1

Comprehensive Exam: Theories of Ethnomusicology

For Alan Gordon

By Roberta R. King, Ph.D.

Write on the following two questions, being careful to cite your sources:

1. You have been asked to lecture in “Ethnomusicology in Mission” at the highest

seminary in Latin America. Drawing from the literature, write a lecture that lays

out the theories of ethnomusicology over the last 50 years. Evaluate each theory

in terms of strengths, weaknesses, and relevance for missiology in the Latin

American context.

First, we need to understand that ethnomusicology, as a discipline since the 1950’s,

has lacked a uniform theoretical basis. Rice argues that Nettl has tried to unify the

discipline by laying out four guidelines for Ethnomusicology, which include studying

music as a part of culture, and of the importance of fieldwork, but this is not a theoretical

framework. Physics has two, but very defined, theoretical frameworks: mechanical

physics, and quantum physics. Theology can be systematic, narrative, biblical, or

contextual, but each has a clear definition. In 1963, Merriam laid out a clear theory for

ethnomusicology: music comes from concepts which come from beliefs. This theory was

the foundation for ethnomusicology for many years. But, because it was based on a

scientific worldview, it called for a scientific approach and analysis. This meant that the

researcher had to be objective, and aimed toward comparing different musics in search

for universal principles, including, as Nettl discusses, the search for the origins of music.

But in 1978, Gourlay expounded an argument that the research cannot be

completely objective. In fact, objectivity doesn’t exist. The researcher always adds his or

her bias to the investigation. Waschmann added to this discussion by elaborating that

each time a researcher listens to a musical event, his or her interpretation is different from

the previous. Actually, this argument was nothing new. The first article published in the

2

Journal of Ethnomusicology, by Lunst, argued against objectivity, but no one took him

seriously for a couple of decades.

It was Barz and Cooley, who took seriously the issue that ethnomusicology

needed to take a non-conventional approach. Rice had previously written an article about

“remodeling ethnomusicology” and started a great debate. Nettl and Seeger defended

traditional ethnomusicology and held to the scientific paradigm. Koskoff defended

Merriam’s theory and expounded it fuller to include several types of feedback, and a

step-by-step analytical process. But Barz, Titon, and Rice proposed a different approach,

based on a different paradigm.

Barz argues that ethnomusicology needs to move from representation to

experience. In the same book, Titon discusses the difference between explaining and

understanding as it relates to research. Explaining is what science tries to do in reducing

everything to universal laws. Understanding is a new approach where the research

interacts with the subjects, and each learn from each other. The resulting knowledge is

new. Neither understood it before the encounter.

Rice goes even further. He says all knowledge since the Renaissance has been

based on “doubt.” The research knows he or she is real because he or she can doubt.

Therefore he or she has to prove everything else. Another approach is to assume that the

world exists and the researcher learns about himself or herself by interacting with the

world. He terms this “being-in-the-world.”

Where does this leave ethnomusicology? The field has challenged its basic

assumptions, and has yet to define itself. Rice proposed plotting musical experience over

3

time and within different contexts, but this approach is far too ahead of the time to be

accepted by a majority.

Can ethnomusicology contribute to missiology? Even though it is struggling as a

discipline, a couple of elements are very useful for missions. The first is that because

ethnomusicology is struggling with paradigms, it teaches missionaries to be aware of

different paradigms. One must recognize one’s own paradigm, and recognize that of

another culture.

Even if a central theoretical framework is lacking in ethnomusicology, different

theories are useful for missiology. Music can communicate. Corbitt bases his book on

this thesis, and discusses how music can build the kingdom of God. King discusses how

music communicates through several channels and is effective for sharing the gospel and

reinforcing one’s theology.

Musical communication is not one-way, but two-way. Music reveals a person’s

beliefs. Merriam’s model demonstrates this. If music comes from beliefs, then one can

study the music to discover those beliefs.

2. Drawing from the literature, write an integrative essay that shows the importance

of both the scientific and subjective worldviews in ethnomusicological models as

they relate to your research in Ecuador.

Merriam’s model remains fundamental to my research. Music is produced by a

people’s way of life (their concepts) which is controlled by their beliefs. This is

scientific; a universal principal that applies to people everywhere.

4

Titon takes a non-scientific approach by participating in a musical event. He

participated in a church’s worship services in Virginia. As a result he proposed a model

of music performed within the environment of the participants, the listeners, all within a

framework of time and space. He illustrates this by concentric circles. In the middle he

place the music event. The second circle illustrates the musicians and the listeners. And

the outer circle represents time. (Both Rice and Waschmann discuss how time affects the

interpretation of the event.)

My research proposes combining these two models. Merriam’s model is linear, and

Titon’s model is circular. I propose placing Merriam’s concept’s within a circular

framework. Using three concentric circles, I place beliefs at the center. The second circle

represents a people’s traditions and customs, and the outer circle represents the musical

events a people celebrate. So far the model is very analytical and scientific. It is also

universal.

The goal of my research is discover a people’s beliefs. The scientific approach would

be to do interviews, participant observation, and focus groups. It didn’t work. People

would not give honest answers. This is where Titon’s non-scientific approach proved

useful: participate and interact, and let them set the agenda. Try to understand them,

rather than “explain their behavior.” My research needs to be build on relationships,

rather than on analysis.

By participating in their music event, which in this case was the annual Corpus

Christi festival, (I’ve been there for three in a row now.), I began to understand who there

are, what they believe, and to develop relationships of trust with them. Without a trust-

relationship, what they tell me is not really what they believe. I illustrate this process of

5

participating to understand (which is what Titon and Rice are proposing), by an arrow

which begins at the outer circle and penetrates to the inner circle. By participating in a

music event, one begins to understand a people’s traditions, customs, and finally their

beliefs.

Usually music is seen from a communication paradigm. Several missional

ethnomusicologists are using this: Corbitt, Stone, and King. Kraft even suggests that

music can communicate more effectively than a sermon. Music can communicate the

gospel, and even shape a person’s theology. But here I am using an epistemological

paradigm. Music can be used to discover a people’s beliefs. Traditional ethnomusicology

sought to document and “preserve” a people’s music. Then ethnomusicology shifted to

comparing different musics to discover universal principles about music. Later, Nettl,

Blacking, emphasized that music needs to be seen as part of culture. I am still looking for

research that uses music as a channel to discover deep-level beliefs.

If my research were totally “objective” I would be focusing only on the beliefs of the

people I am studying. But since pure “objectivity” doesn’t exist (Gourlay, Titon, Rice) I

have to recognize my own biases. This is part of the interactive process that Titon and

Rice are proposing. I suggest that music events can be used not to discover “the other’s”

belief, but also “my own” beliefs. The more I recognize my own beliefs, the better I can

understand another people’s beliefs.

This implies that in my model I need two sets of concentric circles, both with arrows

that begin in the outer circle with the musical event, and penetrate to the inner circle that

represents beliefs. The first set represents my personal pilgrimage to understand myself,

and the second set represents those I am studying. The two processes are simultaneous.

6

As I participate with them in their musical event, I am discovering their beliefs, as well as

mine. This process violates all tradition rules of scientific and objective research. I am

doing “subjective” research. And yet I am representing my research process by an

analytical model. This is scientific. It’s an interesting combination.

7

Comprehensive Exam (Communication Theory)

For Alan Gordon

Written by R. Daniel Shaw

1. The theoretical question: note the authors who have similarly explored reducing the

impact of the “translator/communicator” for the purpose of enabling receptors to make

appropriate inferences regarding God’s intent.

The key of this tutorial lies in the question: “Where’s the meaning?” Two schools

have developed. Code theory holds that the meaning is in the message, whereas relevance

theory argues that meaning is not transferred, but inferred[d1]. The receptor makes that

inference. For missionaries, who are “communicators of the gospel,” each school derives

a different application. Using code theory, a missionary tries to make the gospel

presentation as “clear as possible.” But if a missionary uses relevance theory, he or she

strives to understand the people’s mentality in order to communicate the gospel

effectively. Sperber and Wilson have developed relevance theory quite extensively and

both Kraft and Shaw/VanEngen have developed this for communicating the gospel.

Grice planted the seed for relevance theory by proposing that the receptor of the

message must recognize the intent of the sender. This is fundamentally different from

“decoding a message.” This implies that the communicator needs to have feedback from

the receptor to verify the communication. For Christians, we need to do more dialogues

(conversations) rather than monologues (sermons) for more effective communication[d2].

Berlo follows Grice by arguing that the meaning is NOT in the message, but in the

receptor. Kraft applies this to Christian communication and states that the meaning is

created by the receptor[d3]. And so Sperber/Wilson develop this to argue that the meaning

is not transferred by the message from sender to receptor, but inferred by the receptor

based on the information (or evidence) the sender presented. Plus the receptor’s inference

TO THE SIS ACADEMIC OFFICE:

Please record this exam as a STRONG/HIGH PASS.

Alan has done an excellent job of synthesizing the lit.

and presenting the essence of a theoretical model that

will enable relevant communication in the environment

of the Andean Music/Ritual context.

With Appreciation of the opportunity to work with

Alan—R. Daniel Shaw

8

is based on the cognitive environment he or she already has. Nida hinted this when he

stated that the meaning is based on one’s experience.

Some other authors have dealt with some of these issues, but not as completely as

Shaw/VanEngen. Smith suggests that the sender uses “bits” of information, which the

receptor reassembles to construct meaning. This de-emphasizes somewhat the message,

and emphasizes the role of the receptor, but it is still code theory, because it doesn’t

recognize the receptor’s “cognitive environment” or, as Nida states: “experience.” Rogers

tries to reconcile code theory and relevance theory, but his basic theory is much like

Smith’s: reconstructing the information, and doesn’t take into account the receptor’s

cognitive environment.

It is Shaw/VanEngen who develop relevance theory for the Christian

communicator. Sperber/Wilson take relevance theory only as far as sharing cognitive

environments so that the inference of the receptor will be similar to the intent of the

sender. If their cognitive environments are different, the receptor will be unable to make

an inference similar to the intent, no matter how much he or she tries.

Hill formed a quadrant that gives an interesting addition to this thought. Cognitive

environments can not only be shared or not shared, but thought to be shared and not

really shared. Or really shared, but not believed to be shared. It complicates the issue

more than necessary at this point[d4], but illustrates the point that the communicator needs

to be aware of the importance of cognitive environments, especially that of the receptor.

Shaw/VanEngen add the missing element for missionaries that Sperber/Wilson do

not take into account: the message originates in God, not in us. Therefore, we become the

channels of the message, but not the originators. This implies that our cognitive

9

environments play little role in the communication. Our goal is for the cognitive

environments of the receptors to be similar to God’s. This is what it means to be the

facilitators, and not the channels of God’s message. Our cognitive environments,

especially as cross-cultural missionaries, tends to “get in the way” of the communication.

If we recognize this, and recognize what our cognitive environments are, so that we do

not promote them, we will be more effective in communicating the gospel to people of

another culture.

2. What contribution does your research make to strengthening this hypothesis?

I have combined relevance theory with music. My theory is to use a music-

worship-ritual to reduce the influence of my own cognitive environment, and to

understand the cognitive environment of the people I want to reach with the gospel. Then,

to dialogue (not monologue) with them in seeking to know God in their worldview. This

takes place within the music-worship-ritual context.

Here’s my theory: usually music has been seen as a communication channel,

within the communication paradigm. Music can be used to communicate the gospel. In

my case, I am proposing a model based on an epistemological paradigm: music is a way

of knowing. This means that rather than using music to communicate the gospel, I

propose using, not just music, but the music-event, to discover deep-level beliefs, or in

relevance theory terms: to discover their cognitive environment.

(Note: Dr. Shaw, I have made a conscious shift from “contextualizing worship for

Christians” to “communicating the gospel to non-Christians through their music-worship-

ritual.” This is an important shift from my mid-term proposal, but a choice I had to

make[d5].)

My theory is that the music-worship-ritual can be used to discover one’s traditions

and beliefs. (Remember Geertz: “music synthesizes a people’s theology and identity.”) A

10

missionary has first to recognize his or her own traditions and beliefs, otherwise they will

impose them on the people they are trying to reach. Our worship services can be used to

do that. As worship is an expression of our theology and tradition, we can use worship to

re-discover our traditions and cultural beliefs. These we do not want to impose on another

culture[d6].

THEN, the missionary participates in the music-worship-ritual of the people to

discover, with them, their deep-level beliefs. This is one way of understanding their

cognitive environment. At this point, the dialogue, not monologue, begins. They need to

see/hear God from within their culture. By participating in their culture, we may also

begin to see/hear God the way they do. I believe participation in their music-worship-

ritual is one way to do this effectively.

(Note: in tutorial #6, I developed this model to full-scale with twelve pages of

explanation and diagrams. Dr. VanEngen says I have to explain it fuller. I’m just giving

you the synthesis here.)

3. So what?

Ecuadorian rural folk in the Andes have NEVER given up their pagans beliefs,

even though the majority are professing Catholics. Why? Because the gospel has never

been communicated at the deep-level. Their deep-level beliefs have never been changed,

and “religion” has just been super-imposed on their paganism. Therefore, my

theory/model is an attempt to reach that deep-level of beliefs and see real change in their

lives.

In my home town of El-Tingo where we have lived for over twenty years, I have

never had much dialogue with the folks there. They have seen us as “evangelicals” and

“foreigners.” They are professing Catholics, yet hold pagan festivities several times a

year. Years ago our church held a worship service in the central park, and almost got

kicked out of town as a result.

11

Recently, I have taken interest in the annual Corpus Christi festival. I have filmed

the festival three years in a row, and held many conversations with the town folk about it.

I have bought the musical instruments they play, and got to participate in the pre-festival

this past year. As a result, they now trust me, and tell me things they would never have

told me before.

I have learned that the original meaning of the festival has been lost, yet it has

profound meaning for them in terms of their identity, and NOT their theology. I have

been able to recognize that my theology is abstract, individual, and prepositional,

whereas their theology is concrete, communal, and holistic. I would not have discovered

this through interviews, questionnaires, or focus groups. Only through the music-

worship-ritual of Corpus Christi have I progressed this far.

I hope someday to see them find God as one of them, and I hope to be

instrumental in that process[d7].

12

Dr. VanEngen: The Corpus Christi Festival

Comprehensive Exam Question – VanEngen #1

For Alan Gordon

Preamble:

You have devoted much time, research, and thought to considering “a process by which

to begin discovery of the meaning the people give to the festival. In this process, I

did discover the importance that the people give to their own history and traditions, which are the basis for their worldview. I also began to discover that this worldview

they hold is very different from mine. My worldview is based on abstract concepts while

their worldview is based on identity. I found that the national literature abounds more in

recording historical accounts of Ecuadorian traditions rather that in explaining the

significance of those traditions.”

Question:

Given your research and reflection as mentioned above, write everything that comes to

your mind regarding the following:

a. A study of the meaning that the people give to the Corpus Christi Festival as a

MOTIVATION FOR MISSION in the midst of the folk-religious worldview

of the people of El-Tingo;

b. A study of the meaning that the people give to the Corpus Christi Festival as

offering some indications with regard to the AGENTS OF MISSION in the

midst of the folk-religious worldview of the people of El-Tingo;

c. A study of the meaning that the people give to the Corpus Christi Festival as

offering some indications with regard to the MEANS OF MISSION in the

midst of the folk-religious worldview of the people of El-Tingo;

d. A study of the meaning that the people give to the Corpus Christi Festival as

offering some indications with regard to the GOALS OF MISSION in the

midst of the folk-religious worldview of the people of El-Tingo.

13

MOTIVATION FOR MISSION

My research focuses on reaching the people of El-Tingo with the gospel through

the Corpus Christi festival. I have decided to focus not on Christian worship, but on

evangelism through pagan worship. This will be a dissertation about missions.

What is the motivation for this endeavor? First of all, these professing Catholics

have never given up their pagan beliefs. They call themselves Christians, but they still

have a pagan worldview which holds to idolatry and worship of Mother Earth

(“Pachamama”). Why? Because the gospel has never reached their deep-level of beliefs.

The Catholic religion, as well as the Inca religion, was super-imposed on their pagan

beliefs. The result was syncretism: a combination of all their beliefs. We missionaries

need to reach them at the deep-level of beliefs. Using the Corpus Christi festival is one

way to do this.

Second, because the Corpus Christi festival is meaningful to them, they are

spiritually sensitive. They are not like the professional folk in Quito, who have been

secularized by higher education. These are folk who believe in the spiritual world and

want to be in contact with it. Thus, talking with them about God is a common subject.

Third, they are seeking to restore a lost spiritual identity. This is an opportunity

for the gospel. They want to know their spiritual roots. Their traditions take them back to

Mother Earth, but we can show them that God is the creator of the earth and therefore

their real spiritual heritage.

Fourth, just as the Corpus Christi festival is communal, everyone participates, a

future conversion to Christ would also be communal. I have seen many individual

conversions last less than a year, because the person becomes isolated from the

14

community. Whereas, with a “town-conversion,” the new Christians wouldn’t lose their

social support systems.

Fifth, with a “town-conversion,” other nearby towns would take note and begin to

ask and inquire about what had happened. If one whole town converted, the others could

be more easily evangelized in the same way.

Sixth, using the Corpus Christi festival to reach deep-level beliefs and dialoging at

that level, would change their real beliefs, and not just superficial ones. The result would

be real transformation of the people. One of the biggest stumbling blocks in these towns

today are Christians with bad testimonies. Since the towns are small, everybody knows

everybody, and any hypocrisy soon becomes public. We are not seeing real conversions,

because they are merely superficial. We need to reach and see changes at the deep-level

of beliefs. Through the festivals we can get there.

AGENTS OF MISSION

Who are the agents for this mission? For a person to accomplish this mission, he

or she needs several qualifications: first of all, they need to understand worldviews. One

way to discover these worldview is through music-worship-rituals. The missionary needs

to understand his or her own worldview to avoid imposing it on another culture. We can

use our own worship services to discover our own traditions and culturally based values.

Then we need to understand the other people’s traditions and values, and reach with them

their deep-level beliefs. The missionary must understand this process.

Second, the missionary needs to understand the history and present reality of these

people. This is revealed in their festivals, which not only reinforce their spirituality, but

15

also their identity. The festivals are also part of their past struggle to be free from

oppression. The Ecuadorian Indians were enslaved, taxed, and heavily oppressed by the

Spaniards, and the overtones persist even today. Their theology developed from this

history and experience. They want to be free, and when, during the festival, they take

over the streets and block traffic, they are symbolizing their victory over that oppression.

They even dress as police officers to symbolize a desired power.

Third, the missionary must have a long-term commitment to this process. It does

not take place overnight. Years are required, not only to understand them, but also to gain

their trust. This implies an integral, honest, and involved lifestyle among them.

Understanding a people takes time, not only to understand them, but also for one to

understand himself or herself in that context.

Fourth, the missionary must have a firm relationship with God, and an openness

to see him in a new way. The process of understanding a people and helping them to see

God in their own cultural way implies that the missionary will also change in the way he

or she understands God. This can be life-changing or faith-devastating depending on how

prepared the missionary is to make those changes.

Fifth, the missionary needs to understand the process of communicating at the

deep-level, and not on a surface level. (See Shaw/VanEngen.)

MEANS OF MISSION

What are the means for this mission? We now have a missionary who is qualified

and motivated, but exactly how does he or she go about this task? First of all, the

missionary must live with them, listen to them, and learn from them. We don’t need “hit-

16

and-run” short-term missionaries. In my case, it has taken over fifteen years to gain their

trust and be accepted as “you are one of us.” Next, one has to learn from them. I would

never have understood their way of thinking if I hadn’t been open to learn from them, and

had tried to see things from their point of view. Most Christians see the festivals as

“idolatrous worship.” That’s obviously part of the festivals, but they miss seeing that the

festivals are also a social and communal event. They bring the town together, and

reinforce their identity.

Second, the missionary has to participate in the festivals. Without participating,

one will never understand how they see and understand the festival. To participate does

not mean to join them in carrying an idol, nor in drinking alcoholic beverages. That’s

where I draw the line. But I have walked alongside them in the processions, not as a

participate, but as an observer. I may be able to play the flute in the festival next year.

Both before and after, I have talked with them about the festival, what they’re planning to

do, and later, what they thought about the executing.

One of the best ways is to film the festival and show it back to them. This re-

creates the festival for them, except now they are observers. They love to see themselves.

In this way, I have received many commentaries about the festival that would never have

come otherwise. Let them do the talking. My questions were not only ignored, but not

even understood. Until I understood them better, I didn’t know what questions to ask.

Third, since their worldview is based on their identity, the missionary has to

develop an interest in their history. I spent time in the national archives, and the city

archives digging for the history of the town. I really didn’t think I found that much. I

never did find out the date the town was founded. But I soon became the “expert” on the

17

history of the town. Twice, someone rolled into town wanting to know about its history,

and the town folk themselves would point the newcomer to me.

The town folk want to know their own history, and are fascinated and eager to

learn all that someone can teach them. This is a great way to gain their trust, learn about

them, and even serve the town in re-discovering its history.

Fourth, the missionary needs to propose changes in the festival and dialogue with

the participants about them. This step only comes after the other steps are well underway.

I have not yet reached this point, but I am progressing in that direction. Because their

worldview is concrete and not abstract, you can’t theologize in a classroom. You do

theology through the festival. By proposing a change, one is suggesting a change in

theology. For example, by suggesting that they use a cross, instead of the harvest figure,

for Corpus, one is stimulating the thought that God is the author of the harvest, and not

the Mother Earth. If the change is accepted, they may be beginning to change their

theology. If the change is rejected, either its too early for change, or they are rejecting the

theology. Or it may be that we are not yet dialoging at a deep enough level.

GOALS OF MISSION

What are the goals of this mission? The first goal is to gain their trust. Without

that, nothing else is worth doing. Even if the missionary participates, and researches, and

proposes changes in the festival, without their trust in the missionary, their comments,

and their changes will only be superficial. How does one know when they trust you? I

propose a few ideas: 1) They ask you for advice and seek your help; 2) they look out for

you; 3) they begin to share deeper comments; and 4) they invite you to their homes, and

18

accept invitations to your home. Of course, the trust level can always deepen. We still

have not had many of them in our home. Very few have invited us into their homes. It

takes time.

The second goal is to understand one’s own worldview. I would say that the

second goal is to understand their worldview, but I have found that until one is conscious

of his or her own worldview, you will be blind to see another person’s worldview.

The third goal is to reach deep-level conversations about their spiritual beliefs.

This is tricky because until one understands both his or her own worldview and their

worldview, the conversations won’t get anywhere. When at first, I asked them, “What

does the Corpus Christi Festival mean?” I never got an answer. The question didn’t fit

into their worldview. I was looking for an answer within my worldview and not in theirs.

The questions wasn’t important to them. Later, I would ask, “Are you going to participate

in Corpus this year?” And would get an immediate answer with some kind of an

explanation: “Yes, and this year we’re going to have forty dancers?”

In another case, I developed a friendship with one of the flute players, a young

man about thirty years old. After a lengthy conversation about flutes, and drums, and

finally asked him, “Do you think the Corpus festival is social or religious?” And he

answered, “A little of both.” That sounds very simple, but to reach that level of trust and

get an answer like that took me several months.

The fourth goal is to help them see God as the ultimate source of their livelihood.

Since the Corpus festival is about the harvest, and they see the Mother Earth as giving

that harvest, they need to see that God is the creator of the Mother Earth. I believe that

19

the day they understand this, we will see another figure as central in the Corpus Christi

festival.

A similar goal is to help them see God as the patron of the town. Every town has a

patron saint. I believe that behind that saint is a spirit who controls the town. So it’s not

Saint Peter who “owns” the town, but some spiritual power behind the Saint Peter idol. If

the festivities would honor Jesus as the Patron of the town, I believe the spiritual power

would leave.

The fifth goal is to see a community conversion to Christ. This is the ultimate

goal: not just a few people who become Christians, but the whole town. I think we need

to consider these small towns as units. We want to see “El-Tingo” turn to Christ, not just

John and Mary who live in the town.

OBSTACLES OF MISSION

I would like to add one more point to this discussion: What are the obstacles to

this mission? The first I have already mentioned: spiritual powers that control the town.

This is really outside the scope of my research, but I include it here because of its

importance. The festivals really do invite spiritual powers to control the town. One way

to defeat them is to convince the town not to believe in them. That IS part of this research

project. The other way to defeat them is through organized, persistent, spiritual-warfare

oriented prayer. That is NOT part of this research project.

The second obstacle is the question about their ancestors. I often hear the

comment that my father, and grandfather, and great-grandfather celebrated this festival.

It’s not only their beliefs that we are dealing with here, but the beliefs of the past

20

generations who are part of the present tradition and who form part of the present identity

of the town. If we change the festival, are we dishonoring the ancestors? This is an

obstacle for me, because I do not have an answer, yet.

The third obstacle is long-term, extended family disputes. In El-Tingo, there are

two extended family clans. The first is the Chuquimarca and Pilaquinga, and the second

is the Perez and Ayo. For generations they have divided the town. Historically they do

not get along very well. This inhibits a town conversion. I hope that the gospel would

reconcile them simultaneously with a community conversion. It remains a prayer.

Alan D. Gordon

September 18, 2008

21

Dr. VanEngen: Communication Biblical Truth Through Music-Worship-Ritual: The

Corpus Christi Festival

Comprehensive Exam Question – VanEngen #2

For Alan Gordon

Preamble:

You have devoted much time, research, and thought to considering “a theoretical model

for communicating the gospel through music-worship. The result was a model for

reaching a point of being able to communicate the gospel. My struggle involved

shifting to an epistemological paradigm from a communication paradigm.

I also tried to develop a theology of worship for music-worship in El-Tingo,

but I encountered an obstacle in differing paradigms. The literature I read

developed worship theology from a doctrinal point of view and abstract thinking,

and my present understanding of “folk worship theology” is that it needs to be developed from an identity point of view and concrete thinking.”

Question:

Given your research and reflection as mentioned above, write everything that comes to

your mind regarding the following:

A. Communicating the gospel through music-worship from the perspective of a “folk

worship theology” that needs to be developed from an identity point of view and

concrete thinking – as a MOTIVATION FOR MISSION in the midst of the folk-

religious worldview of the people of El Tingo;

B. Communicating the gospel through music-worship from the perspective of a “folk

worship theology” that needs to be developed from an identity point of view and

concrete thinking – as offering some indications with regard to the AGENTS OF

MISSION in the midst of the folk-religious worldview of the people of El Tingo;

C. Communicating the gospel through music-worship from the perspective of a “folk

worship theology” that needs to be developed from an identity point of view and

concrete thinking – as offering some indications with regard to the MEANS OF

MISSION in the midst of the folk-religious worldview of the people of El Tingo;

D. Communicating the gospel through music-worship from the perspective of a “folk

worship theology” that needs to be developed from an identity point of view and

concrete thinking – as offering some indications with regard to the GOALS OF

MISSION in the midst of the folk-religious worldview of the people of El Tingo.

22

Introduction

Yesterday, in the previous comprehensive exam question I focused on the

Western missionary using music-worship-ritual to communicate the gospel to the folks in

El-Tingo. Today, in the present comprehensive exam, I will focus on the missionary as if

coming from within the El-Tingo population. My idea is to contrast the whole process of

communicating the gospel through music-worship-ritual between an

abstract/propositional theology (as held by most Western missionaries) and a

concrete/identity based theology (that a local missionary would have) as applied to my

context and research. This exercise of contrasting two theological approaches as they

apply to mission is not only an exercise in how I would teach local missionaries, but also

in how I should change my own approach to missions here in Ecuador.

Motivation

What would be the motivation for mission? We Westerners are motivated by a

task to accomplish. The Great Commission in Matthew 28:19-20 has been our motto. But

I don’t think the El-Tingo would think that way. If I could guess at their motivation (as

Christians) from a concrete/identity based theology, I would say that their motivation

would be to share so that everyone would be together and united. If we consider

evangelism as “conquering a people” (we don’t use the word “conquer,” but rather “win

over” or “convert”), the implications are very imperialistic from a Latin American point

of view. “Why would we want to “conquer” our brothers and sisters?” a local Christian in

El-Tingo might ask. “Wouldn’t it be better to “share” with them what we have?” Just as

the Corpus Christi festival is a community event, the mentality to evangelize is to invite

23

other to participate, not to force them to change. (Foreign powers from the Incas to Spain

to the US have been forcing them to change for centuries. The result has been rebellion

and resentment.)

This leads to my second point. Our gospel tends to go in the direction of: “You

MUST repent and change.” Trying to see things from a local theology point of view, I

would suggest the gospel appeal would be: “Follow me;” or “Let’s do this together.” So

the motivation becomes one of being together to seek God, rather than “you have to give

up your ways.”

Agents

What about the agents for mission? If I were going to train local missionaries in

El-Tingo to communicate the gospel through music-worship-ritual, I first need to think

about the difference in our theology. We Westerners are extremely goal oriented: How

many converts do you have? What is your time frame for planting a church? The folks in

El-Tingo are relationship oriented: Who cares if we don’t have a church yet, I have made

lots of friends! The relationships are much more important than the goals. This is much

more biblical than our Western theology. If we are to train local missionaries, we don’t

want them to change in this respect.

Our Western theology say that a missionary must have a thorough Biblical

knowledge and a good understanding of theology. In other words, we look for a person

with theological preparation. Abstract theology doesn’t impress the folks in El-Tingo.

What does impress them is sincerity and integrity. These are qualities they see and

24

understand. Therefore the local missionaries must be ones of high Christian character,

rather than ones of high Christian “training.”

Means

What are the means for mission in this geographical and theological context? Our

abstract thinking wants to see results. That’s because we don’t value the process. I have

learned in the years of my research and studies that the process is just as valuable as the

results. Just as the question is more important than the answer, because the question

shapes the answer, so also the process is more important than the results, because the

process will determine the kind of results found.

Identity based theology focuses on the question: “Who are we?” and this implies

relationships. The value is to build a friendship. Whereas propositional theology is asking

the question: “What are we doing/accomplishing?” The value is to finish the project.

Corpus Christi is an annual social and religious event that is part of community

life. It is not a program. Our Western theology drives us to plan programs that

accomplish specific goals. Our worship services reflect this, and I still fall into this

mentality when planning a worship service. The important aspect of Corpus Christi is that

everyone participated and spent the day together. It’s part of the way they live. Someday

the evangelical church must stop thinking like Westerns, and think about how to develop

a church community with its own local identity, and community life. The way we train

local missionaries will determine whether this happens or not.

Should we send out local missionaries alone? I myself am an example of a lone

missionary. “Who am I? What is my identity?” I think the folk in El-Tingo are asking

25

those questions of me. “Where’s my community?” It’s supposed to be the evangelical

church, but the one I attend is two towns down the road. How come I don’t attend the

evangelical church in El-Tingo? We Westerners have no problem with this, but the folk

in El-Tingo can’t understand it.

So far, I have assumed that even the local missionary is a single unit, but I believe

the local theology would think differently. It would not be to send “a missionary” to

another town. It would be to send a group, as representing the town, to another town. In

other words, “communicating the gospel” would be from town to town, not from

individual to individual. Even in Corpus Christi, if people participate from other towns,

usually it’s a whole group that comes and participates. We need to change our mentality

from the “individual missionary” to “a group of ambassadors.”

Goals

What are the goals of mission in this context? The basic goal of Western missions

is to convert and conquer. For someone in Ecuador, that view calls images to mind of

gold-hungry Spanish invaders dominating the natives in the Andes. As an abstract

concept, conquering fits the mold, because one can lay out a geographic map and

visualize the territories that are now “evangelized” even though one may have never met

personally any of those persons “evangelized”.

For those in El-Tingo, with a concrete worldview, the goal is not to “conquer” but

rather to be “reconciled.” Reconciled to God and to each other. That implies being

brothers and sisters in Christ and having the same God to worship. Because we have the

26

same God we can celebrate and worship together. We do this with people who are close

by and whom we can see and know.

Another way of seeing this contrast is by comparing the goal of “planting a

church” with “extending the family.” The abstract mentality longs to build an institution.

The concrete mentality wants to extend one’s network of relationships.

Obstacles

Again, as in my previous exam, I would like to add: What are some of the

obstacles of mission in this context? The advantage we have as Westerns is that we

cannot hold two contradictory beliefs at the same time. As abstract, logical thinkers, if

“A” equals “B” and “B equals C” then “A” cannot be unequal to “C.” But the problem

with folk in El-Tingo is that, as non-abstract thinkers, they have no problem believing

that God is their supreme deity, and that the “Pachamama” (Mother Earth) provides them

with food from the earth. They can hold both beliefs at the same time, and never see a

problem with it. The only answer I can think of is that they need to see God as a real

person, and the Mother Earth as just a “thing.”

Another obstacle is that the folks in El-Tingo could accept “everyone” as

Christian, because the whole town is now “Christian.” This is nothing new in the history

of Christianity. Ever since Constantine’s decree to make Christianity the official religion,

we have had the problem of State Religion. I believe it’s a process. The first step is a

group or community decision to follow Christ, and then, through discipleship, to confirm

that in every individual.

27

SUMMARY OF MY TUTORIALS

Alan D. Gordon

May 20, 2008

TUTORIAL #1 – DR. KING: THEORIES OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY

The purpose of this tutorial was to review the theories of ethnomusicology. I

found that in the past fifty years, ethnomusicologists have been discussing a paradigm

shift from the scientific worldview to a subjective worldview. Merriam and Nettl

represent the first worldview and Titon and Rice the second. Merriam’ model is

straightforward: concepts produce behavior which produces music. Whereas Titon takes

the approach of studying the musical performance rather than looking for a universal

principal. Among the many models I reviewed in this tutorial, Titon’s model was the

most useful, and applicable to my research goals.

28

BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR TUTORIAL #1 – DR. KING

Barz, G. F. and Cooley, T. J. 1997. Shadows in the Field: New Perspectives for Fieldwork in Ethnomusicology. New York.

Blacking, John. 1995. Music, Culture and Experience. Chicago. Corbitt, Nathan. 1998. The Sound of the Harvest. Grand Rapids: Baker Books. Feld, Steven. 1974. Linguistic Models in Ethnomusicology. Ethnomusicology

18:197-217. Gourlay, K.A. 1978. Towards a Reassessment of the Ethnomusicologist's Role in

Research. Ethnomusicology XXII:1-35. Koskoff, Ellen. 1987. Response to Rice. Ethnomusicology 31:497-502. Merriam, Alan. 1964. The Anthropology of Music. Illinois: Northwestern University

Press. Nettl, Bruno. 1983. The Study of Ethnomusicology: Twenty-nine Issues and

Concepts. Chicago: University Press. Porcello, Thomas. 1998. Tails out: Social Phenomenology and the Ethnographic

Representation of Technology in Music-Making. Ethnomusicology 42:485-510.

Rice, T. 1987. Toward the Remodeling of Ethnomusicology. EM xxxi:469-88. Rice, Timothy. 1997. Toward a Mediation of Field Methods and Field Experience

in Ethnomusicology. In Shadows in the Field: New Perspectives for Fieldwork in Ethnomusicology, edited by G. F. B. a. T. J. Cooley. New York: Oxford University Press.

Stone, Ruth M. 1982. Let the Inside Be Sweet: the interpretation of music event

among the Kpelle of Liberia. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Titon, Jeff Todd. 1997. Knowing Fieldwork. In Shadows in the Field: New

Perspectives for Fieldwork in Ethnomusicology, edited by G. F. B. a. T. J. Cooley. New York: Oxford University Press.

Turino, Thomas. 1999. Signs of Imagination, Identity, and Experience: a Peircian

Semiotic Theory for Music. Ethnomusicology 26:197-215. Wachsmann, K. P. 1982. The Changeability of Musical Experience. EM xxvi:197.

29

Wade, Bonnie. 2004. Thinking Musically. New York: Oxford University Press.

30

TUTORIAL #3 – DR. SHAW: COMMUNICATION THEORIES

The purpose of this tutorial was to review the theories of communication, with an

emphasis on relevance theory. Sperber and Wilson discuss relevance theory from a

secular point of view, and Shaw and VanEngen apply and modify this to a missional

context. In this tutorial I developed an initial model for cross-cultural divine

communication through music. This model is based on a communication paradigm (as

opposed to an epistemological paradigm which I used in tutorial #6). The emphasis of the

model is that musicians should facilitate divine communication in the music worship

event rather than being the channel of divine communication.

The Musical Worship Event

God

Congregation

(Adults)

Musicians

(Youth)

God’s Revelation

(Word and Works)Musical Worship

Response

THEORETICAL MODEL #2

31

BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR TUTORIAL #3 – DR. SHAW

Bailey, Stephen K. . 2002. Communication Strategies for Christian Witness among the Lowland Lao Informed by Worldview Themes in Khwan Rituals. Ph.D., Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena.

Berlo, David K. 1960. The Process of Communication: An Introduction to Theory

and Practice. San Francisco: Rinehart Press. Grice, H. P. 1957. Meaning. Philosophical Review 66:377-388. Gudykunst, William B. and Young Yun Kim. 2003. Communicating with

Strangers: an approach to intercultural communication. 4th ed. New York: McGraw Hill.

Hill, Harriet Swannie. 2002. Communicating Context in Bible Translation Among

the Adioukrou of Cote D'Ivoire. Ph.D. Dissertation, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena.

King, Roberta Rose. 1989. Pathways in Christian Music communication: The

Case of the Senufo of Cote D'Ivoire. Ph.D. Dissertation, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena.

Kraft, Charles H. 1991. Communication Theory for Christian Witness. New York:

Orbis Books. Kraft, Marguerite G. 1978. Communication Defined. In Worldview and the

Communication of the Gospel, edited by M. G. Kraft. South Pasadena: William Carey Library.

Kuchan, Karen Lynn. 2004. Visio Divina: A Prayer Practice and Contextualized

Vehicle for Communicating the Gospel with Generation X in Western Contemporary Culture. Ph.D. Dissertation, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena.

Nida, Eugene A. 1960. Message and Mission. New York: Harper & Row. Rogers, Glenn F. 2002. The Missiological Implications of God's Desire for a

Relationship with All Peoples. Ph.D., Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena.

Schultz, Quentin J. 2000. Communicating for Life: Christian Stewardship in

Community and Media. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker.

32

Shaw, R. Daniel, and Charles E. Van Engen. 2003. Communicating God's Word in a Complex World: God's Truth or Hocus Pocus? . Lanhan, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.

Smith, Donald K. 1992. Creating Understanding. A Handbook for Christian

Communication Across Cultural Landscapes. . Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Sperber, Dan and Deirdre Wilson. 1986. Relevance: Communication and

Cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

33

TUTORIAL #5 – DR. VANENGEN: THE CORPUS CHRISTI FESTIVAL

The purpose of this tutorial was to investigate the meaning of the Corpus Christi

festival in my home town of El-Tingo. The result of my investigation was not the

discovery of the meaning, but a development of the process by which to begin discovery

of the meaning the people give to the festival. In this process, I did discover the

importance that the people give to their own history and traditions, which are the basis for

their worldview. I also began to discover that this worldview they hold is very different

from mine. My worldview is based on abstract concepts while their worldview is based

on their identity. I found that the national literature abounds more in recording historical

accounts of Ecuadorian traditions rather than in explaining the significance of those

traditions.

The festival has layered meaning

Enjoyment

Tradition

Identity

Worship

And a layered development

Harvest ritual

Sun worship

Catholic Corpus

Improvisations

(Inca)

(Cristianity)

(Military dictators)

(Indian)

34

BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR TUTORIAL #5 - DR. VANENGEN

Bevans, Stephans B. 1992. Models of Contextual Theology. New York: Orbis Books.

Campaña, Victor. 2000. Fiesta y Poder: La celebración de Rey de Reyes en

Riobamba. Quito: Abya-Yala. Cisneros Cisneros, César. 1948. Demografia y Estadistica sobre el Indio

Ecuatoriano. Quito: Talleres Gráficos Nacionales. Costales Samaniego, Alfredo. 2007. Ilaló: La Montaña Luminosa. Historia

antigua de la zona del Ilaló. De la prehistoria al siglo XVIII. Quito: OCP Ecuador, S.A.

Cuvi, Pablo. 2002. !Viva la Fiesta! Ecuador. Quito: Dinediciones. Friedemann, Nina. 2002. Solsticio de Verano. In!Viva la Fiesta! Ecuador, edited

by P. Cuvi. Quito: Dinediciones. Gallardo, José Felix. 1994. Conocoto Puerta del Cielo, Geografía e Historia de

Conocoto. Quito: Biblioteca Aurelio Espinosa Polit. Hiebert, Paul G. 1985. Anthropological Insights for Missionaries. Grand Rapids:

Baker Book House. Hinojosa Figueroa, Ángel Leonardo. 2002. Sangolquí: Historia, Tradiciones,

Anécdotas y Leyendas. Quito: Abya Yala. Huarcaya, Sergio Miguel. 2003. No Os Embriaguéis. Quito: Abya Yala. Irarrazaval, Diego. 1999. Un Cristianismo Andino. Quito: Abya Yala. Leyva Arroyo, Carlos. 2005. Música "Chica", Mito e Identidad Popular. Quito:

Abya Yala. Mackay, John A. 1933. The Other Spanish Christ. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and

Stock Publishers. Moya, Luz del Alba. 1995. La Fiesta Religiosa Indígena en el Ecuador. Quito:

Abya-Yala. Schreiter, Robert J. 1985. Constructing Local Theologies. New York: Orbis

Books.

35

Sepúlveda, Juan. 1995. Un Puerto para los Náufragos de la Modernidad. In Evangélicos en America Latina. Quito: Abya-Yala.

Sosa Freire, Rex Tipton. 1996. Miscelánea Histórica de PINTAG. Quito: Abya-

Yala.

36

TUTORIAL #6 – DR. VANENGEN: COMMUNICATION BIBLICAL TRUTH

THROUGH MUSIC-WORSHIP-RITUAL

The purpose of this tutorial was to develop a theoretical model for communicating

the gospel through music-worship. The result was a model for reaching a point of being

able to communicate the gospel. My struggle involved shifting to an epistemological

paradigm from a communication paradigm.

I also tried to develop a theology of worship for music-worship in El-Tingo, but I

encountered an obstacle in differing paradigms. The literature I read developed worship

theology from a doctrinal point of view and abstract thinking, and my present

understanding of “folk worship theology” is that it needs to be developed from an identity

point of view and concrete thinking.

POST-MODERN

Music-Worship-Ritual

New forms

Traditions

Beliefs BeliefsExtract

Music-Worship-Ritual

New forms

Traditions

Beliefs Beliefs

Evangelicals Rural folk

1111

2222

3333

4444

5555

6666

MODERN

Scripture

Abstract/Literate

Doctrine

Concrete/Oral

Identity

37

BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR TUTORIAL #6 – DR. VANENGEN

Allison, Norman E. 1984. Make sure you're getting through. Evangelical Quarterly:165-170.

Bevans, Stephen B. and Roger P. Schroeder. 2005. Missiology After Bosch:

Reverencing a Classic by Moving Beyond. International Bulletin of Missionary Research 29 (2):69-72.

Chibuko, Patrick. 1997. Liturgical Inculturation: Proposed Pattern. African

Ecclesial Review 39 (5-6):320-333. Foley, Edward. 1996. Foundations of Christian Music: The music of pre-

constantinian christianity. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press. Hesselgrave, David J. 1979. The Contextualization Continuum. Gospel in

Context 2 (3):4-11. Hurteau, Robert. 2006. Navigating the Limitations of Western Approaches to the

Intercultural Encounter: The Work of Walter Ong and Harry Triandis. Missiology: An International Review XXXIV (2):201-217.

Hustad, Donald P. 1989. Jubilate II: Church Music in Worship and Renewal:

Hope Publishing Company. Irarrazaval, Diego. 1999. Un Cristianismo Andino. Quito: Abya-Yala. Kallenberg, Brad J. 1995. Conversion Converted: A Postmodern Formulation of

the Doctrine of Conversion. Evangelical Quarterly 64 (4):335-364. Moreau, Scott. 2006. Contextualization that is Comprehensive. Missiology: An

International Review XXXIV (3):325-335. Pope, John Paul II. 2004. The Place of Sacred Music in Liturgical Celebration.

The Pope Speaks 49 (4):243-250. Rodriguez, Jeanette. 2004. Mestiza Spirituality: Community, Ritual, and Justice.

Theological Studies 64:317-339. Segura Guzmán, Osías A. 2006. Evangelical Costa Rican Churches, Folk-

Catholics, and Conversion: The Case Study of the Ritual Prayer of El Rezo del Niño. Missiology: An International Review XXXIV (2):179-199.

Swain, Joseph P. 2004. Inculturating Liturgical Music. America 191 (6):14-17.

38

Tiénou, Tite and Paul G. Hiebert. 2006. Missional Theology. Missiology: An International Review XXXIV (2):219-238.

Wainwright, Geoffrey and Karen B. Westerfield Tucker, editors. 2006. The Oxford

History of Christian Worship. Oxford: University Press. Wilson-Dickenson, Andrew. 1992. The Story of Christian Music. Minneapolis:

Fortress Press.