nonvolatileCMOS chip

    Determines which peripheralsthe system can support

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    1.2 Computer Components – Chipsets (Cont …)

    The Chipset is the

    Motherboard;therefore, anytwo boards withthe same chipsetsare identical

    Processor system bus called the front side bus (FSB)

    Memory controller(North bridge)

    Bus Controller(South Bridge)

    I/O Controller

     All circuits arecontained within

    the chipset

    The chipset is the framework in which the CPU restsand its connection to the outside world. The chipsetacts as a bridge between each system bus

    The processorcannot talk tothe memory,adapter boards,devices, and soon, withoutgoing throughthe chipset

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    1.2 Computer Components  – North Bridge (Cont …)

    The North Bridge is the connection betweenthe high-speed Processor bus and the slower AGP and PCI buses

    430 FX Chipset

    440 LX Chipset

    440 ZX Chipset

    •The North Bridge isoften referred to asthe PAC (PCI/AGPcontroller)

    •It is essentially the maincomponent of themotherboard and is theonly circuit that runs atfull Processor Bus speed

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    1.2 Computer Components  – South Bridge (Cont …)

    82371 FB South Bridge

    82371 EB South Bridge

    •The South Bridge is the lower-speed

    component in the chipset

    •South Bridge connects to the 33MHz PCI busand contains the interface to the 8 MHZ ISA bus

    •Normally contains dual IDE hard disk controllerinterfaces, one or two USB, the CMOS RAM andRTC Clock functions

    •South Bridge contains all componentsthat make up the ISA Bus, including the

    Interrupt and DMA controllers

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    1.2 Computer Components  – Super I/O Chip (Cont …)

    Contains the Primary and Secondary IDEcontroller, Floppy Controller, two SerialPorts, and a Parallel Port

     AT Super I/O Controller

    The Super I/O allows you to plug in devices and have them work just

    like any other device that is plugged into an Expansion Slot

    In newer Motherboards, the Super I/Ohas been placed into the South Bridge

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    1.3 An Example System

    • Computers with large main memory capacity can run larger

    programs with greater speed than computers having smallmemories.

    • RAM is an acronym for random access memory . Random

    access means that memory contents can be accessed directly if

    you know its location.

    • Cache is a type of temporary memory that can be accessed

    faster than RAM.

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    1.3 An Example System (Cont …)

    • Serial ports send data as a series of pulses along one or twodata lines.

    • Parallel ports send data as a single pulse along at least eight

    data lines.

    • USB, Universal Serial Bus, is an intelligent serial interface that isself-configuring. (It supports “plug and play.”)

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    1.3 An Example System (Cont …)

    What does it all mean?? 

    Consider this advertisement:

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    1.3 An Example System (Cont …)

    … and two levels of cache memory, the level 1 (L1) cache is smaller

    and (probably) faster than the L2 cache. Note that these cache sizesare measured in KB and MB.

    This system has 4GB of (fast)

    synchronous dynamic RAM (SDRAM) .

    . .

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    1.3 An Example System (Cont …)

    This one can store 500GB. 7200 RPM is the rotational speed of

    the disk. Generally, the faster a disk rotates, the faster it can

    deliver data to RAM. (There are many other factors involved.)

    Hard disk capacity determines the

    amount of data and size of programs

    you can store.

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    1.3 An Example System (Cont …)

    ATA stands for advanced technology attachment , which describes

    how the hard disk interfaces with (or connects to) other system

    components.

    A DVD can store about 4.7GB

    of data. This drive supports

    rewritable DVDs, +/-RW, that

    can be written to many times..

    16x describes its speed.

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    1.3 An Example System (Cont …)

    This system has ten

     ports.

    Ports allow movement of data between asystem and its external devices.

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    1.3 An Example System (Cont …)

    System buses can be augmented by dedicated

    I/O buses. PCI, peripheral component

    interface , is one such bus.

    This system has two PCI devices: a

    video card and a sound card.

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    1.3 An Example System (Cont …)

    The number of times per second that the image on a monitor is

    repainted is its refresh rate. The dot pitch of a monitor tells us

    how clear the image is.

    This one has a dot pitch of

    0.24mm and a refresh rate

    of 75Hz.

    The video card contains memory

    and programs that support the

    monitor.

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    • Computers consist of many things besides chips.

    • Before a computer can do anything worthwhile, it must also use

    software.

    • Writing complex programs requires a “divide and conquer”

    approach, where each program module solves a smaller problem.

    • Complex computer systems employ a similar technique through a

    series of virtual machine layers.

    1.4 The Computer Level Hierarchy

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    • Each virtual machine layer is anabstraction of the level below it.

    • The machines at each level

    execute their own particular

    instructions, calling upon

    machines at lower levels toperform tasks as required.

    • Computer circuits ultimately carry

    out the work.

    1.4 The Computer Level Hierarchy (Cont …)

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    • Level 6: The User Level

     – Program execution and user interface level.

     – The level with which we are most familiar.

    • Level 5: High-Level Language Level

     – The level with which we interact when we write programs in

    languages such as C, Pascal, Lisp, and Java.

    1.4 The Computer Level Hierarchy (Cont …)

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    • Level 4: Assembly Language Level

     – Acts upon assembly language produced from Level 5, as well as

    instructions programmed directly at this level.

    • Level 3: System Software Level

     – Controls executing processes on the system.

     – Protects system resources.

     – Assembly language instructions often pass through Level 3

    without modification.

    1.4 The Computer Level Hierarchy (Cont …)

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    • Level 2: Machine Level

     – Also known as the Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) Level.

     – Consists of instructions that are particular to the architecture

    of the machine.

     – Programs written in machine language need no compilers,interpreters, or assemblers.

    1.4 The Computer Level Hierarchy (Cont …)

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    • Level 1: Control Level

     – A control unit decodes and executes instructions and moves data

    through the system.

     – Control units can be microprogrammed or hardwired .

     – A microprogram is a program written in a low-level language thatis implemented by the hardware.

     – Hardwired control units consist of hardware that directly executes

    machine instructions.

    1.4 The Computer Level Hierarchy (Cont …)

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    • Level 0: Digital Logic Level

     – This level is where we find digital circuits (the chips).

     – Digital circuits consist of gates and wires.

     – These components implement the mathematical logic of allother levels.

    1.4 The Computer Level Hierarchy (Cont …)