complexity leadership theory: a perspective for state

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Complexity Leadership Theory: A Perspective for State-Owned

Enterprises in Ghana

Francis Donkor & Dongmei Zhou1

1) University of Electronic Science and Tecnology of China. China

Date of publication: July 16th, 2019

Edition period: July 2018 - July 2019

To cite this article: Donkor, F. & Zhou, D. (2019). Complexity Leadership

Theory: A Perspective for State-Owned Enterprises in Ghana. International

Journal of Educational Leadership and Management, 7(2), 139-170.

DOI:10.17583/ijelm.2019.3647

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IJELM – International Journal of Educational Leadership and

Management Vol. 7 No. 2 July 2019 pp. 139-170

2019 HipatiaPress

ISSN: 2014-9018

DOI: 10.17583/ijelm.2019.3647

Complexity Leadership Theory:

A Perspective for State-Owned Enterprises

in Ghana

Francis Donkor

University of Electronic Science

and Technology of China

Dongmei Zhou University of Electronic Science and

Technology of China

Abstract

This article explores the need to change the bureaucratic leadership structure which

has bedeviled state-owned enterprises for many decades and how they compete in the

21st-century business environment where there are uncertainty and chaos. The SOEs

suppose provide employment, meet social and political needs, and operate in the

sectors of the economy that are of strategic importance to the state. Therefore, SOEs

are critical to economic development in emerging economies. The pace of change

confronting organizations today has added complexity to the organizational landscape

and now calls for more flexible and adaptive leadership. Adaptive leaders can work

more effectively in the unstable global business environment and are also able to

adopt a proactive approach in order to keep abreast of the increasing stakeholder

pressures in the enterprises. However, inadequate applicability of traditional

leadership models has indicated the need to develop new leadership models to solve

the complex organizational challenges. Hence complexity leadership approach seeks

to combine these dynamics to the bureaucratic hierarchies in order to explain the way

informal organizational dynamics function correctly and also to describe how these

valuable adaptive functions can be promoted to better the operations of SOEs in

Ghana

Keywords: Bureaucratic leadership; Complexity Leadership Theory; State-Owned

Enterprises; Complex Adaptive System; Ghana



2019 HipatiaPress

ISSN: 2014-9018

DOI: 10.17583/ijelm.2019.3647

Teoría del Liderazgo de Complejidad:

Una Perspectiva para las Empresas

Estatales en Ghana

Francis Donkor

University of Electronic Science

and Technology of China

Dongmei Zhou University of Electronic Science and

Technology of China

Resumen

Este artículo explora la necesidad de cambiar la estructura de liderazgo burocrático

que ha acosado a las empresas durante décadas y la competición en el entorno

empresarial de incertidumbre y caótico del S.XXI. Las SOE proporcionan empleo,

satisfacen necesidades sociales y políticas, y operan en sectores de la economía que

son de importancia estratégica para el Estado. Las empresas son fundamentales para

el desarrollo económico de las economías emergentes. El ritmo del cambio que

enfrentan las organizaciones en la actualidad ha agregado complejidad al panorama

organizacional y exige un liderazgo más adaptable. Los líderes flexibles pueden

trabajar más eficazmente en el inestable entorno empresarial global y también pueden

adoptar un enfoque proactivo para mantenerse al tanto de las crecientes presiones en

las empresas. Sin embargo, la aplicabilidad inadecuada de los modelos de liderazgo

tradicionales ha indicado la necesidad de desarrollar nuevos modelos de liderazgo

para resolver los complejos desafíos organizativos. Por lo tanto, el enfoque de

liderazgo de complejidad busca combinar estas dinámicas con las jerarquías

burocráticas para explicar la forma en que funcionan correctamente las dinámicas

organizacionales informales y para describir cómo estas funciones de adaptación

pueden promoverse para mejorar las operaciones de las empresas estatales en Ghana.

Palabras clave: Liderazgo burocrático; Teoría del liderazgo de complejidad; Empresas de

propiedad estatal; Sistema adaptativo complejo; Ghana.

IJELM– International Journal Educational Leadership & Management, 7(2) 141

n all human endeavors, leadership continues to exhibit influence on

individuals and organizations in ways of doing things or achieving

their objectives. The bureaucratic leadership style focuses on the

behaviors and traits of individual leaders as appropriate means to determine

leadership efficacy. In some manufacturing and state-owned enterprises, these

theories of traditional bureaucratic leadership approach and decision-making

strategies persist even though technology and innovation suppose to have

taken the more significant part of making organizational objectives achievable

through the use of advanced business strategies. This supposed to describe the

best way of leading a 21st-century business organization. The development of

modern theories has adjusted the thinking of leadership for both practitioners

and scholars to shift their attention to the contemporary approach of leading.

Entities are seen as a complex system that can be adopted for effective

leadership. This suggests that an organization that deals with organisms are a

complex system that at all times, will affect leadership structures as well as

the duties of the leaders. Research on leadership and organizations points out

that organizations are operating in an increasingly complex and dynamic

environment (Marion & Uhl-Bien, 2011).

The instability of the global business environment has added complexity

to the organizational landscape. Corporate leaders have found themselves in a

turbulent business environment that challenges them to respond quickly and

positively to the environment. Literature posits that managers must rapidly

shift away from the ancient management techniques and adopt contemporary

leadership styles, which according to Bass (1999) multifactor leadership

theory and full range leadership theory would be either laissez-faire,

transactional or transformational. The leadership style within an organization

is a significant determinant of the attainment of goals and objectives, as well

as the day-to-day operations of the corporation.

For organizational change and its adaptive circumstances to be effective,

Abbas and Asgar (2010), think that there should be useful and competence in

one’s leadership style. This leader should be able to perceive what is desirable

and deal with it tactfully. Hijazi, Kasim, & Daud, (2017), also believe that

managers have what it takes to determine the future direction of the entity

I


independently. They further postulate that they can design, build, and control

the future of their organizations also. Even though there is no evidence that

people understand the role of a leader to be all-inclusive. Drucker (2012), has

it that organizations of today are engulfed with a complex and competitive

system of environment known as the threshold of chaos mostly led by

globalization and technology revolution. To this extent, enterprises supposed

to adopt strategies that are a knowledge-based, innovative and creative

thinking that enhance quicker decision making and can afford to change the

traditional bureaucratic structure to a new and modern style of leadership that

resonates with new system development and are flexible when it comes to

organizational decision making. This is only how an organization will survive

in this chaotic environment of today (Byrne & Callaghan, 2013; Adams &

Stewart, 2015).

For a modern-day organization to survive the technology, innovation, and

global competition in this unpredictable, volatile, and environmental chaos,

the managers should think of complexity leadership. This study, therefore,

aims to set the center stage for the state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in Ghana

that engage in traditional bureaucratic leadership style where the formal

structure is seen as the rigid rule for setting goals to be achieved. In this regard,

the complexity leadership framework in the ecosystem organism of the SOEs

will be understood. The article will explore the knowledge-based conditions,

which are most current for the development of creativity and solution to

organizational adaptive capacity determinants to be able to achieve goals or

objectives set by the state.

Primarily, complexity leadership theory will be well understood through

the exploration of the required qualities of leadership by the SOEs. This will

be weighed against the restrictions of the traditional bureaucratic model that

has been practiced over the years. In this regard, the complexity leadership

theory model that distinguishes itself from the traditional model and the role

they play in the knowledge-based era where technology and innovation is the

way forward will be clarified.


Methodology

A systematic review approach was adopted to find research on state-owned

enterprise and the leadership approach that best fits it was conducted from the

existing literature. This involved extensive search in the extant literature

through the replicable procedure (Tranfield et al., 2003). The main aim of this

literature review was to identify and discuss the study trend and find the gap

in the leadership and SOEs management in a general public sector

organization. A systematic literature review is a broader way of soliciting

literature in a structured procedure (Jesson et al., 2011).

The researchers used the keyword search on all the available peer-reviewed

articles that relate to the public sector in general and SOEs in particular that

has been published over the years now. The databases like Google Scholar,

ScienceDirect, Business Source Complete, Digital Commons, ERIC were the

point of contacts. Another aspect of the search was to look at the title and

abstract to filter the relevant papers that relate to bureaucratic leadership,

SOEs, and complexity leadership theory. Again, other key journals were

found in ResearchGate to augment what we have. We received 124 articles

but further sifted it to 70 and added some materials from literature related

books. The information gathered were used below to address the under-

researched area in the SOEs leadership, and it must be emphasized here that

all the SRL stages were followed to arrive at this stage.

State-Owned Enterprises in Ghana

The history of SOEs dates back to the 1960s and 1970s when the

governments of Asia, Africa, and Latin America developed these enterprises

to address economic and social needs (Jain, Gupta & Yadav, 2014; Tanlamai

& Juta, 2011). The mandate of SOEs includes social goals, such as job

creation and providing essential services (Tsamenyi, Onumah & Tetteh-

Kumah, 2010; Pratuckchai, & Patanapongse, 2012). These organizations

contribute to the socio-economic life in emerging markets (Thomas, 2012).

As SOEs perform market-based activities, such as manufacturing, they

assume a profit-oriented structure (Pratuckchai & Patanapongse, 2012).


SOEs also support infrastructure services in a community such as

transportation, broadcasting, hospitals, schools, roads, housing, and social

intervention programs (Pratuckchai & Patanapongse, 2012). Thus, SOEs are

critical to economic activity in emerging market countries. The creation of

SOEs was meant to provide employment, meet social and political needs, and

operate in the sectors of the economy that were of strategic importance to the

state (Pratuckchai & Patanapongse, 2012). Thus, the motives for the creation

of SOEs included social goals beyond financial profit (Pratuckchai &

Patanapongse, 2012). SOEs in Ghana is primarily in the manufacturing

industries, extractive- mining, quarrying, and utilities – industrial, domestic

power, and water supply (Odainkey & Simpson, 2012). Ghana’s SOEs

contribute to approximately 30% of total industrial output in the country

(Odainkey & Simpson, 2012). Unpredicted challenges such as globalization

negatively impacted on the profitability of SOEs (Chen, Wang, Huang &

Spencer-Rodgers, 2012). In the 1980s, Ghana could boast of over 300 SOEs

but has now been reduced to 86, due to several factors of which the leadership

is a major one. This comprises 46 wholly state-owned and 40 joint ventures.

In 2016, 18 of, these SOEs wholly owned by the state incurred a total loss of

791 million cedis ($ 200 Million). The failure of SOEs continue to burden

government which has equity position. To address these challenges,

governments adopted two separate strategies including privatization and the

development of structural reforms (Odainkey & Simpson, 2012). In our view,

the latter strategy of structural reforms to take care of the traditional

bureaucratic leadership which gives the administrative leaders more authority

to suppress informal (adaptive) be dealt with for proper functioning of these

SOEs. This is so because the role of the SOEs are still relevant in today’s

global business environment where uncertainty and chaos affect predictability

of the market. The publics still need our SOEs to function well to provide

heterogeneous products and services and open employment opportunities for

the teaming youth.


Bureaucratic Leadership Style in SOEs

According to Weber (1946), the bureaucratic structure is characterized by

well-defined roles and responsibilities, a hierarchical structure, coordinated

by rules, functionally departmentalized, and impersonal system and respect

for merits. Jaques (1989) posits that bureaucracy is structurally organized into

production functions (e.g., line or lower level management), organizational

functions (e.g., middle-level management), and executive functions (e.g., top-

level management, strategic). The finding enhances this assertion by the study

on optimal hierarchical structures of organizations that can commit to their

organizational structure but not long term wages (Shin, & Strausz, 2013). In

this modern knowledge-based era, the management of our SOEs is organized

around the traditional bureaucratic leadership model where formal structure

which depicts impersonal relationships exists. The structure is such that

communication is solely formal and impersonal, which adopts a self-

protective position towards proper behavior, which in most circumstances,

affects organizational performance due to its rigidity. These bureaucratic

leaders tell subordinates what they should do on the grounds of the policy of

the organization, procedural, and guidelines laid down from the onset. In

bureaucratic leadership, rules are absolute. Bureaucracy in the organization

again is the arrangement designed as to how day to day activities are carried

out. This is represented by officials who are tasked to perform different

functions provided according to their status and roles. The leader works by

job description and his job as a manager is more like a judge who does not

entertain any act of excuses in the discharge of duties (Weber, 1946). A

bureaucratic leader does allow any free room for his subordinates to operate.

Therefore their freedom is curtailed (Javadin, 2007).

The bureaucratic characteristics are sometimes in conflict with some of the

theories of leadership. Wright (2008) posit that, to be stable and predictive

and to have equity in the bureaucratic environment should result in relying on

a mechanism to be able to limit the discretion of individuals and enhance

uniformity in how members understand and respond to the organizational

situation and task. With this inflexibility in bureaucratic organizations,

leadership is facing obstacles in its implications. Wriston (1980) suggests


three basic principles, which include hierarchy, formalization, and

centralization. According to Millett (1967) “hierarchy generally refers to a

system of organization in an enterprise whereby there are variously defined

levels of authority and responsibility” (p 423). Armandi & Jr (1985) also

mentioned that “Formalization looks at the degree to which tasks are

standardized. This implies written rules to be followed and stipulates negative

sanctions in cases of rule violations” (p 266). Hsu, Marsh & Mannari (1983)

defined centralization as “the distribution of authority within the focal

organization” (p 976). According to them, centralization in the bureaucratic

context concerns authority and decision making. In other words, the smaller

the group that makes the decision, the more centralized the organization is

going to be.

Mullins (1999) further asserts that formal and informal leadership in our

enterprises have a relationship that affects the way they do their daily

activities. In every business entity, there is a formal bureaucratic leadership

structure that functions as departments and makes sure the objectives are

achieved. There also exists in the informal enterprise relationship established

by groups which in most cases not recognized by the formal leadership

structure that serve the interest of its members either positively or negatively.

In addition to the formal hierarchical structure in the organization, the

informal groups also help individual members in their job performance and

the entire organization. The formal structure, which represents the

bureaucracy in state-owned enterprises gives direction as to how members in

the organization function officially to achieve organizational objective.

People within the groups use their social domination to impose their wills on

other members. Leadership is supposed to ensure that both formal and

informal members within the enterprise work effectively to produce the

desired results through resource allocation mobilized by the enterprise to carry

out strategic plan. Leaders ought to use the structure to establish the

relationship between the individuals and groups to motivate workers

effectively and efficiently helps achieve organizational output (Rogers, 2017).


Bureaucracy, according to Abdullah et al., (2013) is a management system

that was purposeful to looks at the affairs of the state and how it relates to the

people within the society. The bureaucratic system here looks at standard

processes and procedures, bookkeeping, and how decisions should be made

with an organization. That is checks and balances. The extent of bureaucracy

within the enterprise or the organization determines its activities and attributes

of such an organization. The members in the bureaucratic systems are

professionals who are well-trained line and staff officers who are on full-time

employment and who perform administrative functions and tasks. It must be

stated here that these people are not elected to take up positions. The structure

of bureaucracy looks at how the staff is arranged to function to deliver

organizational objectives. The chart of a bureaucratic structure is in the form

of a pyramid with a vertical line of communication from the top executives to

the bottom rank and file.

Within the organization also exists informal organization which consists

of the relationship between individuals and groups based on their day-to-day

interactions, emotions, personal attitudes, like and dislike, prejudices, cultural

and religious affiliations. This informal structure is not sanctioned by the

formal authority but can arise across formal structures due to personal and

social relations of the people within the organization. Members in this

informal structure do not work in their official capacities but as persons who

share hopes and aspirations, joy, sorrow, and fear together. Informal

organizations do not have laid down rigid rules and authority as the formal

bureaucratic structure has, but it has leadership. Again, it has unwritten norms

and behavior which govern the members. This determines methods of

correction and how to punish those who fall foul to the norms of the group.

The informal organization gives life to the formal structure to function well to

achieve organizational objectives. For the formal organization to perform

better, it ought to support from the informal organization. For an organization

to be orderly and efficient members in the formal and informal structure

should have cordiality in their operations so that success could be

harmoniously achieved. The moment there is hostility between these two

structures, the enterprise becomes deficient in achieving objectives.


Leadership results in the attainment of organizational goals (van Vugt,

2006). Chan & Chan (2005) posits that leadership has a relationship between

the leader and his followers. There is a degree of leadership capabilities in

every individual; the tendencies may vary among individuals. However,

formal bureaucratic leaders most at times neglect the informal leaders

(Schreiber & Carley, 2005), though they both exist in the same environment

seeking the success of the same enterprise (Loughead, Hardy & Eys, 2006; Painter-Morland, 2008). Informal leaders are found to be very significant

contributors to organizational leadership, but formal leaders most often fail to

leverage their powers (Pescosolido, 2001; Yukl & Becker, 2006).

For efficiency and effectiveness in the organization to be realized, the

formal bureaucratic organization may need the backing of the innovativeness

of the informal organization. Unfortunately, the relationship between the two

structures has always been complicated and exciting because of obvious

reasons. Rogers (2017) concludes that persistent association and interaction

between the formal and informal organizational members will yield the

emergence of informal structure. This informal structure will consist of group

relations and creates mutual ties that will bring aid and assistance to augment

the innovations being sought for. Both formal and informal group members

play various essential roles in the organization for it to achieve its stated

objectives as stipulated by the bureaucratic structures. The members in these

groups must be either persuaded, threatened, or coerced to take part or

participate in the functioning of the organization. However, in all situations,

subordinates fully participate in organizational performance when there is an

expectation. In other words, when the members in the group are expecting to

benefit from the system or the outcome of their participation like promotion,

prestige, or high pay from their actions.

These expectations serve as motivation for the members to fully

participate in organizational success. This suggests that informal members

must be identified with the decision making in order to help the organization

achieve its goals. It is a fact that members in the organization feel satisfied if

they are seen to be part of a more critical decision-making group. This

enhances or motivates them to work their hearts out.


Every member of the SOEs has his or her motivation that makes him or

her play the role to help achieve organizational goals. Every business

organization will only achieve success if there is proper coordination among

members internally and externally. This is because people working in the

organization have different reason or motive of joining the group, and their

contribution to the organizational goals must be seen to be identified and

mentioned. Business enterprises cannot function well without their informal

members.

The contributions of all the informal members, coupled with the formal

members, put together to achieve equilibrium. To do these members on both

sides should be induced to work well to achieve success. This should happen

at all level of the organization.

In this case, the outlook of the activities within the organization will either

increase or reduce at each level of the enterprise. Uhl-Bien and Marion (2009)

suggest that functionally departmental barriers state the authority and

responsibilities that are interdependent are just descriptive and unrealistic and

whose effects will hinder the attainment of organizational goals.

Complexity Leadership in SOEs

Leadership styles in traditional bureaucratic structure have been to get

subordinates to go by the structures laid down to achieve organizational goals.

Traditional leaders do this by the use of motivation, and the flow of

information is from top to bottom (Bass, 1985). The leaders get their plans

implemented through interactive relationships with the individuals. In the

bureaucratic structure, the leaders get subordinates to follow the laid down

rules to prevent subordinates from resistance to change, preventing objection

to their decisions. All these implementations and rigid rules are to achieve

organizational objectives. Interventions by subordinates are out of the

question in most circumstances. The leader is seen to have all the strategies to

influence the system, and all he does is the right thing.


Frederick Taylor in 1926, as cited by Bass (2002), suggested that there is

a possibility of social forces subverting processing procedure. The relation

here is described as a struggle between rationality and irrational forces who

do not want organizational goals to be achieved (Selznick, 1948). Barnard

(1938) posits that formal (administrative) leaders are performing as leaders

because the informal structure accepts them as such. Lewin (1952) thought

informal behavior could be exploited to create change in the organization.

Recent researchers and scholars have suggested that these two structures in

organizations are conflictive with elites taken the roles of administrative to

suppress workers in the informal structure (Jermier, 1998). Lewin (1952)

again, did not see it as ‘conflictive but rather as something that can be nurtured

and enabled.’ It should be seen as a valuable force that brings about effective

change in the organization. To be able to achieve useful organizational

objective, formal and informal organization ought to be fostered but not

managed (Uhl-Bien, Marion & McKelvey, 2007). Uhl-Bien & Marion,

(2009), moves beyond traditional bureaucratic structure and adopt complexity

thinking to analyze the informal (adaptive) structure critically. They further

suggest that entanglement of formal and informal bureaucratic structure unify

the two and continued to see informal dynamic structure as a valuable resource

in any organization where complexity leadership theory happens to foster

these resources. To effectively address these dynamics and integrate formal

and informal structures, three primary functions of complexity leadership in

the traditional bureaucratic organization has been adopted. The three models

according to Uhl-Bien & Marion (2009); Waldman & Bowden (2016);

Bowden & Smits (2015); Baltaci & Balcı (2017) includes –administrative

leadership, adaptive leadership, and enabling leadership. These functions

described as entanglement.

This age of business environment creates some kinds of problems for

enterprises and their leaders (Schneider, 2002; Baltaci & Balcı, 2017). In this

post-industrial period, the achievement of state-owned enterprises depends on

its human capital and organizational members thinking capabilities as

compared to physical abilities (Fidan & Oztürk, 2015; McKelvey, 2001).

In an economy like Ghana, that wants to be industrialized in this 21st century,

how to coordinate physical assets, subordinates created to become a


challenging task. This is mainly due to the problem of manufacturing

optimization and the flow of products (Schneider, 2002; Alcácer, Cantwell &

Piscitello, 2016). Within this new system of economy, the problem is creating

an environment that reduces cost and increases productivity while

accumulating knowledge. The objective is to develop, cultivate, and produce

products that cannot be easily reproduced by competitors within the growing

chaotic and competitive environment (Nonaka & Nishiguchi, 2001).

Chesbrough (2006) reiterated that ‘intellectual knowledge accumulation is

settled through the transformation of knowledge’ (page). This has been a

challenge of various organizations through distributed intelligence over the

cellular network rather than limited production of information on particular

members in the enterprise who are seen to be the few brains at the top capable

of doing the organization works (Miles, Snow, Matthews & Miles, 1999).

In all these, the attention should be on how quickly and adaptable the

enterprise could be rather than who controls who which is the best for

production sectors (Jones, 2000). Organizations of this modern era should

have their attention on resonance with new conditions, new thinking, and

learning alongside productivity and organizational control (Marion, 1999).

This is because the traditional bureaucratic structure lacks the concept of

formal leadership, which restricts the applicability of these modern times

(Uhl-Bien, Marion & McKelvey, 2007). The shift predominantly by these

theories tries to avoid uncertainty by looking at the aspect of organizational

functions and structures.

However, the tendency towards structural issues for the quest of stability

in the unpredictable and constantly growing competitive business world of

today may affect organizational growth (Northouse, 2015). The problem is to

offer alternatives to bureaucratic structure that has been used in SOEs and how

best to use these alternative theories in practical terms. In the same vein,

arguments like organizational structure, workforce planning, and technology

to define uncertainty can encourage organizational objectives and how it is to

be achieved (Burpo, 2006). New leadership theory is needed to replace the

bureaucratic leadership theory as it has a very slight chance of meeting the

modern-day leadership strategy to manage competitive and chaotic business


environment today. Complexity leadership is premised on the fact that

management should be simplified. This provides managers with resonance

skills to manage uncertainty that may arise instead of over control by the top

managers and suppression in the course of its activities (Waldman & Bowen,

2016).

Past studies have revealed that the dynamics make achieving stated

objectives insufficient and informal group dynamics are not adhered to

(Baltaci and Balcı, 2017). Edmonstone (2016) observed that the ability to

resonate with new conditions that are focused on new forms of authority,

distributed authorities, and the dynamics of social networks in interaction with

informal groups is not satisfactory.

For this to be successful, organizations must increase the adaptivity in their

ecosystem around the organizational level rather than justifying their

traditional structure (Ashby, 2013; Boisot & McKelvey, 2010). They

proposed in simple terms that ‘chaotic level of organizations in the same

environment should be the same in order for complexity to overcome

complexity.’ In this case, the system will function effectively. This required

that complexity will help the system capacity (human, capital, and technical)

to search for a solution to the problems and introduce new ways of doing

things in the production sector of the enterprise. That is the complexity system

will improve creativity, adaptability, and organizational learning.

The traditional bureaucratic organization has devised a simplified solution

in the pursuit of adaptation. Such an organization has concluded on strategies

that define fixed boundaries and make communication simplified (Cilliers,

2005). Cilliers further suggested that these approaches will lead to static

structure because there should not be fixed perimeters that create restrictions

on the function of organizational members. To be able to meet these needs,

this new era of leadership requires a paradigm shift in thinking from

individualism and control to view the entire enterprise as an ecosystem that

allows innovation to continue to acquire complexly adaptive knowledge.


Image 1

Traditional Leadership.

Adapted from Uhl-Bien (2006), Adaptive Space: The Key to Leadership in a Complex World.

(p. 643)

In view of the arguments stated above, one can conclude that enterprise

leaders in complex adaptive system need formal leaders (administrators) who

are knowledgeable in modern style of leadership who are able to work with

people who are knowledge-driven individuals and are innovative, creative and

technologically know how so as to improve organizational efficiency and

effectiveness. They should, therefore, be abreast of a complex adaptive system

that is required in this knowledge era of management.

Scope of Complexity Leadership Theory

Administrative Leadership: Administrative leadership plays formal

managerial roles (bureaucratic functions) of the organizational members that

coordinate the activities of the organization (Baltaci & Balcı, 2017; Uhl-Bien

& Marion, 2009). Schneider & Somers (2006) added that leaders have

managerial roles to play in the organization including but not limited to

creating an organizational vision, planning sources of production, defining


policies and strategies as well as workflow regulations. The functions of these

leaders vary within the hierarchical structure of the organizations. Managers

within the formal structure who may be in charge of the strategic planning

unit may as well take care of coordination and resource allocation in the

organization. They may also be focusing on planning and coordination of

activities that bothers on creativity, supplies and organizational structural

regulations. This function is far different from those of informal (Uhl-bien &

Marion, 2009; Bowden & Smits, 2015).

In the words of Jackson (2012), any formal organizational bureaucracy that

considers the downward communication to be an effective way of achieving

objectives, the top-down structure becomes the main instrument of the

organization to achieve its objectives. By this decision making and

organizational success is centered on the hierarchical authority. However this

may be the case, the complex adaptive leadership theory expects the structure

of such managerial leadership without boundaries and should be transparent

enough to allow creativity, resonance and organizational learning formulated

through adaptive leadership in times of chaos (Conner, 1998). This approach

will encourage innovation, creative solution, and deal with the unpredictable

competitive environment (Jackson, 2012).

Adaptive Leadership: is an informal leadership structure in organizations

that occurs consciously within the organization through interactions of

interdependent individuals as they work together to create solutions and

provide novel ideas for organizational objectives to be achieved (Lichtenstein

& Plowman, 2009; Heifetz, Grashow & Linsky, 2009; Uhl-Bien & Marion,

2009). This adaptive leadership comes to play because there is a tendency of

different needs between formal and informal leadership structure as well as

different preferences among the organizational members. Due to this, adaptive

leadership seeks organizational change in informal interactions and

organizational dynamics, which focuses on individuals and groups (Cilliers,

2001). Adaptive leadership has two ways of asymmetrical interactions. There

is one which involves preferences such as diversity of information, beliefs,

and skills of the members, and the others are from the authority of the

organization. Where the interaction is always from the authority, then the


asymmetry is top down. However, if it focuses on preferences then the

asymmetry is dynamic (Cilliers, 2001).

Enabling Leadership: This leadership operates as an intermediary between

administrative and adaptive leadership. Enabling leadership works to bring

conducive enabling conditions to the complex dynamics of adaptive

leadership and further manages the administrative-to-adaptive and also from

innovative-to-organization (Uhl-Bien, Marion & McKelvey, 2007; Uhl-bien

& Marion, 2009).

The roles of enabling leadership can be summed up as below (Lieberman

& Mace, 2009; Baltaci & Balcı, 2017):

- Enabling leadership brings to bare complex adaptive system dynamics by

fostering adaptive leadership and emergence.

- Enabling leadership deals with the task of managing complexity between

administrative (formal) and adaptive (informal) leadership.

This aims particularly at managing organizational setting where adaptive

leadership is enforced and also makes innovative products available to help

adaptive leadership emerge from the formal management system.

Entanglement also looks at how administrative and adaptive leadership can

work together for the organization to function well. This explains

entanglement to mean a dynamic relationship between formal and informal

ecosystem in an organization (Thomas, Kaminska & McKelvey, 2005; Uhl-

Bien & Marion, 2009; Schneider & Somers, 2006).

Do We Need Complex Adaptive System in SOEs?

As businesses today strive to be innovative in its management to achieve

optimum, SOEs ought to appropriately adapt and use enabling leadership to

achieve the best of CAS that fosters adaptive leadership. Catalyzing of the

enterprises is the right way to be effective. Networks that are convenient for

adaptive leadership to emerge include interactive, minimal independent, and

infused tension structure. The tension caused by chaos will be settled by

enabling leadership through linking all dynamic networks and reduction in

dependency of members for complex survival and introduction of an adaptive


system that motivates and synchronize interactive dynamics in the enterprise

(Uhl-Bien & Arena, 2017).

Interaction: adequate network conditions are caused by interaction.

Interaction brings about linkages among network across the follow of

information. Enabling leaders may not be in the position to define the

requirement for sufficient communication network in the SOEs or put up a

system of connection that is most appropriate for SOEs complicated

networking structure. These networks operate automatically within the

enterprise. It is self-organizing a dynamic structure that creates a system of

networking that can evolve. At the organizational level, enabling leaders can

offer interaction through several strategies as working environment, the

architecture of employees and work groups selected by workers, emails, and

administrative work schedules by management and office rules structuring

(Jaques, 1989; Cilliers, 2001; Uhl-Bien, Marion & McKelvey, 2007).

Interaction in SOEs as the case may be should not be just for elements in

organizational management or workgroups but also in the whole ecosystem

of the enterprise who can improve the structures. The enterprise may decide

wholly to create steps to improve on the productive activities via movement

of materials, human resources, capital and information for subsequent

production, either from other related organisations or exchange materials and

information from other enterprises for production. Sometimes it could be

transfer of knowledge and information and technology with related

organisations within or without the same spectrum. This will significantly

reduce chaos and improve efficiency and sustainability. This leadership may

be able to manage any pressure that environmental dynamics and enterprise

may have over a complex adaptive system. This may improve the leadership

skills that will extend organizational capacity to get raw material, human

resources, and information that will help resonate change of environment to

enable the transfer of information which includes a creative dynamic system.

Here, environmental dynamics caused by the complex adaptive system will

favor management through enabling leadership. This will resonate

environmental changes and efficiency, which is a requirement for enabling

leadership structure (Bradbury & Lichtenstein, 2000).


Those agents in an adaptive system can perform the role of enabling

leadership that will enhance interactive contribution. This will open up

individuals within the enterprise to increase their interactions and share their

information with the sectors within the organization. Through that,

productivity will be improved because resources become easily accessible

(Boal & Schlultz, 2007). Besides, members in the agents can involve

themselves in the environmental issues by contributing to the information

flow of the enterprise by learning the organizational processes to gain insight

to be able to interact with others in perspective that enhance organizational

production capacity. Through this, organizational members learn and become

much more creative in their various area of specialization. Their competency

and understanding of the organizational operations will also be enhanced

through constant interactions among those within and without the enterprise.

Organizational and environmental monitoring should be part of the

perspectives agents need to understand to be able to appreciate how these

forces influence the adaptive dynamic system. Some of the forces are social,

political, economic, technological, national, and international (Schneider &

Somers, 2006; Uhl-Bien & Marion, 2009).

Fostering Interdependency: in managing complexity, one cannot rely on

interaction alone in the enterprise. There is the need to have interdependence

of the agents in the ecosystem to avoid pressure caused by information

dependency and allow dynamic information movements. Potency in

interdependence derived from naturally emergent network networks of

conflicting constraints. Such conflicts may be occurring due to stifling of

information by one agent when another possesses all the needed information.

When these restrictions occur, organizational members may be under severe

pressure in controlling production activities at some levels, and the network

may be elaborated (Burke, 2013). There are several ways to manage

conditions at the organizational level that triggers organizational dependency

mechanisms (Jaques, 1989). One of the tools is allowing measured autonomy

to enable organizational members to deal with chaos without management

intervention and intrusion, notwithstanding the likelihood of creating more

conflicts (Shalley, C. E., & Gilson, 2004). One of the duties leaders in SOEs

supposed to perform is to help solve organizational issues through proper

interventions. In so doing, organizational interdependence is affected. This


sometimes limits adaptive system mechanisms within the organizations.

Members in the enterprise supposed to enjoy all the freedom to express

themselves and share ideas on organizational issues, be creative and bring out

new ways of solving organizational problems (Serban et al., 2015).

Adaptive Tension: enabling leadership makes it easy to deal with

controversies within the organization. This is possible through leadership

strategies gained by the adoption of CLT, resonance, and knowledge

accumulation through interaction. The internal tension comes about because

of differences among organizational members in the area of skills levels,

experience, preferences, and outlooks (McKelvey, 2007). In the case of

dependencies, these differences pressurize organizational members to

themselves but at the strategic levels these differences are managed to bring

diversity and respect among members who intend creates enabling

environment for sharing of varying ideas to promote harmony and tolerance

in finding solutions to organizational problems (Heifetz, Grashow & Linsky,

2009; Waldman & Bowen, 2016). This is the work of enabling leadership,

which, in addition to creating tension, also causes environmental elements to

create external tension. Leaders at the top of the enterprise structure may

create external tension with pressures and managerial challenges by internal

practices such as distributing resources to support creative ideas and creating

demand for organizational products. Enabling leadership perception of

tension in the organisation is a requirement for emergence which in turn

supports knowledge transfer and creative ideas. This idea creation and evenly

distributed resources is a requirement that can influence emergence in the

organisational network dynamics (Smits & Bowden, 2015). At the individual

levels within the enterprise, tension can be dealt with by enabling leaders by

indulging in fruitful discussions and interactions that will allow individuals to

interact to find solutions to problems and develop new ideas through adaptive

system dynamics. This will bring to fore the differences between task conflicts

and interpersonal conflict and how to reduce it to improve problem solving

capabilities in the organisation (Uhl-Bien, Marion & McKelvey, 2007).


Discussion

The study seeks to ignite a debate within the scholarship and leadership

practitioner’s fraternity the need to introduce complexity leadership into SOEs

to reduce the heroic power and authority of the individual administrative

leaders who are imposing on the leadership positions by the political actors.

There is the need to move away from the dependency of a few leaders who

are seen as super-heroes and possess all the qualities needed to achieve

organizational success. Application of complexity leadership theory in SOEs

does not exist in scholarly literature and the private sector environment, it is

at its infancy stage (Tourish, 2018). This may be because practitioners have

not seen the need to have a paradigm shift from the status quo. The instability

in the world’s economy, coupled with the importance of SOEs to Ghana’s

emerging economy has necessitated the need to introduce CLT to enhance

intrapreneurial skills in these entities. This is because CLT expresses a

positivist approach to social science (Maguire, 2011) as the focus is on the

interactive nature of the agents in the organization (Tourish, 2018).

Marion & Uhl-Bien (2011) posit that complex problems in organizations

and their subsystems need to be tackled with complex responses and that

complexity leadership approach propose strategies that leaders can adapt to

solve these problems. Lichtenstien & Plowman (2009) further reiterate that

complexity leaders attempt to minimize chaos and bring orderliness into the

organization and its subsystems. It is through this that organizational harmony

and commitment emerge which in turn breeds effective performance.

Therefore, complexity leadership is seen as a means of leaders encourage

experimentation, establish routines, create a proper chain of responsibility,

encourage learning culture, and recognize accountability among the agents

within the organization (Hazy & Uhl-Bien, 2013). If we work in the

organization, then it makes sense to see leaders and employees interacting to

achieve organizational objectives (Tourish, 2018). Consistent with this shift

in our thinking, leaders in SOEs cannot depict as a force that stands alone from

complex systems and exerts influence to achieve positive results. Given this,

leaders are encouraged to open up for interactions with the informal groups to

bring emergence to help energize collective action that is inspirational


(Plowman et al. 2007). This is because CAS as a social network allows

employees to interact and interrelate with each other to create collaboration

and shared goals and perspectives. CAS has been seen through research to be

flexible hierarchical structure connected through multiple ties and interactive

networks of those introduced to the social system.

Applying complex leadership theory in SOEs will help address the gap in

understanding regarding the formal and informal workings in the organization

and the relationship with the administrative control system of traditional

bureaucracy by giving a perspective of organizational leadership that

recognizes the link between formal and informal dynamics in organizations

(Smith & Graetz, 2006). Besides, complex systems have evolved from the

social system theory because of its ability to display resonance, learning, and

creative thinking. SOEs surely needs a leadership model that is different from

the bureaucratic model. This model in the complex adaptive system has

behavioral and knowledge pattern that is new in terms of product and service

development because this pattern combines technology and bureaucratic

authority to address challenges that may be encountered because it is

interactive and dynamic which can stimulate organizational change.

Leaders in SOEs need to position and enable organizations for adaptability

in these times of increasingly dynamic and demanding business circles (Uhl-

Bien & Arena, 2018). It is through this that a more positive outcome will flow

into the organizations and attract qualified human capital to improve

economic growth.

Conclusion

SOEs continue to remain one of the critical sources of employment and

provision of public services in the developing countries. However,

bureaucratic leadership style being practiced coupled with unclear mandates

of employees, has affected its efficiency over the years. To improve

performance, the boundaries of leadership should be eliminated so that

leadership may not be used to a suppressive tool, but to collaborate to achieve

goals.


By so doing, well-trained professionals who understand the complex

system and how to adapt in times of chaos should be allowed to hold the fort

but not political appointees as the situation is today. The existence of multiple

leaders in the organization affects its ability to use the structures to gain the

success efficiently it wants to, and this pluralized leadership influence the

networking relationship that connects people (Denis et al., 2012). This is

because they exert influence through the structures formally and informally in

complex organizations. The competitive business environment we find

ourselves today where the market is fluctuating day-by-day, very

unpredictable and chaotic requires a complex adaptive system. The pace of

change confronting organizations today have added complexity to the

organizational landscape and now calls for more flexible and adaptive

leadership.

Adaptive leaders can work more effectively in the unstable global business

environment (Rowe & Guerrero, 2011) and are also able to adopt a proactive

approach in order to keep abreast of the increasing stakeholder pressures in

the enterprises. Leaders work together with their followers to realize the short

and long-term plans of the organization and to achieve specific objectives. An

organization does not operate in a vacuum; it is influenced by both internal

and external stakeholders (Bryman, 2011). In this regard, the citizens are the

stakeholders as state-owned enterprises supposed to perform to better their

lives. However, inadequate applicability of traditional leadership models has

indicated the need to develop new leadership models to solve complex

organizational challenges (Chhokar, Brodbeck & House, 2012; Harley,

Metcalf & Irwin, 2014; Lichtenstein, Uhl-Bien, Marion, Seers, & Orton,

2006; Western, 2013).

In conclusion, complexity leadership theory is a theory that taps complex

adaptive system leadership behavior in bureaucratic structures. These

behaviors are suppressed to a large extent in bureaucratic organizations such

as SOEs. The SOEs are supposed to seek to enhance innovation, adaptability,

and creative thinking. Hence complexity leadership approach seeks to

combine these dynamics to the bureaucratic hierarchies in order to explain the

way informal organizational dynamics function correctly and also to describe


how these valuable adaptive functions can be promoted to better the

operations of SOEs in Ghana. Even though Ghana is aggressively striving to

industrialized, the industrial age approach of bureaucracy where workers

follow the vision of the leader and top-to-bottom control by the leader

(Zaccaro & Klimoski, 2001) cannot be accepted but instead paradigm shift for

the complex adaptive system. It is through this that Ghana can meet the

requirement of leadership in the 21st century to manage ever needed state-

owned enterprises in a developing country like Ghana.

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231.

Zaccaro & Klimoski (2001). The nature of organizational leadership: An

introduction. San Francisco, CA.: Jossey-Bass.


Francis Donkor is a Ph.D. student at the School of Management and

Economics, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China. His

research area is leadership and employee performance.

Contact Address: University of Electronic Science and Technology of China,

School of Management and Economics, No. 2006, Xiyuan Ave, Hi-Tech

Zone, Chengdu 611731, Sichuan China PR. E-mail: [email protected]

Dr. Dongmei Zhou is a Lecturer and Ph.D. research supervisor at the School

of Management and Economics, University of Electronic Science and

Technology of China. She is an Associate Professor and her research area is

Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management.

Contact Address: University of Electronic Science and Technology of China,

School of Management and Economics, No. 2006, Xiyuan Ave, Hi-Tech

Zone, Chengdu 611731, Sichuan China PR. E-mail: [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]




Utilizing Humor to Enhance Leadership Styles in Higher

Education Administration

Beverlyn E. Grace-Odeleye & Jessica Santiago1

1) University of Pennsylvania. United States


Edition period: July 2018 - July 2019

To cite this article: Grace-Odeleye, B. E. & Santiago, J. (2019). Utilizing

Humor to Enhance Leadership Styles in Higher Education Administration.

International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management, 7(2), 171-

202. DOI:10.17583/ijelm.2019.3912









2019 HipatiaPress

ISSN: 2014-9018

DOI: 10.17583/ijelm.2019.3912

Utilizing Humor to Enhance Leadership

Styles in Higher Education Administration

Beverlyn E. Grace-Odeleye

East Stroudsburg University

Jessica Santiago East Stroudsburg University

Abstract

This review examined the literature addressing humor as a potential trait that may

enhance leadership styles in higher educational administration. It provides an

overview of current humor research from several disciplines of major contemporary

leadership theories and styles in higher educational administration and develop and

propose a theoretical link between humor as functional management communication

for enhancement to other leadership characteristics. The framework developed in this

analysis offer a suitable range of humor and its implications for leadership and

leadership development in university environments for more effective leadership

competencies to manage the multi-dimensional intricacies and practicalities.

Additionally, the review provides strategic insights, and practical ways of

incorporation of humor into leadership styles in higher education administration along

with suggestions for further empirical exploration on relationships of humor and

leadership effectiveness.

Keywords: Higher educational administration leadership, humor, competencies,

transformation, leadership theories and practice



2019 HipatiaPress

ISSN: 2014-9018

DOI: 10.17583/ijelm.2019.3912

Uso del humor para Mejorar los Estilos de

Liderazgo en la Educación Superior

Beverlyn E. Grace-Odeleye Jessica Santiago

East Stroudsburg University East Stroudsburg University

Resumen

Esta revisión examina la literatura que aborda el humor como un rasgo potencial que

puede mejorar los estilos de liderazgo en la dirección escolar de la Educación

Secundaria. Proporciona una visión general de la investigación actual del humor en

varias disciplinas y en las principales teorías y estilos de liderazgo contemporáneo en

la dirección de la educación superior. Desarrolla y propone un vínculo teórico entre

el humor como comunicación de gestión funcional para mejorar otras características

del liderazgo. El desarrollo del marco teorico ofrece un análisis del humor y sus

implicaciones para el liderazgo y el desarrollo del liderazgo en entornos universitarios

para que las competencias de liderazgo sean más efectivas para gestionar las

complejidades y aspectos prácticos multidimensionales. Además, la revisión

proporciona perspectivas estratégicas y formas prácticas para incorporar el humor en

los estilos de liderazgo en la administración de la educación superior, junto con

sugerencias para una exploración empírica adicional sobre las relaciones del humor y

la eficacia del liderazgo.

Palabras clave: Dirección escolar en educación superior, humor, competencias,

transformación, teorías y prácticas de liderazgo.


here has been a growing interest in the role of leadership within

higher education institutions administrations and leadership in recent

years, driven by the occurring contextual shifts and new challenges

including globalization of higher education, diversity of the students

population and the “customer” services they require, the assortment of the

core teaching and research activities of the institution, and the comparable

change in management functions of colleges observed since the 1980s (Amey,

2006; Astin & Astin, 2000; Drew, Ehrich & Hansford, 2008).

A number of academic disciplines mostly from the business domains

enlightens higher educational leadership and services professional theories

and practice. These theories of management, human resources, marketing,

educational research, and leadership studies underlies the effective

administration and leadership of the wide variety of higher educational

leadership styles that drives innovative students’ services. Current

frameworks of leadership in the Higher Education sector however do not

encompass all of the behaviors expressed in established leadership literature

given the major differences between the business or non-academic and the

academic world. Leadership roles in academic institutions have a number of

differences; whilst traditional senior executive roles (e.g. Vice-Chancellor,

Chief Executive, President, Vice-President, pro-Vice Chancellor) resonate

with roles encountered in other sectors, academic leadership roles (such as

Deans, Heads of School or Department Chairperson) are unusual and

commonly have complications that are transitory, rotating or secondment

nature of leadership role-holders. Also, traditionally in some situations,

leadership roles are given on an almost honorary basis and conferred by

academic productivity, other non-traditional leadership basis or to the most

senior or established professor (Davies, Hides, & Casey, 2001).

Administrative and leadership faculty positions usually combine the role

of teacher, scholar, and researcher (Astin & Astin, 2000) all of which have

leadership responsibility in some form or other, either explicitly or implicitly

specified within the role. In addition to the nuanced challenges of these

traditional structural legacy, the demands and expansion of student numbers,

provision of “holistic student experience” for integrated learning, lifestyle,

T


social and developmental provision to students demands, a highly woven

arrangement of work between academic and service departments, increased

marketization and student choice (Davies, Hides, & Casey, 2001) wield

pressures on higher educational institutions leadership on delivering with

operational efficiencies. Higher Education leaders need a combination of

leadership, academic and management competencies to address challenges

faced using new models of leadership styles focused on novel leadership

concepts, models, and practices specific to higher educational administration

(Alexander, 2000).

This new model of leadership characteristics and behaviors is needed to

“lubricate” the social complex machinery of higher educational institutions,

provide the flexibility needed to work through many unforeseen

contingencies, and help employees in the organization cope with the awesome

tasks of promotion of interdependence of all units within and outside the

institution – for example, interaction with state and federal government

legislatures, research and grant funding agencies, and parents and students’

concerns.

Effective leadership is required at all levels of institution’s administration

to navigate, survive and thrive these changes in college and university

administration and delivery services, differentiate the conceptual, strategic,

and operational dimensions to leadership education. This need for a new

paradigm of leadership is higher education administration is supported by

studies that show strong correlations between leadership management styles

and performance in higher education institutions and in open systems (Kieu,

2010; Black, 2015), the practical use of humor as contributory qualities for

effective leaders remain to be fully elucidated empirically (Holmes & Marra,

2006).

This gap in knowledge within the diversity of student services and

outcomes does not allow for the informed promotion and/or adoption of

specific leadership models and best practices. Therefore, policy makers lack

the evidence that serve as the basis for the support of specific approaches to

leadership training or follows a practical manual for incorporation of best


practices into the development, implementation and assessment of student

affairs leadership training programs (Gigliotti, 2017; Gigliotti & Ruben, 2017;

Gmelch & Buller, 2015).

Communication at the strategic, teams and external levels is at the core of

mandatory skills for leadership (Ruben & Gigliotti, 2017; Miller, 2019). The

subject of humor as a powerful tool in effective leadership communication has

been defined and used in a range of literatures like applied psychology

(Cooper, 2005; Warren & McGraw, 2016); relationship to team or group

effectiveness, and work groups integration and socialization (Romero &

Pescosolido, 2008; Mak, Liu & Deneen, 2012); communications and teaching

tool (Riesh, 2014; Chiew, Mathies & Patterson, 2019); leadership style and

performance (Mao, Chiang, Zhang & Gao, 2017). Although studies have

examined humor in leadership, the literature is most often conceptual, and

does not empirically examine the value of humor in leadership for service

organizations (Slåtten, Svensson, & Sværi, 2011).

A purpose of this review is to provide links between models of educational

management leadership styles and the use of humor – as forms of

communication, by more effective leadership for enhanced organizational

performance despite the parallel and sometimes interweaving evolution of

leadership ideologies. The essay focus on research on the effects of the two

major leadership contemporary leadership theories - distributed and

transformational leadership, on student services. It addresses the link between

leadership important traits and competency of leaders and attempt to evaluate

the contribution of the two theories to service improvement through an

examination of their limitations and weaknesses. The paper begins with an

overview of major students’ services and the major tenets under-guarding

good practices in the development of these services and examines the concepts

of leadership and outlines the definitions and theories of humor and research

about functional humor as related specifically to the leadership arena. Finally,

some practical methods are suggested on incorporating humor in leadership

practices.


Administration of Students’ Services Deliveries

A number of academic disciplines informs higher educational

administration leadership and services professional theory and practice. It

draws from research in psychology, sociology, mental and physical health

services, psychology, education research, management theories, sociology,

human resources, marketing, and leadership studies. Consequently, the latest

thinking, research, and practice of integration of knowledge from a diverse set

of areas of underpin the effectiveness of higher educational leadership that

focusses on building, integration and deliver effective student-centric services

and support students’ academic endeavors, enhancing their personal, social,

cultural and cognitive development.

Educational Leadership and Management Skills

The knowledge of students, the use of educational leadership models,

activities programming, and human resources must be crafted together to

define, support and expand the mission of effective student affairs and support

services. The mandatory leadership skills for higher educational leaders

minimally include the following:

(a) curriculum development and program design;

(b) budget development and resource allocation;

(c) program administration;

(d) effective operation within the context of institutional governance and

governmental policies;

(e) marketing of accomplishments;

(f) research, evaluation, assessment and knowledge of students;

(g) staff supervision and professional development;

(h) strategic planning, mission and vision development;

(i) legal dimensions of working with university/college students; and

(j) integration of appropriate technology into program/service delivery.

Therefore, there is a need for a flexible leadership and management style for

effective leadership to deliver in a diversified environment.


Leadership and Humor Theories and Research

Leadership, viewed from a functional approach involve strong elements of

communication and the practical use of humor presupposes some level of

knowledge, definitions and theories of humor. Theories and research about

functional humor as related specifically to communication and leadership

arena are presented and this article lists some observations and comments on

humor in leadership.

Communication in Leadership Theories

Leadership is a social influence process whereas leader typically refers to

a person who occupies a position within a group structure (Fisher, 1985).

Brilhart & Galanes (1989), Tannenbaum, Wechsler, & Massarik (1988) and

Hoy & Miskel (1991) defined leadership as interpersonal influence exercised

in a situation and directed through the communication process toward the

attainment of specified goals. Such widely accepted definition suggest that a

functional and theoretical perspective is integral for explaining leadership

process and describes a functional view of leadership with emphasis on the

communicative behaviors performed by leaders. The literature reveals five

primary viewpoints on leadership: trait, styles, situational or contingency,

power, and functional (Hoy & Miskel, 1991; Jensen & Chilberg, 1991;

Fashiku, 2016). Most contemporary prevailing theories of leadership adopt a

contingency approach (Adler, 1989) or a functional perspective (Jensen &

Chilberg, 1991). An effective leader needs to apply both transformational and

transactional leadership approaches (Bass & Avolio, 1993) depending on the

different individuals and tasks being undertaken at various points in time.

The practical challenge for the leader is to be able to perceive which elements

to manage within the context of each particular situation (e.g. people, task,

team, and other contextual information). From a contingency approach,

successful leadership requires both personal dimensions and situational

variables. That is, the best leadership style is flexible and allow leaders to

emphasize a task and manage relationship strategy appropriate to the

particular situation.


A functional view of leadership behaviors is performance-based rather

than descriptive of the traits or styles of leaders. Researchers using functional

perspective have stated two primary dimensions of leadership behaviors: task

and social (Fisher, 1980; Hoy & Miskel, 1991). Bales (1970) identified

specific categories of behaviors grouped into general dimensions of task

functions and socioemotional functions. Task functions move groups toward

task completion, whereas socioemotional roles are oriented toward the

functioning of the group responsible for tasks completion. Other studies have

reported distinctions between task and social leaders (Bales & Slater, 1955; Burke, 1967, 1992), instrumental and expressive needs (Etzioni, 1965), goal

achievement and group maintenance objectives, between group task roles and

group building and maintenance roles (Holmes & Marra, 2002), and between

initiating structure and consideration functions (Hoy & Miskel, 1991).

Although earlier theorists suggested that mutually exclusive leadership

behaviors are necessary for task achievement and for group maintenance,

more recent researchers have proposed the two dimensions are interdependent

(Wheeless, Wheeless & Dickson-Markman, 1982). That is, every leadership

communication act reflects both a task and a social dimension. Therefore, the

functional perspective of leadership communication is concerned with task

and social behaviors that help groups function more effectively and

efficiently. This functional view has been applied to the use of humor as a

form of communication (Graham, Papa & Brooks, 1992).

Studies on leadership literature have reported the use of humor as an

important leadership skill and communication style for effective leadership.

Although some suggested that a sense of humor is simply a critical trait of

leaders (Robert, Dunne & Iun, 2015; Fisher & Robbin, 2014), others have

emphasized the functional role of humor (Wijewardena, Hartel &

Samaratunge, 2017) . For example, Crawford, Nerina & Caltabiano (2011)

and Valle, Kacmar, Micki &Andrews (2018) described humor as one of the

behaviors indicative of the harmonizing function of group maintenance. Cann

& Kuiper (2014) identified humor and laughing as representative of the

positive socioemotional function of showing psychological and tension

release, and improved organizational creativity (Lang & Lee, 2010). Fisher

(1980) and Firestein (1990) proposed that a humorous group member function


in an informative task and a harmonizing maintenance role. Brilhart &

Galanes (1989) cited the importance of humor as a leadership function that

help reduce tensions among group members, and improve positive personality

(Cann, Stilwell & Taku, 2010), Cann & Matson (2014), and concluded that

productive leaders need to see interjecting humor serve an important

communication choice for leaders.

Definitions and Theories of Humor

Humor is defined as a multi-paradigmatic, multi-faceted and systematic

process to elicit psychologic, neuropsychologic, social, and cognitive

reactions, evolutionary and developmental psychology, to the organizational

psychology, and many more (Pluta, 2003). Martineau (1972) described humor

more specifically as a distinctive type of medium of communication by which

persons convey information during interaction. Humor is complex,

multifaceted and manifests as jokes, puns, funny stories, laughter, banter,

teasing, satire, sarcasm, ironic remarks, ridicules, humorous behaviors and as

a stimulus response, and as disposition (Martin, 2007). Chapman & Foot

(1976) identified humor as a stimulus and any communication specifically

intended to provoke laughter or smiling, and as a stimulus from the context of

public speaking to convey critical information designed to elicit positive

reactions (Watson & Drew, 2017; Markiewicz, 1974). Scholars have

categorized types of humor as stimuli or described conditions under which

humor may be experienced (Rybacki & Rybacki, 1991). As a response, humor

has been defined as the amount of laughter or smiling observed in a situation

(Galloway, 2010) and humorous laughter as involuntary physical expression

of amusement (Morreall, 1987, 1991). Pluta, (2013) posited that laughter is

studied in tandem with humor, or elicitation of laughter. Many definitions and

theories of humor, intended to explain why a communication is funny, are

actually theories of laughter. In summary, a personality inclusive of

disposition and use of humor is considered a good leadership trait.


Theories of Humor

Humor theories have fallen into one of three broad theoretical perspectives:

superiority, incongruity, and relief theories (Foot, 1986; Haig, 1988; Morreall,

1987, 1991). Although no single theory is comprehensive to explain humor

alone, some combination of theories may adequately explain all aspects of the

phenomenon of humor (Kuhlman, 1985).

Superiority theories contend that all humor originates from the users’

feeling of perceived superiority over another or over previous situation. Foot,

(1986) and Morreall (1987) derision theory, suggested humor as the derived

glorification from grimaces called laughter, caused either by some sudden act

of their own that pleases them or by the apprehension of some deformed thing

in another. Much of the research that has examined humor from a superiority

perspective deals with aggressive, disparaging, and self- deprecating humor,

which elevates individuals above the target of the humor (Zillmann, 1983).

Incongruity theory perspective address the cognitive processes involved in

perceiving humor and reacting to incongruities from two primary directions.

The first direction suggests that humor results from the surprising discovery

of an incongruity itself while the second considers humor to be a reaction to

discovering two seemingly incongruous elements are actually related (Suls,

1983). Leaders should therefore ensure a connection of the joke to the tasks

and the incongruities involved in accomplishing the tasks.

The final perspective, relief theory, includes a variety of theories that fall

into psychological and physiological domains. A common ingredient among

these theories is that laughter is a release of repressed or unused energy.

Freud's psychoanalytic theory has been the most prominent of this type

(McGhee, 1979). Freud (1961) suggested that laughter is an outlet for psychic

or nervous energy, particularly sexual and aggressive inhibitions.

Additionally, two types of arousal theories have gained acceptance as theories

of humor and laughter (Godkewitsch, 1972; Langevin & Day, 1972). The first

approach is that humor itself raises the state of arousal, which causes pleasure;

to balance this arousal, the person laughs. The second approach is that an

individual is aroused to such an uncomfortable state by a joke or a situation


as it develops that the humorous punchline or ending, and therefore the

removal of the discomfort, causes pleasure and laughter. As Giles, Bourhis,

Gadfield, Davies & Davies (1976) theorized, failure to perceive or

comprehend the humor, and thus failure to relieve the discomfort would elicit

frustration. Leaders must therefore draw the fine line between these

approaches as they integrate the types and approach of humor into their

leadership styles within higher educational administration.

Types of Humor

Affiliative Humor

Affiliative humor users joke around with others and attract them with

forms of humor that focus on enhancing social interaction. Examples of

affiliative humor include funny stories particular to a group, insider jokes, and

good-natured practical jokes that are traditionally played on people during

social events. Individuals who exhibit this behavior are liked by others and

are usually perceived as non-threatening (Vaillant, 1977). By utilizing this

style of non-hostile and affirming humor, one lessens interpersonal tensions

and aid in relationship building (Martin, Puhlik-Doris, Larsen, Gray & Weir,

2003). Affiliative humor is like a social lubricant that facilitates interpersonal

interaction and creates positive environment. This approach is particularly

usable in higher educational leadership roles or professionals that design,

implement and oversee diverse programs in higher educational, and interact

heavily with students’ administration services.

Self-Enhancing Humor

People who exhibit self-enhancing humor have a humorous view of life

and are not overly distressed by its inevitable tribulations. This humor style is

a coping mechanism for dealing with stress, which assists in maintaining

positive perspective. Self-enhancing humor is negatively related to

neuroticism and positively related to self-esteem and favorable emotions.

This humor style is centered more on the individual when compared to

affiliative humor (Martin et al. 2003) and is very usable in higher educational

institution organizational leadership when the initiator’s intention is to


enhance the users’ image and experience relative to others in the group or

organization. Aggressive Humor

Aggressive humor often aims to manipulate others by means of an implied

threat of ridicule (Janes & Olsen 2000). Aggressive humor is used to

victimize, belittle, and cause others some type of disparagement (Zillman

1983). This style of humor is consistent with superiority theory, which

postulates people make themselves feel better at another’s expense to achieve,

or perceive that they have achieved higher rank or status (de Koning & Weiss,

2002). Aggressive humor is negatively related to agreeableness and

conscientiousness while positively related to neuroticism (Martin et al. 2003).

Mild Aggressive Humor

Mild aggressive humor can have positive functions as a trait or application

in enhancing leadership style. Studies have postulated that observing other

people being ridiculed is related to conforming behaviors, which is

constructive in cohesive teams’ building (Janes & Olsen 2000). When

manifested as satire or teasing, mild aggressive humor communicates a

forceful reprimanding message but with a humorous and positive tone (Meyer

1997, 2000). It also allows expression of disagreement and conflict without

the negative affect since the message is delivered in a playful manner (Kahn

1989). This humor type has applications in higher educational leadership traits

– especially in working with students that insist in having their ways despite

being privy to a fraction of the information for educational leaders and

administrators.

Self-Defeating Humor

Utilizing self-defeating humor ridicule themselves in attempts to amuse

and seek acceptance from others (Martin, 2003). A position is that people who

use a moderate amount of this humor style often desire to reduce their status

level and make themselves more approachable. This is a desirable trait in

educational administration leadership where providing services to students is

paramount.


A Functional Perspective of Humor in Communication and Tasks Group

The section reviews some literature relevant to leadership and use of

humor from a functional perspective and examines more closely the functional

role of humor in a variety of communicative relationships leaders encounter

and in group tasks. Neuendorf and Fennel (1988) confirmed humor as a

socially facilitating phenomenon and that laughter is more likely to occur in

the presence of others. Others have posited that humor itself, as contrasted

with laughter, facilitates a number of communicative functions. Although

many have reaped unconditional praises on the use of humor (Debats, 1983; Holmes & Marra, 2006) and its effectiveness in accentuation of positive

leadership styles, others have recommended more caution. Martineau (1972)

and Mao, Chiang, Zhang, & Gao (2017) showed that humor is viewed as both

"lubricant" or “abrasive" in social interactions with positive or negative

implications for the workplace performance. Another affect-based study

concluded that managerial humor, employees’ emotions and psychological

capital in the workplace and in subordinates (Wijewardena, Hartel &

Samaratunge, 2017). As a lubricant, humor functions to initiate social

interaction and keep free and smooth flowing conversations. As an abrasive,

humor may cause interpersonal friction that modify the nature of the

interaction (Wood, Beckman & Rossiter, 2011). Humor in managerial

communication has been described as both a potentially integrative and a

potentially disruptive behavior (Wood, Beckman, & Rossiter, 2011) and

humor is a double-edged tool which may both help and hurt interactions (de

Koning & Weiss, 2002) and provided a framework that includes the presenter,

recipient, message, and medium and elaborative cognitive and emotional

reactions of the recipients to humor. Because humor is so enigmatic as a form

of communication, researchers have attempted to better understand how it

functions.

Priest & Swain (2002), and Mesmer-Magnus, et al (2012) showed positive

uses of humor in developing friendships and being playful are positively

correlated to communication competence that contributes to a positive

workplace, leadership effectiveness, and improve interpersonal skills. For


example, humor is used to avoid difficult topics or introduce new information

(Ullian, 1976). In the right context, humor that attacks or demeans and can

signal closeness between people that confirms a safe relationship (Martin &

Lefcourt, 1983, 1984).

Individuals use humor to facilitate self-disclosure (Avant, 1982), to probe

one another's values or motives (Linstead, 1985), or to introduce topics that

may otherwise be socially inappropriate (Ziv, 1984). Ziv, (1988) and Lippitt

(1982) concluded humor also is also used as a coping mechanism for

managing anxiety and embarrassment by diverting attention from the situation

that caused the embarrassment. Humor can be used to distance unpleasant,

stressful, or boring parts of our lives by allowing us to regard them with less

seriousness (Linstead, 1985).

As a means of social control, humor function as a control mechanism to

express approval or disapproval of actions, especially disapproval of

violations of group norms (Webb, 1981). Stephenson (1951) concluded that

humor is used to control conflict and behavior, and to reinforce group norms

and values by humorously making an example of inappropriate conduct.

Collinson (1988) found that joking placed social pressure on workers to

conform to cultural norms and motivated workers not meeting work standards.

Bradney (1957) determined some humor functioned to control conflicts

caused by competition among coworkers and that joking was used to sanction

individuals, both formally and informally. Bricker (1980) determined that

humor, particularly in the form of joking relationships, was both a mechanism

of social control and a tension-reducing device.

The control functions of humor have also been studied from the

perspective of social status. Duncan and Feisal (1989) determined that humor

helps equalize status among group members, helps assimilate new members

into and comfortable of the group the group. Similarly, Huber & Brown,

(2016) and Weaver (2010) showed all are equal in humor. These studies

confirm that humor helps define and maintain social groupings and reinforce

both social and positional rankings (Boland & Hoffman, 1982; Duncan, 1982, 1985).


Robert & Wilbanks, (2012) and Watson & Drew (2017) observed that

humor tend to be directed downward in a hierarchical organizational structure;

that is, higher status persons tended to target lower status colleagues with their

humor. Lundberg (1969) noted that lower-ranking group members tend not to

joke back with higher status members. Bradney (1957) also found that joking

relationships among members of the same status level occur most often, and

that when joking occurs between status levels, it is typically aimed downward.

Many researchers have reported that humor functions to reduce and manage

social distance among individuals and performance management.

For example, use of humor helped to facilitate interpersonal attraction and

developed friendships (Derks & Berkowitz, 1989), reduced and managed

social distances (Cheatwood, 1983) and improve performance management

(Vitug & Kliener, 2007). Humor also reduced social distance by managing

stress and reducing tensions between individuals or among group members

(O’Quinn & Aronoff, 1981). Humor serve the function of gaining approval.

If others can be made to laugh, a pleasurable experience, that may dispose

them to evaluate the joker’s character and viewpoints more favorably (Giles

et al 1976). Scogin & Pollio (1980) determined that humor is used to express

appreciative or positive feelings.

In studies conducted in small groups, reduction of social distance typically

is expressed in terms of group cohesiveness. Studies that have examined the

role of humor in developing cohesion among group members suggested

humor enhance morale by decreasing social distance of group members, by

forestalling conflict, and provide common ground and as an expression of

support or affection, and a way to give new members a sense of belonging

(Kaplan & Boyd, 1965). Linstead (1985) reported humor as a form of

symbolic activity that reinforces the social structure and the subculture of a

group. Pogrebin & Poole (1988) presented three functions of humor that

operate to build and maintain group cohesiveness. First, it uses allows group

members to share common experiences and probe the attitudes, perceptions,

and feelings of other group members in nonthreatening manner. Humor helps

to translate an individual's concern into a group issue and reinforcing group

solidarity. Second, humor promotes social solidarity through the mutual

teasing that allows group members realize that they share a common


perspective. This intra group laughter of inclusion, and humor aimed at people

outside the group, helps to define social boundaries. Third, groups utilize

humor as a coping strategy in managing a variety of forces beyond their direct

control. For example, humor allows group members to laugh at their plight,

demonstrating community and reinforcing group cohesion, to show empathy

with each other’s feelings and allow emotional distancing from a topic by

normalizing extraordinary situations (Obrdlik, 1942).

Reference group theory has also influenced humor research. From a

reference group perspective, one's membership or lack of it affects reaction

toward the use of humor (La Fave & Mannell, 1976). Martineau (1972)

theorized that humor is judged to esteem and solidify groups. However, humor

that disparages the group also solidify the group, or it may control behavior

of group members, foster conflict in the group, or foster demoralization within

the group. Fine (1976) concluded that humor bond group members and form

a barrier to outside groups. Linstead (1985) suggested that in defining

boundaries, humor directed toward persons outside the group clarify both

social and moral boundaries.

From an organizational perspective, humor help socialize new members

into the culture of the organization (Vinton, 1989) created bonds among

employees and facilitated the accomplishment of work tasks. Also, Vinton

(1989) found that self-deprecating jokes informs members that the joke-teller

has a sense of humor and willing to participate in the predominant form of

humor in the organization: teasing. This teasing functioned in two ways - as

task-specific joking that dealt with a work-related task and as social teasing

which involved non-work issues. Deal & Kennedy (1982) proposed that

organizational humor bond people together, reduces conflict, create new

visions, and regenerate cultural values. Similarly, Lundberg (1969) suggested

that humor assist organizational members in earning and maintaining a sense

of social inclusion, especially by easing tension and boredom and providing

social rewards. Additionally, Lundberg suggested that the amount and type of

humor used in an organization indicate the absence or presence of a cohesive

social structure. Blau (1963) noted that joking among workers in a competitive

situation helped unite the group by allowing them laugh together.


Nelson (1986), found that humor, in the form of jocular griping, enabled

individuals to establish an identity and arrive at consensus and cohesion by

creating a group structure with boundaries.

In studies that examined the relationship between humor, leadership, and

organizational climate of schools, Ziegler, Boardman & Thomas (1985) and

Hughes & Avey (2009) showed cheerful, light-hearted humor positively

correlated with supportive leadership styles and positive climate.

The moderator effect was supported only in relationships between

transformational leadership with both trust and affective commitment,

suggesting that transformational leaders use more humor rate higher on these

outcomes than followers of low humor leaders. Berlyne (1972) suggested that

humor is valuable because it attracts attention, provokes thought, helps gain

friends, improves communication, helps deal with difficult moments, helps

develop positive self-image, motivates and energizes. Smith & Powell (1988)

concluded that self-disparaging humor leaders were perceived as more

effective at relieving tension, summarizing group member opinions, and

encouraging participation. These leaders were perceived as more willing to

share opinions than those who disparaged others. Furthermore, humor is used

simply to entertain or gain attention (Boland & Hoffman, 1982; Bricker 1980).

In small groups, Pollio & Bainum (1983) noted that humor have two effects

on group decision making. First, joking and laughing is seen as attempts to

reaffirm common bonds and relieve tensions and thereby allowing groups to

work more effectively. Second, humor distract groups from its task by calling

attention to some specific tension in the group or to the person making the

remark but humorous behaviors do not necessarily interfere with a group's

task effectiveness. Pollio & Bainum (1983) demonstrated that if a humorous

remark was related to the problem, it served to facilitate task completion but

distracted the group, and decreased efficiencies.

Additionally, they determined that task requiring sustained interest and

much attention to detail, humorous behaviors did not facilitate effectiveness;

but if the task required only shorts, bursts of interest, humorous behaviors,

particularly laughter, facilitate performance. Consalvo (1989), in a study of

small task-oriented group interactions, showed humor tended to occur in


patterns associated with particular phases of task-oriented meetings.

The initial phase is identified by negative use of humor as adversarial

relationships developed. The second phase, a transitional phase, is marked by

consensual laughter at humor that appeared to facilitate communication. The

laughter then assists the groups in transitioning from a feeling of tension and

defensiveness to a realization of relative safety and playfulness. Third, the

problem-solving phase is marked by task-oriented efforts and some positive

or neutral humor. In some cases, a fourth stage is characterized by clustered

humorous episodes about the earlier processes. Consalvo (1989) concluded

that humor is an antidote to the stress of the opening phase and facilitated the

transition to constructive task effectiveness. Similarly, Scogin & Pollio (1980)

concluded that non-directed humorous remarks provided a group a brief

respite needed to keep the group functioning.

Empirical research suggests that humor help groups perform tasks that

require creative thought, such as brainstorming projects (Adams, 1986; Von

Oech, 1990). Specifically, De Bono (1985) stated “lateral thinking is closely

related to insight, creativity, and humor”. Ziv (1984) theorized that humor

serve to provide a sense of momentary freedom by twisting the usual rules of

logical thinking. Von Oech (1990) showed that humor stretches thinking

which helps develop alternative ideas, promotes ambiguity and the unusual

combinations of ideas, and allows the challenge of conventional rules

Albrecht (1980) suggested humor promotes the mental flexibility that leads to

innovation and reduce tension in tasks groups promote positive risk-taking

behaviors both of which are essential to creativity and creative problem

solving (Adams, 1986). Additionally, results in small tasks groups show that

deliberate use of humor performed better and more efficiently in problem-

solving tasks (Romero, 2008), through enhanced and imaginative stimulation

and divergent thinking (Valett, 1981).

This confirms that humor play both positive and negative roles in the

communication and leadership process. Leaders must understand the

functional nature of humor to effective and appropriate use and for

recognizing and responding to inappropriate humor use by subordinates and

peers.


The Practice of Humor in Leadership

This section reviews use of humor from a practical perspective with

emphasis on how leaders can further develop, incorporate sense of humor and

promote positive humor within their immediate leadership environments and

influence. The literature confirmed an implicit truth that humor performs

valuable communicative functions which leaders can use to their advantage to

enhance their leadership styles and increase productivity. However, there is

no uniform agreement on the benefit of humor in leadership or organizations

(Smeltzer & Leap, 1988) or how humor functions as a leadership character or

management behavior (Smith & Powell, 1988). Studies agree that humor have

both a positive and a negative force in groups and is a double-edged leadership

tool (Malone, 1980) and an interpersonal assest and liability to managers

(Mettee, Hrelec & Wilkens, 1971). Murdock & Ganim, (1993) for example

advocated for an increased awareness of the good and bad humor in the

workplace and for leaders to be attentive to both forms before its use, and that

leaders learn what types of humor behaviors to utilize during their interactions

with groups and individuals. Due to differences in sense and perception of

humor, what is funny to one person or group can spark negative feelings in

others (Maples et al. 2001). Negative humor includes humor-based activities

that result in repression, humiliation, degradation and intentional or

unintentional distress in organizations Unwelcome ethnic and sexist jokes,

insults, humiliation, and malicious ridicule are some examples of negative

humor (Clouse & Spurgeon 1995). Additionally, individuals who use too

much humor can lose credibility.

In organizations including higher educational institutions, using humor in

service encounters is an ingenious affiliative behavior that strengthens rapport

between service employees and their (students) customers (Slåtten, Svensson,

Sværi, 2011). Humor permits frontline service employees to better cope with

the emotional challenges of their work, reduce the emotional labor and

increase well-being of service frontline employees. The effectiveness of

service recovery efforts also grows when employees use humor successfully

to soften unpleasant emotional reactions (Mathies et al, 2016). The use of

humor in improvements of services delivery has been proposed to trigger a


natural physiological response experienced by both the sender and the

receiver, and allows for a humanizing effect that creates a connection between

two or more parties. When applying comedy concepts to business, the speaker

may utilize the three components of comedy or apply improvisation

principles. However, the presenter should use comedy that is carefully

calibrated and without using offensive material.

Conclusions

The literature supports the assumption that humor, when used

appropriately employed by leaders play an important role in enhancing

leadership styles and effectiveness of services deliveries, employees’ job

related affective wellbeing. The literature indicates there are relationships

between the use of humor and several critical leadership functions, including

creativity, interpersonal relations, team-building, enhancement of groups

decisions-making skills, boosting creativity, improve interpersonal relations

and team-building, leadership effectiveness, and improved organizational

leadership, performance management in complex and integrated

environments, including those in higher educational administration. Leaders’

aggressive humor in interpersonal communication have positive contributions

to employees’ job related negative affective well¬being a positive role to

making work more enjoyable by undermining power and status that inhibit

effective work relationships. Therefore, for organizations, a proactive

approach is to involve selfenhancing humor as an important criterion in the

selection process of leaders and managers.

Leaders must realize that it is their responsibility to create the humorous

environment within their workplace (Duncan 1985; 1989). A practical method

include organizational sponsorship and promotion of humor events has been

proposed (Robert & Wilbanks, 2012) and creating a conducive environments

where appropriate humor is incorporated into groups activities. Managers

should encourage collective and individual use of humor among their

subordinates to show acceptance of this mode of communication. Krohe

(1987) suggested leadership use of humor more often reduce or eliminate the


perception and fear of reaction from their superiors. Leaders must therefore

create an atmosphere conducive to humor use. Additionally, leaders must set

the example of what types of humor are appropriate. This humor role

modeling is an important function of leadership in the work place. The handy

rule suggested by Goodman (1983) may prove valuable: humor is laughter

made from pain -- not pain inflicted by laughter. Leaders must recognize that

humor is risky, that one may need to "dare to be foolish" (Metcalf & Felible,

1992). There are times humor in leadership and places where humor is not

appropriate. Bradford (1976) warned that too much clowning and joking

create an atmosphere of play that interferes with work. Comic relief can help

lighten a meeting, while persistent joke telling can disrupt a discussion.

Humor may be acceptable during breaks and certain meetings, but may be less

proper during a disciplined conference. Furthermore, a leader need to gauge

employee tolerance for humor during meetings; those who are disturbed by

the inefficient use of time caused by humor may become frustrated and may

contribute less to the task. A balance must be maintained. Additionally, there

are types of humor that are rarely appropriate. Prejudicial humor -including

sexist or sexual, racist, and ethnic humor, is never appropriate in today's

workplace (Krohe, 1987; Smeltzer and Leap, 1988). Leaders must take into

account the people who follow and realize inappropriate humor may alienate

workers. Such alienation might have a more profound impact on an

organization than merely tension between the subordinates and the leader.

Humor and leadership are risky. Leaders should utilize tools that help to

be more effective at motivating followers, achieving goals, and developing

communication relationships. Humorous relationship is one of the

communication choices available to every leader. With some knowledge and

common sense about its use, leaders can use humor effectively as part of their

repertoire of communication skills.

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Beverlyn E. Grace-Odeleye Assistant Professor and Director, STAR

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Contact Address: Department of Academic Enrichment & Learning,

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Stroudsburg, PA 18301-2999. E-mail: [email protected]

Jessica Santiago, Ph.D. is an academic coach on the Summer Bridge Program

at East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania, East Stroudsburg,

Pennsylvania. She supports the planning and implementation of the Summer

Bridge team and manages the unit’s data collection. Additionally, she is a

trainer for Summer Bridge peer mentors, tracks students’ performances and

provide academic coaching and counseling year-round at the Department of

Academic Enrichment and Learning.

Contact Address: East Stroudsburg University, Department of Academic

Enrichment & Learning, East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania, East S

Stroudsburg, PA 18301-2999. E-mail: [email protected]





The Leadership Role of Secondary School Head Teachers in

Delivering Integrative Quality Education in Uganda

Kaziba Abdul Mpaata1 & Zaid Mpaata2

1) Islamic University in Uganda. Uganda

2) Makerere University Business School. Uganda


Edition period: January 2019 - July 2019

To cite this article: Mpaata, K.A. & Mpaata, Z. (2019). The Leadership Role

of Secondary School Head Teachers in Delivering Integrative Quality

Education in Uganda. International Journal of Educational Leadership and

Management, 7(2), 203-230. DOI:10.17583/ijelm.2019.3534









2019 HipatiaPress

ISSN: 2014-9018

DOI: 10.17583/ijelm.2019.3534

The Leadership Role of Secondary School

Head Teachers in Delivering Integrative

Quality Education in Uganda

Kaziba Abdul Mpaata

Islamic University in Uganda

Zaid Mpaata Makerere University Business School

Abstract

The study examined the relationship between the secondary school head teacher’s

leadership roles in delivering the much-needed integrative quality education in

Uganda. It also sought to determine the overall effect of the head teacher’s leadership

role on the school’s ability to realize integrative education. Results revealed that there

are three (3) significant roles of the head teacher that once performed have a direct

effect on enhancing integrative education in the school which are; (i) Routine

administration and management of the school (β = .375, t = 2.636, p < 0.10); (ii)

monitoring teaching and curriculum coverage (β = .569, t = 4.119, p < 0.0001); and

(iii) Community Engagement (β = .275, t = 1.692, p < 0.094). Therefore, head teachers

are expected to put strong emphasis on these in order to realize the required integrative

education which encompasses student knowledge application, acquisition of life

career skills and innovation.

Keywords: Integrative Education, Quality Education, Leadership, Head teacher



2019 HipatiaPress

ISSN: 2014-9018

DOI: 10.17583/ijelm.2019.3534

El Rol de Liderazgo de los Directores de

Escuelas de Secundaria en una Educación

Integradora y de Calidad en Uganda

Kaziba Abdul Mpaata

Islamic University in Uganda

Zaid Mpaata Makerere University Business School

Resumen

El estudio examinó la relación entre el rol de liderazgo de los directores de escuelas

de educación secundaria en la entrega de la tan necesaria educación integral de calidad

en Uganda. También buscó determinar el efecto general del rol de liderazgo del

director en la capacidad de la escuela para realizar una educación integral. Los

resultados revelaron que hay tres (3) roles importantes del director que, una vez

realizados, tienen un efecto directo en la mejora de la educación integradora en la

escuela que son; (i) Administración y administración de rutina de la escuela (β = .375,

t = 2.636, p <0.10); (ii) monitoreo de la docencia y cobertura curricular (β = .569, t =

4.119, p <0.0001); y (iii) Participación comunitaria (β = .275, t = 1.692, p <0.094).

por lo tanto, se espera que los directores pongan un gran énfasis en estos para realizar

la educación integradora requerida que abarca la aplicación del conocimiento de los

estudiantes, la adquisición de habilidades para la vida y la innovación.

Palabras clave: Educación Integradora, Educación de Calidad, Liderazgo, Directores

Escolares.


s the country steps up its educational strategies to quench the thirst

for an all-round educated student starting from an early school level

in Uganda, there is an urgent need for actors in this sector to ascertain

whether school leaders at all levels especially secondary school head teachers

have the necessary professional competence in executing this requirement to

enable the country realize its practical education vision embedded in what is

termed as integrative education. Integrative education in this study therefore

defines the extent to which the student is able to acquire relevant skills with a

hands-on approach that demonstrates innovative abilities and ensures that the

knowledge acquired from school is applied productively for the benefit of self

and the society. According to Alinda and Atuhurra (2018), most school-going

children in many developing countries like Uganda have majority students

whose schooling is not translating into actual learning. The question regarding

the true value of education accumulatively remains unanswered right from

nursery to University. It is this significantly worrying trend that sets the

baseline demand for education administrators and policy makers to integrate

practical and vocational skills into the secondary education curricula. The aim

is to ensure that graduating students become productive nation builders who

are not only expected to meet the existing labor demands of the day but also

compete favorably in the international arena with practical solutions

customized to different problems and challenges in a diversity of setting.

The World Bank (2002) avers that Uganda needs to critically examine its

curriculum and finetune its structure to ensure that there is a post-primary

focus that integrates education with training in the context of the present

cultural, social, and economic development. This view is supported by

Nsubuga and Okwakol (2014) who observed that secondary school education

ought to provide an ideal well-rounded education which should develop

moral, aesthetic, physical, and practical capacities, not just cognitive

knowledge organized in academic disciplines. Other educational experts such

as Neves (2014) provide insight for the need to integrate vocational education

with secondary school education. Meanwhile, the study by Pinter and Monika

(2011) stressed the need for head teachers to always play an enabling role to

the teachers by providing appropriate curricula, text books and relevant

reference manuals to enable integrative teaching in their daily work. This

A


demands that the model for teacher training in the field of integrative

education should be based on at least six (6) aspects that include the need for

the teachers to; (1) understand the theoretical basis and practicality of

integrative teaching models; (2) deal directly with the practice of integrative

teaching through public teaching, video lessons and the like; (3) review

lessons and ensure that students have grasped the key concepts involved; (4)

continuously develop new methods and material to enable creative thinking

to flourish; (5) share experiences and participate in the practical work given

to students; and (6) give practical assignments and base them on current

research in the area.

The study by Sushila (2004) also implied that head teachers are expected

to act as linking pins, wagon masters and change agents in leading schools.

Integrative education therefore demands for an articulate transformative and

charismatic head teacher on whom many aspects of the school revolve. They

are expected to be in charge of running the school academic, financial and

administrative facets on a daily basis. To this end, Yukl (2006) looks at such

a leader as one who has good interpersonal relationship, ethical, supportive,

likable, competent, and trustworthy so as to play an effective influence role.

Consequently, the head teacher acts as a problem solver, obstacle breaker and

a decision maker. Such qualified and competent professionals are not only

expected to employ teamwork with colleagues as a working strategy that

enables students to acquire a firm background of holistic education but also

lobby the Ministry and the local communities to ensure that the school has

libraries and laboratories that are well stocked and equipped respectively. The

aim is to collect comprehensive teaching materials that can ensure an

integrative curriculum coverage. The outcome is expected to be hands-on

education with life skills that demands for an environment in which there is

an excellent teacher-parent relationship that will guarantee an enriched

curriculum with a relevant subject matrix for the effective realization of

integrative education.

According to Spremić (2007), integrative education should be designed so

that the boundaries between different subjects or disciplines are deleted.

Disciplines are integrated with each other, merged and synthesized into a new


whole greater than the sum of the constituent elements such as individual

subjects or disciplines. In this way, the head teacher is expected to be a team

leader and a facilitator to the learner who maps out the different ways in which

various subjects are linked with one another. In other words, integrative

education cuts across subject-matter lines, bringing together various aspects

of the curriculum into meaningful association to focus upon broad areas of

study. Learners should be prepared to utilize the body, thoughts, feelings, and

other senses so as to get learning experiences that unify knowledge and

provide a greater understanding of the curriculum content in an integrated

manner as opposed to teaching and examining the different subjects

separately. Put another way, integrative education bases its practices on the

characteristics of the learner and on the interdependent nature of reality.

Educators are advised that instead of artificially dividing the world into

subjects and using textbooks and seat work, integrative education immerses

students in an enriched environment that reflects the complexities of life with

the aim of providing a holistic context for learning. It is this that leads to a

greater ability to make and remember connections and to solve problems.

To support this view, Johnson (2001) observed that head teachers who

aspire to excel in managing integrative schools are obsessed with qualities that

always monitor and ascertain that the quality of teaching is effective across

the different religious, socio-political and ability groups. While most private

schools have an income-motive behind their establishment, government

schools are expected by nature of their design, mission and government

subvention to have the basic facilities and conducive environment in which

teachers demonstrate the attitudes of openness and sensitivity associated with

child-centered, integrated practice and ensure that students are getting hands-

on experience that can enable them pull together knowledge from different

sources. It is this that enables learners to prepare for a life-long learning

experience they gradually encounter. It is expected that government has well

trained, qualified and competent head teachers who can work effectively in a

team approach with parents and model behaviors to ensure that learning

activities are constructive and contribute to an ethos that promotes equity,

mutual understanding and respect for all. In other words, the success of

integrative education essentially hinges on the head teacher who supervises


the classroom teacher and ensures that an enriched curriculum is taught as

expected. The study here therefore was intended to examine the leadership

role of secondary school head teachers in delivering integrative quality

education in Uganda.

The specific objectives of the study were:

i) to establish the relationship between the head teacher’s leadership role

concerning the aspects of routine administration and management of the

school and personal development and professionalism and the school’s

ability to realize integrative education;

ii) to analyze the relationship between the head teacher’s role in the technical

aspect of equipping school labs and the library and the school’s ability to

realize integrative education;

iii) to analyze the relationship between the head teacher’s role in monitoring

of teaching and curriculum coverage and the school’s ability to realize

integrative education; and

iv) to analyze the relationship between the head teacher’s role in community

engagement and school’s ability to realize integrative education.

v) to analyze the effect of the head teacher’s leadership role on the school’s

ability to realize integrative education

As a result of the above objectives, the following null hypotheses were tested:

i) there is no significant relationship between the head teacher’s leadership

role concerning the aspects of routine administration of the school and

upgrading of personal knowledge and professionalism and the school’s

ability to realize integrative education.

ii) there is no significant relationship between the head teacher’s role in the

technical aspect of equipping school labs and the library and the school’s

ability to realize integrative education.

iii) there is no significant relationship between the head teacher’s role in

monitoring teaching and curriculum coverage and the school’s ability to

realize integrative education;


iv) there is no significant relationship between the head teacher’s role in

community engagement and the school’s ability to realize integrative

education; and

v) there is no significant overall effect of the head teacher’s leadership role

on the school’s ability to realize integrative education.

The study was premised on the assumption that the head teacher is at the

heart of teaching and learning in the school. It is such a respected professional

who is expected to play a cardinal and critical role in not only planning for the

success of school academic and co-curricular activities but also ensuring that

the resources that government injects in the school are directed on productive

priorities as set by the school management systems and structures. This will

no doubt elicit and motivate teachers to ensure that the learner and the

environment that is created prepares an all-round student who can think

creatively, engage the environment and come out as innovative as possible

with all the benchmarks of integrative education. Head teachers are

professionally expected to not only be masters of their own image and

appearance but change agents who are supposed to solicit resources and

enforce the necessary conditions for learning such as curriculum coverage

with the ability to lobby both the government and other stakeholders to avail

the necessary scholastic materials such as textbooks before ensuring the

expected adequacy in teacher mentoring and providing the required conducive

teaching and learning environment. It is such leaders that attract the most

highly talented and qualified teachers who are innovative, imaginative and

inventive with the necessary confidence to unlock the learner’s potential. A

learner in an integrative education environment is expected to get plenty of

hands-on experience which can bring about better understanding of the

different dimensions of a problem, understanding from different angles and

from different sides. It is this that makes integrative education desirable

because it is not just about transmitting facts to students but much more of

problem solving, asking questions and actively seeking answers from the

student surroundings and environment.


Conceptual framework

In developing the conceptual framework for this study, the independent

variable comprised the head teacher’s leadership role in ensuring routine

school administration and management, monitoring teaching and curriculum

coverage, equipping labs and the library, upgrading personal knowledge and

professionalism and engaging the community. The dependent variable is the

integrative education strategies for ensuring quality education that is expected

to bring about student knowledge application, acquire innovation skills and

creativity and also acquire helpful life career skills. The moderating variable

comprised the government policy towards facilitating schools in terms of

capitation grant and funding to schools which translates into timely posting

and payment to teachers who have the required qualification and experience

as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Conceptual framework

Literature review

The study by Mpaata and Mpaata (2018) critically observed that the

Ministry of Education in Uganda has got the enormous responsibility of

ensuring that they retrain or provide in-service training to head teachers with

the aim of not only motivating them but also enabling them to have the

Moderating Variable

Independent Variables

Government policy on;

Capitation grant and funding to schools

Timely posting and payment to teachers

Teacher qualification and experience

Dependent Variables

Head teacher’s leadership ability

to…

Ensure routine school

administration and management

Monitor teaching and curriculum

coverage

Equip the lab and the library

Upgrade personal knowledge and

professionalism

Engage the community

Integrative education

strategies

Student knowledge

application

Student innovation skills

and creativity

Student acquisition of

life career skills


necessary competencies to work with flexibility so that they are able to closely

monitor not only classroom teaching but the resources that government avails

to the schools.

According to Diwan (2003), youth empowerment is based on the belief

that young people are the best resources for promoting their development and

that they must be both architects and agents in meeting the challenges and

solving the problems faced in today's world in the new millennium. Moreover,

the study by Pittman and Wright (1991) observed that empowerment can be

one of the most effective strategies for providing young people with

opportunities to develop life competencies. Mpaata, et al. (2017) concluded

that educational empowerment of the youths is important because it leads to

competencies that are linked to self-esteem because the youths are a great

resource for the country’s development given the increasing responsibility

that accumulates throughout their daily activities while running both the social

and economic activities in the country.

As leaders, head teachers play a critical role in not only the overall

performance of the school but in creating an environment that models and

projects the future of a student learner. According to Reynolds and Teddlie

(2000), an effective head teacher is expected to foster a development-oriented

school culture through his personality, attitude, and behavior. It is this quality

in both learning and administrative proceedings that makes a school special

and unique. In addition, Noddings (2005) noted that a competent head teacher

is expected to play a significant supportive role for the entire development of

the students. It is because of this cardinal role that enables students to register

success in their final academic performance and their overall engagement as

productive members of the community. It is such a leader who can provide

the necessary support to the teaching staff to nurture students into constructive

knowledgeable future citizens that can help the community develop. The head

teacher is expected to ensure teacher commitment, cooperation and monitor

their professional development which enables the school to build an ultimate

team with an innovative mindset. Modern practical education that is required

is aimed at producing leaners and teaching them how to think rather than what

to think so as to improve their minds and enable them think for themselves.


According to the research by Uganda National Commission for UNESCO

conducted by Nakazibwe (2011), there is urgent need for the country to ensure

innovation and creativity in the teaching process and also refocus the

country’s education system by discouraging teachers who just overload the

memory of students with thoughts of other academics per se. Integrative

education advocates for a system that prepares students who are creative,

innovative and inventive.

Besides the above, the study by Chrappan (2009) observed that integrative

education is about problem identification, evocation and methodological

innovation as well as the expansion of knowledge that the current pedagogy

does not cater for. Consequently, Spremic (2007) adds that integrative

education is realized in four (4) different coordinated levels; (1) students

attend classes in various subjects without the possibility of knowledge in these

subjects; (2) students are given the opportunity to gain insight into knowledge

on a related subject from different disciplines; (3) students and teachers

engage in the process of integration on the model of teaching, but teachers still

retain their role as representatives of their subject; and (4) students and

teachers work hard and contribute to the construction of a new entity imbued

with knowledge and skills from different disciplines.

In his earlier study, Singh (1991) warned that if governments are to change

education for the future, there is need for restructuring and reorientation of the

education system and suggested that the system should have the capacity to

nurture creative institutions which can most effectively do the educating.

Much of the crisis in education at present in developing countries such as

Uganda has its origin in schools which were designed to replicate rather than

create new knowledge. It is therefore integrative education which can

ameliorate the current rigid system of education (Chrappan, 2009).

Meanwhile, the study by Vasquez Heiling and Darling-Hammond (2008)

expressed concern about today’s education system that has continued to limit

the opportunity for leaners to engage in activities that require creativity,

innovation, critical thinking and problem solving. According to Kay (2010),

skills are still perceived as a by the way to have rather than must have in most


countries yet according to McWilliam (2009) the message from the work

place is compelling and clear that our learners should not be working on

routine information seeking and routine problem solving rather they have to

forge new, dynamic relationships and tackle novel challenges with

sophisticated technology so as to remain relevant in the present context and

beyond.

In concluding his study on the possible areas of integrative education,

Leonard (2007) suggests three broad realms which are; (a) integration across

courses or curricular structures, (b) integration of the formal academic sphere

with the co-curricular or personal areas of life, and (c) integration of old

knowledge with new perspectives. This means that integrative education is an

umbrella term that captures a variety of integrative forms in which the

classroom, workplace, and home are sites where the capacity to integrate is

needed to manage the complexity of life (Klein, 2005).

According to Dupoux, et al. (2005), a key factor in the success of

integrative education is the teaching staff who ultimately filter and interpret

the norms according to their own conceptions and the particular demands of

their professional context, and whose ideas, beliefs, assumptions and

knowledge together with their specific working conditions determine the

didactic application of the educational authorities’ integrative philosophy. The

study here adds that such teachers cannot produce meaningful results without

the head teacher as a leader who does not only lobby for resources from

government but also ensures that the community is engaged and all facilities

are in place as required by the teachers. That is why Day and Sammons (2016)

expressed concern that one of the challenges facing head teachers is

integrating a sound grasp of basic knowledge and skills within a broad and

balanced curriculum, strategically managing resources and the environment

and developing partnerships beyond the school to encourage parental support

for learning. This study investigates the extent to which these aspects are

related to the head teacher’s leadership role. This is because it is the head

teacher who ensures that the learner has the necessary resources such as

qualified teachers and other instructional materials including the environment

on which they can capitalize to ensure that the education is enriched,


interesting and inspiring. The study by Pink (2005) predicted that the 21st

Century will be dominated by integrative quality education because it requires

a different way of knowing, being and doing. It is this type of education which

starts at an early stage and is strengthened at the secondary school level that

is most likely to be unafraid of assuming reasonable risks and that is prepared

to develop reasoned and logical construction of new knowledge in the various

fields of study thereby aggressively cultivating a culture that nurtures

creativity in the life of the learner.

Similarly, the study by Reeves (2004) emphatically compels the head

teacher, teachers and the education officers to examine their professional

practice and transform the current education from a destructive to a

constructive and transformative force. The same observation was underlined

by Zhao (2009) who lists five core assumptions which can be used as

important tools to guide the decision about what schools ought to teach and

these include; (1) skills and knowledge that are not available at a cheaper price

or cannot be rendered useless by machines; (2) creativity, interpreted as both

ability and passion to make new things and adapt to new situations; (3) new

skills and knowledge that are needed for living in the global world; (4) high-

level cognitive skills such as problem solving and critical thinking; and (5)

emotional intelligence with the ability and capacity to understand and manage

emotions of self and others including the ability to interact, understand,

communicate and manage one’s own feelings. According to the Economist

Intelligence Unit (2015), the 21st century skills must be integrated into every

subject area, so that skills development becomes inseparable from the sharing

of knowledge.

Methodology

The study population comprised all senior teachers who have served in

government aided secondary schools for a period of at least 5years and above.

For convenience in obtaining the sample, government schools in the Eastern

Region of Uganda were selected. Only those secondary schools that have

operated for more than 3 decades were used in the study given the importance


that the stakeholders have historically attached to them in terms of their co-

curricular legacy and academic performance.

Questionnaires were therefore administered to 165 teachers teaching in the

11 government aided secondary schools but only 113 respondents returned

completed questionnaires representing a return rate of 68.5%. The

questionnaire was designed on a five point Likert Scale (ranging from 5 =

Strongly Agree to 1 = Strongly Disagree) for the different items concerning

quality integrative education and the head teacher’s leadership role.

The reliability of the questionnaire was ascertained using Cronbach’s

Alpha coefficient. The coefficient for this questionnaire was 0.986 which

demonstrated that the questionnaire was reliable for use.

Results and Analysis

Descriptive statistics on routine administration and management of the

school

Descriptive statistics was analyzed and as indicated in table 1, most of the

respondents (79.6%) agreed that their head teachers ensure that teacher

supervision and appraisal are done and with feedback. In addition, 71.7%

agreed their head teachers seek teachers’ cooperation while 81.4% agreed that

their head teachers allocate class responsibility to specific teachers. The

analysis also reveals that 67.3% of the respondents agreed that their head

teachers interview teachers in order to ascertain strengths. It was also agreed

that the head teachers establish communication and feedback mechanism

among all stakeholders (73.5%) and also consult with education officers,

teachers and colleagues in developing work programmes (85.8%). The

implication here is that the head teachers in government aided secondary

schools investigated score more than average in the routine administration and

management of the school.


Descriptive statistics on personal development and professionalism

The analysis in table 1 provides that 95.6% of the respondents agreed that their

head teachers hold meetings with staff to plan programmes, allocate resources,

place students and finalize timetabling. Similarly, 89.4% of the respondents

agreed that their head teachers share professional knowledge with teachers to

encourage professional and personal development, while an average number

(53.1%) reported that their head teachers are knowledgeable of new

educational trends, theories and practices. This average figure is

supplemented by only 55.8% of the respondents who agreed that their head

teachers make every attempt to ensure the best fit possible among teacher,

students and instructional subject areas.

Descriptive statistics on equipping labs and the library

Concerning equipping of labs and the library, descriptive statistics in table 1

revealed that 88.5% of the respondents agreed that their head teachers procure,

store and supervise use of text books, institutional materials, school supplies

and equipment. In addition, 92% of the respondents also agreed that their head

teachers explore mechanisms for ensuring that laboratory equipment is

available. Further analysis also revealed that 84.1% of the respondents agreed

that their head teachers look for relevant text books, instructional materials,

equipment and school supplies. Finally, 87.6% of the respondents agreed that

their head teachers inspects storage facilities and establish a mechanism for

allocation, use and monitoring of material.

Descriptive statistics on community engagement

In terms of community engagement, table 1 reveals that head teachers

regularly communicate results of school activities/practices to stakeholders

such as student performance (86.7%). Additionally, it was also agreed that

head teachers ensure that their teachers operate in a knowledge-based

environment (88.5%) and that the local community supports the school

through provision of a range of resources (87.6%). Table 1 also reveals that

majority of the respondents agreed that their head teachers mediate conflicts


(94.7%) and create a supportive environment for the free flow of

communication among stakeholders (91.2%).

Descriptive statistics on monitoring teaching and curriculum coverage

Table 1 reveals that in terms of monitoring teaching and curriculum coverage,

head teachers professionally circulate memoranda and circulars to all

members of staff (89.4%). On the same note, 81.4% of the respondents agreed

that their head teachers ensure that teachers work in an atmosphere of clear

guidance and support. Similarly, 78.8% of the respondents agreed that their

head teachers constantly check with teachers who have the delegated

responsibility and provide guidance as often as necessary. In the same way,

95.6% of the respondents also agreed that their head teachers submit records,

educational statistics and data requested by the Ministry in a timely fashion.

It is also noted that 98.2% of the respondents agreed that their head teachers

seek clarification from Ministry on potentially ambiguous areas before

implementation.

Table 1

Some responses on the head teachers’s leadership role

Item

The head teacher…

SA

& A

N D &

SD

Ro

uti

ne

ad

min

istr

ati

on

an

d m

an

ag

emen

t o

f th

e

sch

oo

l

Ensures that teacher supervision and appraisal are done

and with feedback. 79.6 10.6 9.7

Seeks teachers’ cooperation. 71.7 17.7 10.6

Allocates class responsibility to specific teachers. 81.4 13.3 5.3

Interviews teachers in order to ascertain strengths. 67.3 12.4 20.4

Establishes communication and feedback mechanism

among head teacher, teachers, Ministry of Education and

the Community.

73.5 8.8 17.7

Consults with education officers, teachers and colleagues

in developing a work programme. 85.8 0.0 14.2


Per

son

al

dev

elo

pm

ent

an

d

pro

fess

ion

ali

sm

Subscribes to and reads relevant educational journals and

other management literature. 31.0 17.7 51.3

Is knowledgeable of new educational trends, theories and

practices. 53.1 10.6 36.3

Shares professional knowledge with teachers to

encourage professional and personal development. 89.4 0.0 10.6

Makes every attempt to ensure the best fit possible

among teacher, students and instructional subject areas. 55.8 27.4 16.8

Holds meetings with staff to: plan programme, allocate

resources, place students and finalize timetabling. 95.6 4.4 0.0

Fosters collegiality and harmonious working

relationships among teachers. 82.3 7.1 10.6

Eq

uip

pin

g t

he

sch

oo

l la

bs

an

d t

he

lib

rary

Procures, stores and supervises use of text books,

institutional materials, school supplies and equipment. 88.5 3.5 8.0

Explores mechanisms for ensuring that laboratory

equipment is available 92.0 0.9 7.1

Looks for relevant text books, instructional materials,

equipment and school supplies. 84.1 2.7 13.3

Inspects storage facilities; and establish a mechanism for

allocation and use and monitoring of material. 87.6 0.0 12.4

Co

mm

un

ity

En

gag

emen

t

Communicates regularly results of school

activities/practices to stakeholders, e.g. student

performance

86.7 2.7 10.6

Makes sure that teachers operate in a knowledge-based

environment. 88.5 5.3 6.2

Makes sure that community supports school through

provision of a range of resources. 87.6 0.9 11.5

Mediates conflicts. 94.7 0.0 5.3

Creates a supportive working environment created for the

free flow of communication among stakeholders. 91.2 1.8 7.1

Mo

nit

ori

ng o

f te

ach

ing

an

d c

urr

icu

lum

cov

era

ge

Always circulates memoranda and circulars to all

members of staff; 89.4 0.9 9.7

Makes sure teachers work in an atmosphere of clear

guidance and support. 81.4 4.4 14.2

Checks constantly with teachers who have the delegated

responsibility and provide guidance as often as is

necessary;

78.8 8.8 12.4

Submits records, educational statistics and data requested

by the Ministry in a timely fashion. 95.6 3.5 0.9

Seeks clarification from Ministry on potentially

ambiguous areas before implementation. 98.2 1.8 0.0


After the above descriptive statistics, correlation analysis was performed

to determine the relationship between the above independent variable

concerning the head teacher’s leadership role and the dependent variable.

Detailed results are given below.

Pearson Product Moment Correlation results

In order to test the hypothesis that there is a significant correlation between

the variables of head teacher’s leadership role and the school’s ability to

realize integrative education, a correlation matrix was developed as indicated

in table 2. The finding here is that there is a significant correlation between

the head teacher’s leadership role of performing routine administration and

management and the school’s ability to realize integrative education (r =

.927**, p<0.0001). This implies that the head teacher’s cardinal role is to

ensure that there is daily administration and management of the school. The

specific emphasis in terms of administration as investigated here include;

controlling the discipline of teachers and students, providing information

about the school to the Management committee and parents, holding meetings

with parents, planning and accounting for all funds and resources in the

school, identifying, employing and assigning duties to teachers and support

staff, making sure that rules and regulations are implemented and making sure

that teaching and learning is taking place. Meanwhile, management involves

putting in place goals, objectives, missions, rules and regulations for the

school, describing duties to be done by different people in the school, and

overall supervision of the school activities.

Secondly, there is a significant and positive relationship between the head

teacher’s leadership role in the technical aspect of equipping labs and the

library and the school’s ability to realize integrative education (r = .701**, p

< 0.0001). This is where government has got to focus resources and ensure

that labs are properly equipped because it is through technology that

innovation and creativity can easily be realized.

Thirdly, as indicated in table 2, there is a significant and positive

correlation between the head teacher’s leadership role in monitoring of

teaching and curriculum coverage and the school’s ability to realize


integrative education (r = .916**, p < 0.0001). The finding here is that in order

for schools to produce meaningful education, head teachers should ensure that

teachers work in an atmosphere of clear guidance and support. As leaders,

head teachers are expected to always circulate memoranda and circulars to all

members of staff and constantly check with teachers who have the delegated

responsibility so as provide guidance and nurture them into future leaders.

Further analysis of the correlation matrix reveals that there is also a

significant association between the head teacher’s leadership role in engaging

the community and the school’s ability to realize integrative education

(r = .637**, p < 0.0001). This finding shows that a school must belong to the

community and the community must support the school. This is because it is

through community engagement that problems and challenges in society can

be identified by students and solutions provided accordingly.

The striking finding from the matrix however is the negative correlation

between the head teacher’s personal development and professionalism and the

schools’ ability to realize integrative education (r = -.174, p < 0.065). While

head teachers have made efforts for personal development, such efforts are

not perceived to directly help the students more than the head teachers

themselves. Therefore, given that head teachers of government schools are

appointed on merit with the necessary qualifications, emphasis should be on

how to provide the necessary leadership that can propel integrative education

in the school and not to focus on personal development per se.

Table 2

Correlation matrix for the different study variables in integrative education

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed)

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

1 2 3 4 5 8

1. Routine school Administration and Management -

2. Personal development and professionalism -.148 -

3. Equipping Lab and Library .761** .343** -

4. Community Engagement .681** .434** .973** -

5. Monitoring teaching and curriculum coverage .958** .010 .821** .760** -

6. Integrative Education .927** -.174 .701** .637** .916** -


Descriptive statistics on integrative quality education

Analysis of descriptive statistics in table 3 reveals that majority of the

respondents (87.1%) agreed that senior government schools still produce

students who can look beyond today. In addition, 77% of the respondents

agreed that the schools produce students who can create collaborative

communities that are networked inside and outside the school and 70.5% also

agreed that the schools produce students who can provide regular feedback

about whether the schools are meeting their needs. Further analysis also shows

that an average number (57.4%) agreed that the schools produce students who

can create new routines, new traditions and build new approaches to learning.

Meanwhile, 62.3% of the respondents agreed that the schools produce

students who are willing to learn from their mistakes and grow while 60.7%

agreed that the schools produce students who can embrace failure as fuel for

innovation.

About the question of student acquisition of life career skills, most

respondents agreed that head teachers plan for guidance on life and world

orientation (77%), time and self-management (83.6%), career planning and

development (91.8%) as well as alcohol and drug abuse (72.1%). In addition,

an average number of respondents agreed that head teachers provide and plan

for guidance on communication skills (67.2%), development of person and

self (63.9%), cultural orientation (62.3%) and family work values (59%).

However, it was only 57.4% of the respondents who agreed that their head

teachers ensure that there is guidance on healthy lifestyle. Concerning student

knowledge application, majority of the respondents (88.5%) agreed their

schools provide deliberate practice to increase understanding and 83.6%

agreed that their schools teach students to monitor their own understanding.

Additionally, 72.1% of the respondents agreed that their schools provide

students with prompts to activate relevant knowledge such as home works.

Furthermore, 62.3% agreed that their schools provide practice on basic skills

and an average number (55.7%) agreed that their schools share expert methods

and strategies. On the contrary, 44.3% of the respondents disagreed with the

statement that their schools assess students’ knowledge organization to

address problems implying that most government secondary schools have not


taken it seriously to enable their students relate what they learn to industry and

environment.

Table 3

Some responses on integrative education

No.

Student innovation skills

This school produces students that….

Responses

SA

&A

N D &

SD

% % %

1. Can create new routines, new traditions, and build new

approaches to learning. 55.7 19.7 24.6

2. Can be at the cutting edge of what is vibrate and exciting in

our society. 57.4 23.0 19.7

3. Can provide regular feedback about whether the school is

meeting their needs 70.5 13.1 16.4

4. Can create collaborative communities that are networked

inside and outside the school 77.0 11.5 11.5

5. Can embrace failure as fuel for innovation 60.7 23.0 16.4

6. Are willing to learn from their mistakes and grow 62.3 21.3 16.4

7. Can look beyond today 87.1 4.8 8.1

Student acquisition of life career skills

The head teacher ensures that there is guidance on….

8. Life and world orientation 77.0 14.8 8.2

9. Time and self-management 83.6 9.8 6.6

10. Family work values 59.0 31.1 9.8

11. Healthy lifestyle 57.4 24.6 18.0

12. Communication skills 67.2 24.6 8.2

13. Career planning and development 91.8 6.6 1.6

14. Cultural orientation 62.3 14.8 23.0

15. Alcohol and drug abuse 72.1 19.7 8.2

16. Development of person and self 63.9 26.2 9.8

Student knowledge application

This school……

17. Provides students with prompts to activate relevant

knowledge such as home works 72.1 16.4 11.5

18. Assesses students’ knowledge organization to address

problems 34.4 21.3 44.3

19. Provides deliberate practice to increase understanding 88.5 6.6 4.9

20. Teaches students to monitor their own understanding 83.6 9.8 6.6

21. Provides practice on basic skills 62.3 14.8 23.0

22. Shares expert methods and strategies 55.7 24.6 19.7


Results of the regression analysis

In order to determine the leadership variables that significantly influence

integrative quality education, a multiple regression analysis was performed

using integrative quality education as the dependent variable. As indicated in

the model below, five (5) leadership variables were the independent variables.

The hypothesized model can be summarized as follows.

Where:

TCC = Monitoring of teaching and curriculum coverage

CE = Community Engagement

ELL = Equipping Lab and Library

PDP = Personal development and professionalism

DAM = Daily school Administration and Management

IQE = Integrative Quality Education

As indicated in table 4, there are three (3) significant leadership roles of

the head teacher that once performed have a direct effect on enhancing

integrative education in the school which are; (i) Routine administration and

management of the school (β = .375, t = 2.636, p < 0.10); (ii) Monitoring

teaching and curriculum coverage (β = .569, t = 4.119, p < 0.0001); and (iii)

Community Engagement (β = .275, t = 1.692, p < 0.094). However, the effect

of the variable on personal development and professionalism was significant

but negative with (β = -.152, t = -2.953, p < 0.004). The implication of this

finding is that whereas the identifieid three (3) variables of the leadership role

are directly beneficial to the school as an institution, personal development

and professionalism negatively benefits the school in this regard but perhaps

directly benefits the head teacher as an individual. The reason may be that in

such senior secondary schools, head teachers are expected to have the

necessary qualifications to lead and therefore, their major role should focus

on routine administration and management, community engagement and

monitoring of teaching and curriculum coverage.

IQE = β0 + B1 DAM + β2 PDP + β3 ELL + β4 CE + β5 TCC + Ɛ


Put another way, personal and professional development requirements

once pursued do not directly influence creativity, innovation and skill

development in students. Anova results also indicated that all the variables in

the study had a main effect on enhancing integrative quality education with [F

= 162.390, p < 0.0001] implying that these variables have an individual

significant influence on the realization of integrative quality education.

Table 4

Regression model in Integrative Quality Education

Variable Pred.

sign β t – value p – value

Intercept +- .607 2.747 .007

Routine school Administration and Management + .375 2.636 .010

Personal development and professionalism + -.152 -2.953 .004

Equipping Lab and Library + -.267 -1.527 .130

Community Engagement + .569 4.119 .000

Monitoring teaching and curriculum coverage + .275 1.692 .094

ANOVA (F – ratio) 162.390 0.0001

Discussion

The study here demonstrates that the leadership role of head teachers in

terms of routine school administration and management, community

engagement and monitoring teaching and curriculum coverage, among others

is key to the enhancing integrative education. According to Tirozzi (2001),

effective school heads are expected to work relentlessly to improve

achievement by focusing on the quality of instruction with emphasis on not

only hands-on but also creative thinking ability of the student. Similarly,

Cheruiyot (2003) adds that head teachers guide and reinforce desired

pedagogical techniques, which among others include; (1) up-to-date delivery

of subject matter, (2) diversified and satisfactory instruction, (3) adequate

evaluation as well as timely feedback, (4) positive recognition and

reinforcement of performing learners; (5) high standards of discipline; (6)

establishment and promotion of a conducive learning environment within the


school; and (7) adherence to the set instructional calendar. These would result

in the achievement of the set academic goals in the school.

In terms of community engagement which was significant as a key role of

the head teacher, the study reveals that head teachers as school managers are

not only supposed to engage the community so as to enlist their support but

also work together with the community to support student learning and

development. According to Epstein and Sanders (2006), effective schools

have effective communication with parents and implement an open door

policy based on a participatory approach that encourages periodical meetings

with parents and guardians which means that an effective head teacher has to

routinely develop cordial relationship with other schools at local, national and

international level so as to establish networks that are productive to the entire

community and help the student integrate a positive attitude towards the

cultural wealth that is not only local but international as well.

As suggested by Kwek (2011), for head teachers to meet 21st century

expectations, they have to design school strategies with a mindset that

guarantees gradual departure from the ideas and pedagogies of yesterday so

that all teachers become bold advocates that can develop the sorts of learning

dispositions needed for learners and their work futures. This means spending

less time explaining through instruction and investing more time in

experimental and error-tolerant modes of engagement.

The above is supported by Carroll, et al. (2010) who suggest that one way

of increasing relevance of students’ learning is to adopt an integrated approach

through implementation of curriculum that integrates design thinking and

academic content. The implication is that educators can help students develop

a skill set that includes ideas generally not fostered within traditional school

settings. This process would contribute to different levels of creative

knowledge, creative skills and creative mindsets that can be achieved by

design thinking education. The Economist Intelligence Unit (2015) warned

that the challenge with incorporating skills development into the school

curriculum in developing countries is that it is difficult to reconcile with a

heavy dependence on rote learning given that it requires significant


investment in the professional development of teachers to enable them to

demonstrate the skills we expect them to inculcate in their students. This study

therefore provides additional empirical evidence that unless secondary

schools have well-trained and focused head teachers who can routinely

administer and manage the school, engage the community, and monitor

teaching and curriculum coverage, having the desire for integrative education

by government alone cannot drive the country to success in this endeavor.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this study prodigiously documents that there is a significant

relationship between the head teacher’s school leadership role and the

realization of integrative education. The major finding is that once the head

teacher routinely administers and manages the school, monitors teaching and

curriculum coverage and engages the community, students in such schools are

most likely to apply knowledge, become innovative, creative, imaginative and

above all else acquire life long career skills that enable them to succeed in this

world. The head teacher as a leader is expected to demonstrate competence

and ensure that there is an integrated curriculum that links one subject to

another and lobby government for the necessary resources that can not only

motivate the teachers but also provide a conducive learning environment that

can enable the students to use new technologies and information systems to

practice and ensure self-discovery. It is an open secret that the function of

education is to prevent dogma from accumulating and this can only be realized

through integrative education that is firmly established with a strong base at

the secondary school level. Relevant education that is required today is one

that elicits useful knowledge that is developed through hands-on experiences

that can produce innovative, skilled and practical students at that level.

While this study focuses on the secondary school level, there is need to

build integrative education at an early stage because learning becomes

relevant when it is always connected with reality from the bottom up to

university level and beyond.


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Liderazgo Educativo en el Departamento de Matemáticas.

Impulsar la Formación Didáctica de las Matemáticas

Salvador Vidal Raméntol

Universitat Internacional de Catalunya. España


Edition period: July 2018 - January 2019

To cite this article: Vidal Raméntol, S. (2019). Liderazgo Educativo en el

Departamento de Matemáticas. Impulsar la Formación Didáctica de las

Matemáticas. International Journal of Educational Leadership and

Management, 7(2), 231-256. DOI:10.17583/ijelm.2019.2680









2019 HipatiaPress

ISSN: 2014-9018

DOI: 10.17583/ijelm.2019.2680

Liderazgo educativo en el Departamento de

Matemáticas. Impulsar la Formación

Didáctica de las Matemáticas


Universitat Internacional Catalunya

Resumen

Para mejorar la enseñanza aprendizaje de las matemáticas ha resultado de gran

eficacia la creación y puesta en marcha del departamento de Matemáticas, como

motor de un centro educativo para coordinar de forma vertical toda la enseñanza de

esta materia desde educación infantil hasta la post obligatoria.

Todos los profesores ejercen un liderazgo compartido y tienen su foro para debatir y

acordar propuestas de innovación y restructuración de la enseñanza, introduciendo

nuevos métodos y compartiendo materiales y experiencias de éxito en sus aulas.

En este artículo se determina la creación de dicho Departamento y se definen las

funciones que debe tener, cuáles deberían ser también las funciones de su jefe y que

debería impulsar el Departamento. Una vez definidas sus funciones se propone un

método para llevar a cabo las reuniones de forma eficaz. Este método son los Círculos

de Calidad. En este estudio se presenta con ejemplos concretos de cómo se llevó a

cabo y los resultados obtenidos. El fruto del primer año de puesta en práctica fue la

creación de comisiones para impulsar la construcción del propio material de

matemáticas que los profesores querían llevar a cabo en sus aulas. Se comprueba la

importancia del liderazgo para crear organizaciones que funcionen.

Keywords: Departamento de matemáticas, liderazgo compartido, enseñanza-aprendizaje.



2019 HipatiaPress

ISSN: 2014-9018

DOI: 10.17583/ijelm.2019.2680

Educational Leadership in the Department

of Mathematics. To promote the Didactic

Training of Mathematics.


Universitat Internacional Catalunya

Abstract

To improve the teaching of mathematics has been very effective creation and

implementation of the Department of Mathematics, as the engine of an educational

center to coordinate vertically all the teaching of this subject from early childhood

education to the post mandatory.

All teachers exercise a shared leadership and have their forum to discuss and agree on

proposals for innovation and restructuring of teaching, introducing new methods and

sharing successful materials and experiences in their classrooms.

In this article the creation of said Department is determined and the functions that it

must have are defined, which should also be the functions of its head and that should

be promoted by the Department. Once its functions are defined, a method is proposed

to carry out the meetings effectively. This method is the Quality Circles. In this study,

it is presented with concrete examples of how it was carried out and the results

obtained. The fruit of the first year of implementation, was the creation of

commissions to promote the construction of the material of mathematics that teachers

wanted to carry out in their classrooms. The importance of leadership to create

organizations that work is proven.

Palabras clave: Department of Mathematics, shared leadership, Teaching-Learning.


a guía de cómo empezar con los Objetivos del Desarrollo Sostenible

(SDSN, 2017) en las universidades, en el objetivo ODS número 4,

Aprendizaje y Enseñanza nos dice: crear implementadores (actuales

y futuros) de los ODS. Las universidades forman personas con habilidades y

capacidades profesionales y personales. Tienen acceso a un importante

número de jóvenes apasionados, creativos, con curiosidad y el deseo de un

mundo mejor. También influyen cada vez más en el desarrollo global a través

de estudiantes y exalumnos internacionales, campos internacionales y

actividades de desarrollo del talento. Alcanzar los ODS requerirá de la

contribución de todos. Por lo tanto, las universidades deben asegurarse de que

están formando a los líderes actuales y futuros, a los responsables de la toma

de decisiones, a los docentes, a los innovadores, los empresarios y los

ciudadanos con los conocimientos, las habilidades y la motivación que los

ayudarán a contribuir al logro de los ODS.

La guía que relaciona los ODS y las universidades insiste en la formación

de líderes que serán los responsables de llevar a cabo el logro de los ODS y

conseguir un planeta más justo. En nuestras aulas debemos formar a jóvenes

emprendedores que además de una muy buena formación intelectual tenga

una formación de liderazgo. La relación entre un buen liderazgo y los

resultados escolares son cada vez es más evidentes (Day et al. Informe

NCLSCS, 2010; Hallinger & Huber, 2012; Harris et al. 2003; Marzano et al.,

2005; Mulford, 2013; Robinson, 2007; Robinson et al., 2008 y 2009).

En el contexto escolar siempre se tienen muy presentes las reuniones de

nivel para coordinar los trabajos que se llevan a cabo en un mismo curso

educativo, si la escuela tiene dos o más líneas paralelas. Lo que no se tiene

tanto en cuenta es la programación vertical dentro de la misma escuela y puede

darse que en un curso se explique de una manera concreta la forma de restar

y en el curso siguiente se explique de forma distinta, produciendo una

perplejidad en los alumnos. Por este motivo necesitamos un liderazgo en el

Departamento de Matemáticas que coordina las distintas iniciativas y

metodologías que se llevan a la práctica en la enseñanza de las matemáticas.

L


La escuela que realizamos esta experiencia está situada en medio de una

colina, donde el acceso debe realizarse con medios de transporte particular o

escolar, no hay transporte público que llegue a la colina. Hay dos grandes

pabellones, donde en uno están los alumnos de 5 a 11 años y en el otro

pabellón de 12 a 18 años. La cantidad de alumnos llega al millar que junto con

la plantilla de profesores y personal de servicio somos un total de 1.250

personas que convivimos todos los días de 8,30 de la mañana a 17 horas. A

media mañana nos sirven un desayuno, al mediodía todos comen en la escuela,

en un pabellón central entre los dos pabellones de alumnos y por la tarde dan

una pequeña merienda a los más pequeños.

Por este motivo se requirió en una escuela realizar un estudio durante un

curso escolar para poner en marcha el departamento de Matemáticas, como

motor de cambio y que controlase y unificase todos los criterios llevados a

cabo para aprender con coherencia y de la mejor forma las distintas

operaciones matemáticas, así como la forma de trabajar. Por ejemplo, el tema

de la estimación matemática que en los primeros cursos se introducía con el

cálculo mental, pero que en cursos superiores no se hacía. El tema lleva años

incorporado al currículo, sin embargo, el tratamiento que se le da es muy

superficial (Reys, 1984) y limitado (Hope, 1986, Johnson, 1979, Trafton,

1986, Sowder y Wheeler 1989). Carlow (1986) muestra en un estudio de un

programa donde se incluye la estimación, y desarrollado a partir de 1969, la

insatisfacción por los resultados obtenidos.

El objetivo principal del proyecto consistía en formar un equipo de

profesores de matemáticas capaces de conseguir un liderazgo transformador

con la finalidad de mejorar el aprendizaje de esta materia (Tintoré y Güell,

2016) y conseguir unificar criterios de formación a lo largo de los diferentes

cursos. Para llevarlo a cabo se tuvo en cuenta el liderazgo educativo y las

practicas que se podrían realizar para lograr un liderazgo eficaz.


Metodologia

Diseño de la investigación

La metodología que se utilizó fue cualitativa. Se pretendía describir el trabajo

llevado a cabo por los profesores de matemáticas y llegar a un entendimiento

en profundidad para conseguir una mejora en la enseñanza de esta materia.

El objetivo principal es el de proporcionar al profesor un conjunto de recursos

técnicos para llevar a cabo su quehacer de la mejor manera posible

(Chevallard, 2000).

Primero se fijó una estrategia para conocer los hechos y procesos que se

realizaban en el centro a partir de un dialogo con los distintos agentes que dan

clases de matemáticas, de esta forma el investigador entro en contacto con las

distintas personas con las que se iniciaba el trabajo. Una vez realizado el

dialogo se definen los indicadores que se tomaran en cuenta durante el proceso

de la investigación. Investigamos diversas metodologías didácticas y

analizamos sus características, Brown y Atkins (1988) y nos decidimos por

una en que todo el profesorado se sintiera implicado en el cambio (Vidal,

2013).

El método consistía en reunirse una vez al mes con todo el profesorado de

la escuela que impartía la materia de matemáticas a nivel de Primaria,

Secundaria y Bachillerato, en total 14 profesores, para buscar dinámicas y

estrategias que impulsarán la mejora de la enseñanza de las matemáticas a

todos los niveles y aportar desde la Universidad nuevos estilos pedagógicos.

Pretendía ser un trabajo compartido entre la Universidad y escuela y entre la

teoría y la práctica y teniendo en cuenta el contexto donde se encontraba la

escuela, Catalunya central. Pensábamos que el departamento de Matemáticas

debe ser un motor de cambio en la escuela, es por eso por lo que se quería

impulsar la didáctica de esta materia para hacerla más atractiva y motivadora

tanto para los alumnos como para los profesores. También pensamos que un

buen trabajo en equipo puede ser una herramienta fundamental en el

desarrollo profesional y personal.


Queremos que nuestros alumnos sean competentes según la definición

aportada por Gonzalez, J. y Wagenaar, R. (2003) en el Proyecto “Tuning

Educational Structures in Europe” quienes definen la competencia como

“una combinación dinámica de atributos, en relación a conocimientos,

habilidades, actitudes y responsabilidades, que describen los resultados del

aprendizaje de un programa educativo o lo que los alumnos son capaces de

demostrar al final de un proceso educativo”.

Para conseguir la competencia matemática en nuestros alumnos debemos

desarrolla una buena didáctica. La didáctica como instrumento, es el elemento

más relativo, más contingente, por lo tanto, más inestable, más cambiante y

más adaptable. Si la didáctica es la ciencia que trata el “proceso de estudio”,

“el proceso de enseñanza” es sólo uno de los varios subprocesos, del proceso

de estudio (Chevallard, 2000).

Es necesariamente mudable, necesariamente renovable y necesariamente

progresista. El progreso didáctico no es una opción es una necesidad, por

tanto, será el terreno que nos pedirá más sensibilidad, más imaginación, más

realismo y más valentía; lo que nos exigirá una puesta a punto constante, una

actualización, un reciclaje permanente. La didáctica es un arte. La didáctica

hace que una escuela sea interesante o aburrida. En estos momentos la escuela

aburrida es una escuela ineficaz, ya que esta en absoluta inferioridad de

condiciones delante de los excitantes estímulos de los poderosos medios

sociales.

La escuela, para ser eficaz, tiene que ser atractiva, y la escuela se hace

atractiva por la didáctica. “La organización de la enseñanza debe basarse más

en lo que los estudiantes tienen en común que en lo que es particular a cada

uno de ellos. Desde un punto de vista antropológico, el estudio y, con él, el

aprendizaje son actividades que unen a los individuos” (Chevallard, 2000).

El investigador debe fomentar el intercambio de experiencias, así como

unificar criterios de didáctica según contexto y proyecto educativo. Como

afirma Vergnaud (1990) la mayoría de los psicólogos interesados hoy por la

Educación Matemática son en algún sentido constructivistas, piensan que las

competencias y concepciones son construidas por los propios estudiantes.


Liderazgo educativo

En los últimos años observamos que el liderazgo educativo ha experimentado

un gran crecimiento. Este crecimiento es debido a que cada vez queda más

clara la relación entre un buen liderazgo y los resultados escolares,

especialmente en entornos más desfavorecidos (Day et al. 2010; Informe

NCLSCS, 2010; Hallinger & Huber, 2012; Harris et al. 2003; Marzano et al.,

2005; Mulford, 2013; Robinson, 2007; Robinson et al., 2008 y 2009). Todo

este estudio nos permite afirmar que verdaderamente los lideres importan

(Bolívar, 2013; Darling-Hammond et al., 2007; Day & Sammons, 2013;

Hallinger, 2007; Day et al. 2010; Informe NCLSCS, 2010).

Actualmente el liderazgo se ha convertido en una prioridad en la política

educativa. En nuestro caso concreto se creyó que desde el departamento de

Matemáticas debe impulsarse el liderazgo eficaz en nuestra aula de

matemáticas. Se pensó que el trabajo en equipo, dentro del Departamento,

todos los profesores de matemáticas han de impulsar e innovar y saber

gestionar (Day & Sammons, 2013; Harris, Jones & Baba, 2013), para que la

enseñanza de la materia resulte un trabajo eficaz y a la vez lo suficientemente

atractivo para que los alumnos puedan tener una cultura numérica.

Estos aspectos de liderazgo eficaz hay que impulsarlos desde los

departamentos en cuanto que son éstos los que organizan y coordinan la

pedagogía a seguir ya que la influencia del liderazgo es mayor cuanto más

distribuido está por la organización (Gronn, 2000; Harris, 2013; Day et al.,

2010; Informe NCLSCS, 2010; Louis et al., 2013; Spillane, 2006) y cuanto

más contribuye a crear equipos profesionales de aprendizaje (Bolívar, 2013;

Elmore, 2000; Stoll et al.,2006). Cuando un grupo de profesores se reúnen con

un objetivo común, el de mejorar la enseñanza de las matemáticas, seguro que

pueden salir resultados muy satisfactorios. Las investigaciones revisadas

muestran que los líderes que influyen en las actitudes positivas de los

empleados (Villalba Moreno, 2001) y aquéllos que ejercen el liderazgo

transformacional mejoran la satisfacción laboral de sus seguidores (Al

Hussami, 2008; Cuadra Peralta & Veloso Besio, 2007; Emery & Barker, 2007

Judge, Piccolo & Ilies, 2004; Shieh, Mills & Waltz, 2001; Yi-Feng, 2009).


Hay que realizar un trabajo sistemático, ordenado, constante y establecer

prioridades. Destacar la profesionalidad que debe poseer el docente de

Matemática, cuyo interés se orienta tanto al dominio conceptual y

procedimental de dicha área, así como también del compromiso moral y

humanístico en el proceso de enseñanza (Chacón, 1999; Escudero, 2009).

En la sociedad que nos ha tocado vivir necesitamos del cálculo (piedra),

igual que nuestros antepasados del Neolítico que contaban con piedras, su

primera calculadora y también los egipcios que utilizaban la geometría (medir

la tierra) para hacer pagar impuestos a los que tenían más tierras. Hay que

experimentar para aprender, ya decía Aristóteles que lo que tenemos que

aprender, lo aprendemos haciendo. Nuestros alumnos han de comprender que

la matemática es útil para la vida.

Estructuración del liderazgo

Durante el siglo XXI numerosos autores han analizado distintas prácticas de

liderazgo educativo con distintos criterios, pero parecidos (Day et al., 2010; Informe NCLSCS, 2010; Leithwood et al., 2002; Orphanos & Orr, 2013).

Estos autores organizan las prácticas de liderazgo eficaz en cuatro grandes

apartados: Visión, cultura, estructura y enseñanza-aprendizaje. Relacionado

con la visión de la escuela, uno de los objetivos de la misma es mejorar el

aprendizaje de sus alumnos e impulsar la innovación docente. Respecto a la

cultura tener altas expectativas en las personas y conseguir resultados.

El apartado estructural y enseñanza-aprendizaje, tiene que ver con la

organización del centro y en este punto es donde se incide más ya que implica

rediseñar los roles y responsabilidades, crear relaciones y grupos de

colaboración en los procesos como instrumentos de mejora y participación y

evaluar todas las prácticas llevadas a cabo. Se ha comprobado que los

trabajadores de instituciones de tratamientos a largo plazo, como pude ser un

centro educativo, trabajar en un ambiente de equipo se relaciona

positivamente con la Satisfacción laboral (Kinjerski & Skrypnek, 2008;

Moyle, Skinner, Rowe & Gork, 2003).


Metodología del Círculo de Calidad

Esta metodología pensamos que es el mejor sistema para aprovechar el

potencial creativo e innovador que tienen todos los hombres y mujeres que

componen el Departamento de Matemáticas (Palom,1987).

Ishikawa, menciona respecto a los Círculos de Calidad lo siguiente: “Para

que un movimiento perdure es necesario evitar la obligatoriedad y hacer

hincapié en el voluntarismo. A la larga, es preferible el progreso gradual que

los fracasos resultantes cuando el movimiento obedece a órdenes superiores.

A veces la ruta más lenta es la que lleva al éxito” (Ishikawa, 1997).

El círculo de calidad es toda una filosofía de trabajo que tiene como

objectivo:

- Buscar la calidad

- Mejorar la productividad (optimización de recursos)

- Mejorar la eficiencia

- Motivar los profesores

- Integrar a las personas del Departamento.

La organización del trabajo consiste en un grupo de profesores que se

reúnen periódicamente, en nuestro caso el Departamento de Matemáticas,

para analizar problemas que pueden proponer ellos mismos o el propio equipo

directivo para buscar soluciones. Son problemas de su propio ámbito de

actuación o derivados del ejercicio de sus funciones o derivadas de sus

competencias. Están coordinados por el jefe del departamento o el que el

mismo circulo de calidad escoge. Tiene el reconocimiento del equipo

directivo al que le remeten las conclusiones del estudio.

Para el buen funcionamiento del círculo de calidad es preciso que se den

unas condiciones (Ishikawa, 1997):


- Participación activa

- Formación permanente

- Trabajo en grupo

- Grupo democrático

- Respetar al compañero

- Méritos colectivos y nunca individuales

- Grupos reducidos

- Reuniones cortas

- Tener en cuenta el horario

- Reconocimiento del trabajo bien hecho

- Soporte de la dirección.

La metodología del trabajo tiene en cuenta nueve puntos (Ishikawa, 1997):

1. Detectar un problema

2. Listar les causes que el provoquen (mínimo 20)

3. Valorar les causes por orden de importancia. (4 causes).

4. Investigar posibles soluciones

5. Selección de las soluciones más apropiadas

6. Remisión del informe de soluciones al equipo directivo

7. Estudio por parte del equipo directivo

8. Inicio de les soluciones.

9. Evaluación de los resultados.

Resultados

Nombramos un secretario del equipo formado por los 14 profesores de

matemáticas que formamos el departamento e iba tomando notas de las ideas

que iban apareciendo. Las reuniones las realizábamos siempre en la sala de la

mesa ovalada donde casi cabíamos todos mirándonos las caras. La reunión la

presidia el jefe del departamento. Pretendíamos que fuera un trabajo

consensuado entre todos, por ello queríamos construir el Departamento de

forma democrática.

Para empezar, se realizó un Brainstorming entre todos para prever cuales

han de ser las funciones del departamento de Matemáticas, salieron estos

conceptos:


- Trabajar en equipo

- Mejora de la didáctica de los profesores

- Unificar criterios metodológicos

- Mejorar la formación de los alumnos

- Estar al día de cursos, congresos, seminarios, actividades sobre matemáticas, ...

- Intercambio de experiencias

- Dificultades de aprendizaje

- Atender la diversidad en el aula

- Test de diagnóstico

- Competencias básicas

- Pruebas objetivas

- Material de soporte

- Buscar actividades de motivación

- Consultar revistas de pedagogía y artículos de experiencias matemáticas

- Crear una biblioteca matemática

- Hacer pequeños trabajos de investigación

- Publicar algún artículo en una revista pedagógica

- Buscar recursos

Una vez definidas las funciones que se esperaban del departamento se

pensó en las funciones que debería tener el Coordinador del departamento.

- Convocar, presidir y moderar les reuniones

- Orientar el trabajo del Departamento

- Coordinar el trabajo colectivo

- Recoger datos de los distintos niveles de la escuela

- Interpretar y transmitir resultados

- Sacar conclusiones

- Orientar para realizar pequeñas investigaciones

- Ser un punto de apoyo del Departamento

- Fomentar una formación continua del profesorado (seminarios, congresos,

lecturas de artículos)

- Intercambio de experiencias con otros Departamentos

- Buscar recursos

- Proponer temes de trabajo

- Proponer a la dirección la demanda de material necesario para desarrollar el

trabajo con los recursos necesarios.

- Proponer a la dirección la petición de asesores externos para poder trabajar

temes que sirvan para orientar, reforzar e impulsar el trabajo de los

componentes del Departamento.

- Realizar en cada sesión un acta de los temas tratados y las decisiones tomadas

que llevaba a cabo el secretario del grupo con el visto bueno del jefe del

Departamento.


Pero ¿Qué debe impulsar el Departamento?

- Centrar nuestro interés en el alumno

- Uso de les TIC

- Matemáticas recreativas

- Estudio de situaciones reales

- Experimentación

- Estudio de la matemática de forma globalizada

- Buscar elementos de motivación intrínseca

- Hacer un aprendizaje significativo

- Actividades variadas

- Aprovechar salidas escolares para trabajar conceptos matemáticos

- No memorizar sin entender

- Utilizar centros de interés

- Recursos matemáticos en el aula

- Realizar proyectos

- Hacer presupuestos (reformes de habitaciones, menús, control gastos hogar,...)

- Hacer estudios estadísticos

- Construir gráficos

- Trabajar con noticias de los periódicos

- Aprovechar programas de TV.

- Cálculo mental, sin abusar

- Dictados numéricos

- Cultura matemática. Historia de les matemáticas

- Herramientas matemáticas

- Juegos matemáticos

- Crear el laboratorio matemático

Una vez definido y vista la necesidad del Departamento de Matemáticas se

propusieron dos objetivos para desarrollar durante las sesiones que se

realizarían una vez al mes durante el curso escolar, uno relacionado con la

responsabilidad profesional y otro relacionado con la relación y colaboración

personal:

- Detectar aspectos a mejorar de la materia, productividad.

- Mejorar personalmente y grupalmente, ya que se trabaja con personas y para

las personas.

Se pensó que para impulsar la mejora se debe partir de una reflexión

personal sobre lo que ya funciona bien en el aula, todos realizan experiencias

muy positivas y hace falta compartir entre todos estos pequeños éxitos que se

van consiguiendo.


Una vez intercambiadas las experiencias el investigador pensó en que

metodología se podía llevar a cabo en el Departamento. Al final decidió que

el Círculo de calidad: Detectar un problema, buscar las causas que lo provocan

y encontrar soluciones, esta metodología, según la bibliografía consultada, era

muy idónea para trabajar entre todos.

Caso practico

Se aplicó el método de trabajo del Círculo de Calidad constituido por todos

los profesores que forman parte del Departamento y se hace la siguiente

pregunta:

“¿La resolución de problemas de matemáticas en el aula es un punto débil?”

Para trabajar mejor, se formaron dos grupos. Uno de infantil y primaria y

otro de secundaria y bachillerato y se empezó a pensar cuales son las causas

que provocan que la resolución de problemas en el aula no salga muy bien.

Se trata de buscar cuantas más causas mejor, se tendría que llegar a 20 causas.

Se creó un grupo de discusión y fueron emergiendo estas causas. El jefe del

departamento dinamizaba la reunión.

El grupo de infantil y primaria está constituido por ocho personas y van

apuntando las causas que provocan el problema:

- Poca atención a la lectura

- Poca concentración

- Poca relación con la realidad

- No entienden bien los conceptos de sumar y restar

- Se hacen pocos.

- Conviene más esfuerzo

- No se acompaña el problema con imágenes

- Hay que analizar los resultados de los problemas.

- Poca paciencia

- Los enunciados son poco adecuados.

- No dominan el cálculo mental

- No saben poner los signos correctamente.

- Falta un protocolo de orden.


Una vez realizado el listado de las posibles causas del problema, hay que

conseguir, por consenso, escoger las cuatro que se cree que tienen más peso

ya que según el Principio de Pareto, matemático del siglo XIX que nació en

Paris, y que afirmaba que el veinte por ciento de las causas, provocan el

ochenta por ciento de los problemas.

Escogemos cuatro que por consenso pensamos que influyen más:

- Falta de lectura i comprensión del problema

- Poco dominio de los conceptos básicos de matemáticas

- Hay que analizar los resultados de los problemas

- Falta esfuerzo

Una vez seleccionadas las cuatro causas según el consenso se intentó darle la

vuelta y ver qué soluciones se podían aportar entre todos. Se creó un grupo de

discusión y fueron apareciendo las distintas soluciones:

Tabla 1

Posibles soluciones para el grupo de infantil y primaria

CAUSAS SOLUCIONES 1. Falta de lectura y

comprensión del

problema

- Obligarlos a hacer una primera lectura sin hacer nada

- Cuantas preguntes hay y cuantas respuestas hacen falta

- Saber hacer el esquema del problema

2. Poco dominio de los

conceptos básicos de

matemáticas

- Hacer mucha mecánica de les operaciones con las TIC.

- Trabajar enunciados de diferentes maneras

- Mirar y trabajar problemas de les competencias básicas 3. Hay que analizar los

resultados de los

problemas

- Premiar el hecho de darse cuenta de que el resultado

obtenido no es posible

- Trabajar el tanteo

- Trabajar el razonamiento abstracto 4. Falta esfuerzo

- Plantear el esfuerzo como un reto

- Trabajar a partir del IPC

- Utilizar las TIC

- Trabajar con matemática recreativa

- Trabajar el esfuerzo para ganar confianza


Una vez encontradas las posibles soluciones hay que pensar que

actividades se podrían realizar para mejorar las causas que provocan el

problema, según el contexto del centro y las posibilidades de los docentes.

Tabla 2

Propuestas de actividades para infantil y primaria

CAUSAS ACTIVIDADES

1. Falta de lectura

y comprensión del

problema

- De un grupo de enunciados averiguar cual no es un

problema

- Dar una parte del enunciado y que los alumnos hagan la

pregunta y resuelvan el problema

- Dar enunciados con datos irrelevantes y que los alumnos

los descubran

- Plantear un enunciado que tenga diferentes soluciones

- Hacer un esquema o dibujo del problema

- Distintos enunciados, cortos, orales, escritos, pedir

diferentes respuestas

- Dar el planteamiento del problema y que los alumnos

escriban la pregunta

- Dar la operación y que los alumnos planteen el problema

2. Poco dominio

de los conceptos

básicos de

matemáticas.

- Buscar sinónimos de las diferentes operaciones

- Entender las diferentes operaciones a partir de:

Suma

a) Reunión de partes de un todo

b) Añadir algo a una situación inicial

c) Comparar dos situaciones

d) Inversa de la suma

Resta

a) Separar o extraer una parte del total

b) Comparación / Diferencia

c) Inversa de la suma o hay que añadir

Multiplicación

a) Factor multiplicativo

b) Suma repetida

División

a) Hacer un número determinado de grupos con el mismo

número de elementos a repartir.


b) Hacer grupos iguales o agrupar

- Construcción de juegos

- Taller de juegos matemáticos

- Acertijos matemáticos

3. Hay que

analizar los

resultados de los

problemas

- Concurso de resultados, todos dicen su solución y entre

todos las analizan y vamos eliminando las NO posibles

hasta llegar a encontrar la buena.

- Antes de empezar, pensar la posible solución, tanteo.

4. Falta esfuerzo

- Combinar esfuerzo y juego

- Antes de empezar la actividad, avisar de que la actividad se

la corregirá un compañero

- Premiar el esfuerzo con puntos positivos

- Fomentar la salida a la pizarra. Si unos alumnos salen y lo

hace mal, no pasa nada, pero si sale y lo hace bien, le pongo

un punto positivo

El grupo de profesores de secundaria y bachillerato está formado por cinco

personas y aplicamos el mismo método de los Círculos de Calidad con el

mismo formato que para infantil y primaria.

“¿La resolución de problemas de matemáticas en el aula es un punto débil?”

Se trata de buscar cuantas más causas mejor, según el método de los

Círculos de Calidad, se tendría que llegar a 20 causas. Se creó un grupo de

discusión y fueron emergiendo estas causas:

- Lectura rápida.

- Falta de comprensión

- Prisa

- Falta de estructura

- Falta de hábito

- Falta trabajar la aproximación

- Falta trabajar el tanteo

- Valoración del resultado

- Análisis de la progresión en enseñanza de la resolución de problemas.

- Coordinación entre áreas

- Dar demasiada importancia al cálculo


- No dominar el cálculo

- Conceptos básicos poco asentados

- Diversidad en el aula

- Falta de esfuerzo

- Enunciados poco próximos a su realidad

Una vez hecha la lista de las posibles causas que provocan el problema,

hay que escoger las cuatro que creemos que tienen más peso aplicando el

Principio de Pareto. Las cuatro que escogieron son:

- Falta de comprensión

- Prisa en realizar los problemas

- Conceptos básicos poco asentados

- Falta de esfuerzo

Una vez escogidas las cuatro causas por consenso, se intentó darle la vuelta

y buscar soluciones entre todos, teniendo en cuenta el contexto del centro y la

posibilidad de los profesores. Esta es una de las virtudes del método de

Círculos de Calidad que las soluciones las aportan las personas implicadas en

el problema. Se creó un grupo de discusión y el jefe del Departamento tomaba

nota.

Tabla 3

Posibles soluciones para el grupo de secundaria y bachillerato

CAUSA SOLUCIÓN

1. Falta de comprensión

- Preparar actividades para analizar enunciados, no

para resolver problemas

- Antes de empezar a resolver un problema, obligar a

responder un pequeño cuestionario

- Buscar libros de modelos por niveles con diferentes

propuestas de soluciones

- Preparar problemas con daos innecesarios o que

faltes datos

- Interpretar gráficos

- Explicar el problema

- Analizar enunciados de problemas desde otras áreas,

por ejemplo, lengua


2. Prisa en realizar los

problemas

- Dedicar más tiempo a pensar los problemas

- Tener horas con grupos más reducidos

- Explicar el proceso como parte del problema

- Hacer una reflexión previa a la resolución

3. Conceptos básicos

poco asentados

- Hacerlos reflexionar sobre el que si saben

- Listas de conocimientos acumulados para reflexionar

Trabajar enunciados de diferentes maneras

4. Falta de esfuerzo

- -Que los alumnos busquen información

- Aplicar técnicas de motivación

- Plantear problemas reto

- Realizar trabajos de forma cooperativa

- Plantear dudas

- Mejorar la confianza en uno mismo

Una vez encontradas las posibles soluciones hay que pensar que

actividades se pueden realizar para mejorar las causas que provocan el

problema, teniendo en cuenta el contexto del centro y la posibilidad de los

profesores.

Tabla 4

Propuestas de actividades para secundaria y bachillerato

CAUSA ACTIVIDADES

1. Falta de

comprensión

- Incluir en todos los problemas cuando se analice la solución,

un apartado de análisis del problema, datos y la solución

- Preparar un conjunto de enunciados para compartir con otras

áreas, por ejemplo, lengua para que trabajen la comprensión

lectora

- Dar una pauta por escrito a todos los alumnos del

procedimiento de resolución de problemas

2. Prisa en

realizar los

problemas

- Retos-Motivación. Plantear el problema como un reto que se

les presenta y que han de resolver, al menos intentarlo.

- Plantar actividades variadas

- Plantear ejercicios con enunciados muy reales y actuales,

próximos a los alumnos

- Aplicar ejercicios de:

- Recoger datos

- Plantear dudas


- Buscar soluciones

3. Conceptos

básicos poco

asentados

- Resolver problemas en grupo

- Explicar historias de matemáticos que estén trabajando

- Redactar enunciados los alumnos y dar a resolver el ejercicio a

un compañero

- Analizar enunciados y ver incoherencias

4. Falta de

esfuerzo

- Exigencia, hay que ser más exigentes con los alumnos

- Introducir problemas durante todo el curso

- Personalizar ejercicios, problemas individuales

- Trato individual a todos los alumnos

- Implicarlos en la preparación de ejercicios

- Buscar actividades variadas

- Hacer ejercicios con planteamientos muy reales, próximos a

los alumnos

- Realizar ejercicios de recogida de datos, plantear dudas y

buscar soluciones

- Resolver problemas en grupo

- Darse cuenta de que hay conceptos matemáticos que de

momento no se les ve su aplicación pero que más adelante será

un instrumento imprescindible para trabajar las matemáticas u

otras materias como pueden ser la física o la química.

Poco a poco las actividades propuestas se fueron incorporando en el día a

día de la escuela y en las siguientes reuniones del Departamento que se

realizaban cada quince días, se analizaba la eficacia de las mismas. Se dio un

buen empujón en el aprendizaje de las matemáticas y una buena cohesión de

grupo.

Una vez terminado el periodo de formación, y obtenidos resultados que

mejoraban la enseñanza aprendizaje quedo constituido el Departamento de

Matemáticas con un jefe de departamento, pero donde todos ejercían su

liderazgo para la mejora de la enseñanza de las matemáticas.


Conclusiones

El objetivo principal del proyecto que consistía en formar un equipo de

profesores de matemáticas capaces de conseguir un liderazgo transformador

con la finalidad de mejorar el aprendizaje de esta materia (Tintoré, 2016)

y conseguir unificar criterios de formación a lo largo de los diferentes cursos

se logró plenamente. Se eligió un jefe del departamento que estableció una

reunión de coordinación cada quince días donde se establecieron distintas

prioridades para unificar criterios. Se establecieron distintas subcomisiones

para tratar temas concretos y llevar al plenario las conclusiones elaboradas

para el conocimiento y aprobación de todo el departamento. Se fueron creando

relaciones y grupos de colaboración realizando una práctica de liderazgo

compartido y transformador (Bolívar, 2013; Elmore, 2000; Stoll et al., 2006).

Esté liderazgo educativo estructura la organización como una comunidad

profesional de aprendizaje, rediseñando los roles y responsabilidades en la

organización, creó grupos de colaboración, utilizó las estructuras, los procesos

y los datos como instrumentos de mejora y participación. También permitió

evaluar las prácticas llevadas a cabo a fin de mejorar los resultados.

El curso siguiente, el departamento, sin la presencia de este investigador,

decidieron empezar a construir sus libros de textos apropiados a su contexto

y de esta forma se crearon comisiones por ciclos para empezar a diseñar su

propio material para sus clases de matemáticas, gracias a un liderazgo

compartido que se logró, realizando un trabajo que les llevo a publicar su

propio material de matemáticas, recogiendo el sentir de todo el profesorado

implicado en las clases. Este material es el que utilizan actualmente todos los

profesores de matemáticas del centro. La mejora en el aprendizaje y los

resultados obtenidos demuestran la eficacia del departamento de matemáticas.

Quedo demostrado que el departamento de Matemáticas es un motor que

impulsa la enseñanza aprendizaje de las matemáticas y mejora las relaciones

entre sus equipos.


Actualmente numerosas investigaciones hablan de un liderazgo para el

aprendizaje, que incorpora los aspectos más positivos del liderazgo

instructivo, trasformador y distribuido, y se centra en al aprendizaje (Day &

Sammons, 2013; Hallinger, 2009 y 2011; Leithwood, Mascall & Strauss,

2009). Este estudio llevado a cabo demuestra la eficacia del liderazgo centrado

en el aprendizaje, como motor que impulsa el aprendizaje de las matemáticas.

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E-mail: [email protected]




Modelos de investigación en liderazgo educativo: una revisión

internacional

Juan Pablo Queupil Quilamán1

1) Universidad Católica Silva Henríquez. Chile


Edition period: January 2019-July 2019

To cite this article: Queupil, J. P. (2019) Modelos de investigación en

liderazgo educativo: una revisión internacional. [Review of the Book:

Modelos de investigación en liderazgo educativo: una revisión internacional]

International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management, 7(2), 257-

259. DOI: 10.17583/ijelm.2019.4387







IJELM– International Journal Educational Leadership & Management, 7(2) 257-259

Review

Díaz, M. A. y Veloso, A. (Eds.) (2019). Modelos de investigación en liderazgo

educativo: una revisión internacional. Ciudad de México, México: Ediciones

IISUE. ISBN: 978-607-30-1309-3.

os editores de este libro han logrado conmensurar en diez capítulos

las indagaciones de connotados investigadores en diversas temáticas

de liderazgo educativo, proveniente de diez diferentes países del

orbe, en particular cinco de Hispanoamérica y cinco de otros contextos

internacionales.

Considerando esta diversidad temática y contextual, el libro ofrece robustez

epistémica, teórica y técnica, creando un puente de entendimiento entre el

mundo académico y aquellos que muestran interés en el liderazgo educativo,

exhibiendo un interesante contraste entre la investigación desarrollada en

Latinoamérica con otras de carácter global, lo cual es exhibido en cuatro

secciones o dimensiones que responden al alcance del análisis de cada

capítulo.

La primera sección agrupa los denominados modelos de análisis global,

ya sea abordando dos o más sistemas educativos, la sociedad, o entidades

estatales o gubernamentales. Tanto Jing Xiao y Paul Michael Newton como

Stefan Brauckmann y Petros Pashiardis resaltan esta dimensión en términos

de aumento de la escolaridad en educación superior en liderazgo educacional

y la formación de este liderazgo en un mundo glocalizado, desde Canadá y el

Commonwealth, respectivamente, reconociendo las características de los

estudios transnacionales por la vía de métodos comparativos internacionales.

L

La segunda sección de la obra considera los modelos de análisis sistémico,

vale decir, investigaciones que se enfocan en un solo sistema educativo,

apuntando al análisis o crítica de su propia constitución. En esta dimensión,

Pilar Iranzo-García, Marta Camarero-Figuerola, Charo Barrios-Arós y Juana-

María Tierno-García entregan luces de la dirección escolar y liderazgo en

Cataluña. Por otro lado, Paola y Maximiliano Ritacco presentan un estudio

cualitativo de liderazgo pedagógico en Andalucía. Ambos capítulos aportan

una mirada para entender ciertas estructuras y sus retos.

La tercera sección concentra aquellas investigaciones catalogadas como

modelos de análisis organizacional, donde se estudian grupos con objetivos

educativos específicos con orientaciones comunes. En ese sentido, René

Crocker y Ariadna Veloso analizan los enfoques de liderazgo en la educación

médica de México. Por otro lado, Paul Orlowski, mediante la aplicación de un

programa para profesores en una localidad en Canadá, presenta los principios

freirianos de liderazgo. Por último, Óscar Maureira y Sergio Garay presentan

un estudio sobre liderazgo distribuido en escuelas localizadas en Chile. Estos

capítulos contribuyen con una reflexión crítica sobre los procesos de liderazgo

educativo y su compromiso social.

Finalmente, la cuarta sección aborda modelos de análisis situado, es decir,

investigaciones basadas en la construcción del conocimiento parcial y

posicionado. Acá, Cecilia Torres-Arcadia y Elizabeth Murakami, analizando

evidencia de Estados Unidos y México, presentan un marco conceptual para

líderes escolares latinos. Además, se encuentra el trabajo de Miguel Ángel

Díaz y Miguel Ángel García sobre pautas para la formación en liderazgo sobre

la dirección escolar bajo una reforma educativa en México. El capítulo

concluye con el estudio de Antonio Bolívar y Maximiliano Ritacco, quienes

plantean la identidad profesional como una línea de investigación sobre

liderazgo escolar en Granada. Esta sección favorece la comprensión de las

estructuras identitarias y escenarios para el accionar del liderazgo educativo.

Si bien ratos pareciera que el libro se priva de un hilo articulador, este se

sostiene en el reconocimiento de los desafíos investigativos sobe liderazgo

educativo, por lo que reconoce como punto de partida el agrupamiento de

estos estudios en modelos investigativos y de práctica que ayuden a su

entendimiento y organización. En ese sentido, cada capítulo contiene

evidencia rigurosa y no cae en simplismos metodológicos, a pesar que se

podría argüir que el libro en sí expresa más bien una revisión de experiencias

IJELM– International Journal Educational Leadership & Management, 7(2) 257-259

o miradas investigativas por sobre modelos de estudios -que es justamente el

título de la obra-, lo cual no quita que el libro contiene sendos proyectos que

conllevan una extrapolación del concepto de liderazgo educativo sin

mediación crítica de por medio, dando cuenta de una diversidad conceptual y

contextual del área de la obra.

A todas luces, el libro es un gran aporte a la difusión de conocimiento

emergente en liderazgo educativo a nivel internacional, entregando evidencia

sobre la serie de contradicciones teórico-metodológicas y de la complejidad

existente al emprender estudios en el área, esquematizando patentemente el

tipo de investigación en liderazgo educativo y sus posibles alcances.

Juan Pablo Queupil Quilamán

Universidad Católica Silva Henríquez (Chile)

complexity leadership theory: a perspective for state

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