comparing europe and u.s. why compare? –you can see assumptions that are often unexamined by using...

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Comparing Europe and U.S. Why compare? You can see assumptions that are often unexamined by using a comparative lens. Understand how institutions operate to affect immigrants Understand the experience of Muslims in the US and Europe

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Comparing Europe and U.S. Why compare? You can see assumptions that are often unexamined by using a comparative lens. Understand how institutions operate to affect immigrants Understand the experience of Muslims in the US and Europe Slide 2 Comparative View Birthright Citizenship vs. The Alternative The experiences of countries such as Germany, France, Switzerland and Belgium show that restrictive citizenship regimes do not lead to emigration, but rather to deep social problems, lack of integration and decreased social mobility. Slide 3 Comparative View Industrialized Countries are all facing Low Birth Rates and the Need for Immigrants The third demographic transition: Transition to diversity Slide 4 Comparative View Demography and Destiny : The Better Position of the United States with Respect to Population Aging Europes median age is climbing 2000 37.7 204047.9 Italy 52.7 Europes median TFR 1.31 (TFR=2.1 for replacement) US TFR 2.01 Non Hispanic Whites 1.87 Hispanics 2.75 Blacks 2.10 Slide 5 Slide 6 Slide 7 Total Fertility Rates Europe and North America 1950-2000 ____________________ Source:United Nations In chart minimum value in y axis is 0.5 and crosses at 0.75 In PowerPoint a white fill box has been used to blank out the 0.5 Slide 8 Slide 9 Source: Kohler, Billargi and Ortega. Calculated from United Nations medium projections. Slide 10 Slide 11 Slide 12 Current European Immigrants Southern and Eastern Europeans moving to Northern and Western Europe. Guest workers who became permanent. Turks to Germany, France and Netherlands. Immigrants from Former Colonies: Indians, Pakistanis, West Indians to Britain, Algerians and Moroccans to France, Surinamese to Netherlands. Slide 13 Current European Immigrants Countries of emigration have become countries of immigration Italy, Spain, Portugal, Turkey, Ireland Fall of Soviet Union opened up immigration from Eastern Europe to Western Europe Strong human rights orientation, asylum and refugees a large part of immigration flows. Slide 14 Current European Immigrants Former Communist Countries such as Poland, Romania Asylum Seekers, especially from Africa Slide 15 Slide 16 Citizenship By Ascription place of birth (jus soli) law of the earth line of descent (jus sanguinis) law of the blood By Naturalization As a right At the discretion of the state Slide 17 Citizenship in the U.S. By birth (even if parents are illegal, or here for a short period of time) (jus soli) By birth abroad if parents are citizens (jus sanguinis) By adoption By naturalization if they comply with conditions specified by law Slide 18 U.S. Naturalization Rules 5 year residence Oral and written English ability Knowledge of US history and government Good moral character Oath of allegiance No dual citizenship (ambiguous) Give up foreign allegiance Slide 19 History of Citizenship Bill of Rights confers rights on people not citizens. 1790s: citizenship goes to free white persons Early 19 th Century court cases define Indian tribes as nations, designated them as noncitizens. (Not reversed until 1922) Slide 20 14 th Amendment 1868 all persons born or naturalized in the US are citizens of the US and the state in which they reside 1870 Congress debated a law that would allow any person to naturalize. But they passed a law making anyone of African descent or nativity eligible for naturalization. Slide 21 Naturalization and Race 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act bars aliens ineligible for citizenship 1897 case of Mexicansneither white nor black but the court decided that they could be naturalized because the laws and treaties of the US after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo promised citizenship to Mexicans living in land the US took. Slide 22 Many court cases 1922 Supreme Court ruled that Japanese were ineligible for citizenship. 1911 Thai, Indian and Koreans were found ineligible. 1912 court turned down a half breed German and Japanese and a quarter breed Spaniard and Filipino Slide 23 Citizenship denied by race 1910 CensusSyrians, Armenians, Palestinians, Turks and Persians were Asiatics. Eventually won a court order that they were white and could become citizens. Slide 24 Citizenship denied by gender After 1855 an alien wife carried the citizenship of her husband. 1907 Congressional act was passed that if an American woman married an alien she assumed the nationality of her husband. She lost her citizenship and could not naturalize until her husband did. Slide 25 Citizenship and Gender 1922 Cable Act. Women were allowed to have independent citizenship. They no longer got automatic citizenship through marriage. But until 1931 if a woman married an alien ineligible for citizenship (an Asian) she became ineligible for citizenship too. Slide 26 Liberalization of Citizenship 1943 ban on citizenship was lifted for Chinese 1946 Filipinos and East Indians 1952 McCarren Walter Act The right of a person to become a naturalized citizen of the US shall not be denied or abridged because of race or sex or because such person is married Slide 27 Data on Naturalization CIS does not track people once they enter. People are lost when they return home, or die. Census includes illegals and they are not eligible to naturalize. Surveys are the best source, but size is usually inadequate. Slide 28 US does little to promote naturalization No notice is sent to immigrants or refugees to let them know when they are eligible. Very little public funding pays for language or civics classes. Long backlogs of people waiting for citizenship to come through. Slide 29 Why do countries differ in how immigrants fare? Grand Narratives Demographics of who immigrates? Institutional Differences Welfare state and social supports Educational systems Structure of labor market Slide 30 Axes of Difference in European Policy Towards Immigrants Citizenship Criteria for formal access Ease of access Blood vs Territory Cultural Obligations Pluralism vs. Assimilation Multiculturalism Slide 31 Grand Narratives France: Republican Model Canada: Multiculturalism Germany: Ethnic model Nationhood US, Canada and Australia: Settler Societies Slide 32 Countries of Immigration? Germany: Until 1990s: We are not a country of immigration. (Post war immigrants and their children are 10% of population). Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies Advice to authors: Avoid immigrant for non migrant members of the second generation Slide 33 Laws on Citizenship Vary France and Britain have jus soli conditionally. (France: Ask at age 16-21). Extensive naturalization for ex colonials. Yet there remains much ambivalence about French citizenship for Algerians. Sweden and Netherlands have highest rates of naturalization. Allow voting in local elections before naturalization. Germany, Austria, Switzerland most restrictive. Slide 34 1990s convergence Countries with restrictive/lineage based rules have widened access to citizenship: Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Netherlands. Francetighten laws. Assimilation, becoming French very important. Head scarf issue. Slide 35 Birthright Citizenship Australia, Ireland, India, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malta, and the Dominican Republic have modified birthright citizenship in recent years. Slide 36 German Restrictions Citizenship has been based on descent. Ethnic Germans from Poland and Soviet Union are eligible to claim German citizenship. Slide 37 German Case Before 1993: second generation treated the same as the first. Requirements included long period of residence, competence in German language, large fee, clean police record, surrender of previous citizenship. After 1993, the second generation did not have all these requirements but did have to surrender previous citizenship and apply for citizenship. Clashes with Turkish inheritance laws. Slide 38 German Citizenship 2000 first new citizen law in 90 years. Children born to foreigners automatically receive citizenship, provided one parent has been a legal resident for 8 years. Children can also hold nationality of parents, but must choose one country or the other by age 23. Slide 39 Switzerland 20% of the population is foreign Immigrants must wait 12 years before applying. Local governments inspect home Local cantons vote on candidates. Even the third generation has no automatic citizenship Slide 40 Slide 41 Boundaries Richard Alba Enacted social distinctions, i.e., distinctions that individuals make in their everyday lives and that shape their actions and mental orientations towards others; typically embedded in a variety of social and cultural differences; matter when linked to unequal life chances and status Slide 42 Key points Boundaries are not the same everywhere Boundaries can change over time native groups may seek to make boundaries less porous boundaries may be weakened by structural changes, e.g., occupational shifts associated with demographic change Slide 43 Boundaries: bright vs. blurred Bright boundary is unambiguous, blurred one may be ambiguous (for some individuals or in some contexts) Race vs. language (bilingualism) Slide 44 Change Over Time Boundary crossing Individual level assimilation Boundary blurring Individuals location can be indeterminate Boundary shifting Former outsiders become insiders Slide 45 Boundaries: bright vs. blurred Bright boundary: assimilation less likely assimilation requires boundary crossing, i.e., is individualistic, less gradual, typically risky, does not allow hyphenation Slide 46 Boundaries and the Second Generation France and Germany : religion is a bright boundary Germany: citizenship is a bright boundary Individual boundary crossing? US: Mexicans and race, blurred vs bright boundary? Slide 47 Race, Color and Culture In Europe: Much less comfortable with the concept of race. France: ethnicity not a statistical category Britain: Race in quotation marks Germany: Blood, race, Nazi connotations In Europe: Immigrants tend to be stigmatized based on culture rather than color. Slide 48 The Second Generation In U.S. the segmented assimilation model asks what happens when the second generation is defined racially and adopts an oppositional stance that comes from African American underclass? What happens without a minority racial underclass? Is oppositional culture generic to negatively priveleged groups? Or is it specific to race? North Africans in France and Turks in Germany are racially/religiously othered. Upward mobility blocked. Slide 49 Islam in Europe Boundaries separating immigrants and natives. Long standing establishment of Christianity in Western Europesupport for religious schools, religious holidays, funding for churches as national symbols. Slide 50 The Case of Muslims After September 11 th, worries about radical Islam. Is Islam somehow more culturally different than other religions? In Europe the dominant discourse is that Islam is seen as a barrier or a challenge to integration and a source of conflict with mainstream institutions. Slide 51 Muslims in US Will Religion become a fault line? Best estimate 2.35 million Muslims in US (65% foreign born, another 7% second generation) Most Arabs in US are Christians In the US most Muslims are educated and well off, while in Europe they tend to be disadvantaged. Evidence that since 9/11, people have begun to self identify as Muslim American. Still, most Muslims in the US do not see any conflict between being Muslim and American. (This is very different in Europe) Slide 52 Slide 53 1. Demographic Data 53 Breakdown of American Muslim population by race / regional origins 2001 Zogby International Survey Ethnic Composition of Muslims in US Slide 54 Religion as Bridge in US Americans are very religious. Europeans are much more secular. Slide 55 Slide 56 French Assimilation Until the 1980s French official policy was assimilation. 1980s on more of an integrationist policy money to groups to preserve some aspects of culture. Recently return to assimilation Slide 57 French Assimilation Since 2003, immigrants asked to sign an immigration contract upon arrival. They promise to undergo language training and instruction on values of French society. Get certificate upon completion of training which is necessary for 10 year residence permit. If not, get one year residence permit. Slide 58 French Assimilation View retention of ethnic identity as an obstacle to integration and national solidarity. July 2003 appointed Commission to Investigate Secularism and the French Republic. 25 recommendations, but most attention to headscarf issue Slide 59 Feb 10, 2004 Law Banned conspicuous religious symbols in public schools. Passed by vote 494 to 36 in National Assembly. Broad popular support. Is it anti-Islam or Pro Secularism? Slide 60 2010 French Law Bans all women from wearing face covering in public. No one can, in the public space, wear clothing intended to hide the face Public space is defined as Streets, markets, private businesses, public transport, govt buildings. National Assembly Vote 335 to 1 Slide 61 Slide 62 French Foreign Born Population Algerians 13.4% Moroccans 12.1% Sub Saharan Africans 9.3% Turks 4.1% Southeast Asians also a growing group Slide 63 North Africans in France Early school departure High problems with police High unemployment Residential segregation Segmented assimilation? Slide 64 The Second Generation Very little anti-discrimination laws No affirmative action ZEP zoneszones of priority in education, areas showing high unemployment and high numbers of foreigners. Slide 65 No Ethnic Statistics in France Discrimination hard to document. Are there ghettoes? Systematic police harassment? Higher health problems? Educational disparities. No hyphenated identities Controversies over the place of Islam given the principle of laicite (French secularism) Riots in Fall 2005 Slide 66 Slide 67 Slide 68 Schools and Integration Language at home vs. school Parents lack knowledge about school system Parents unable to help with homework, low levels of education, sometimes illiterate Slide 69 Institutional Differences in Schools Across Countries Age at Starting School Degree of Internal Stratification and the Age at which it is Imposed School Financing, Residential Segregation, Religion in Schools Second Chances in Higher Education Slide 70 Germany and Austria Late start to school Earlier selection into rigid tracks Germany4th grade Gymnasium University RealschuleWhite collar HauptschuleBlue Collar Apprentice system Slide 71 France Early start to school Later age of selection Exams, not teachers National financing Extra funding for immigrant schools Slide 72 Britain Move towards later tracking More second chances at the University Level National financing, but residential segregation is high Slide 73 US Less rigid tracking Much more segregation, interacts with school financing at local level More second chances at the secondary and university levels Slide 74 Outcomes Greater numbers of university graduates of immigrant origin in US, Britain, Netherlands and France More dropouts and unemployment compared to Germany, Switzerland and Austria