ComparativeresearchreportParticipationofpeoplewithdisabilitiesinpoliticsinneighbouringEuropeancountries

Colofon

ThisresearchispreparedonthebasisoforiginalresearchfortheMinisterievanBinnenlandseZakenenKoninkrijksrelaties.

Copyright

Authors:

drMitziWaltzanddrAliceSchippers

Editors:

IrenevanHelden,GerdavanWees

December2018

DisabilityStudiesinNederlandPostbus501471305ACAlmerewww.disabilitystudies.nl

TableofContents

Summary 1

Abbreviationsandlistofcountriesdirectlycompared 2

Introduction 3

Methodology 5

Results:Literaturereviewonbarriersandfacilitatingfactors 6

Networks 6

Mentoring 8

Money,timeandenergy 9

The“disabilityhierarchy” 10

Accessibilityofpoliticalspacesandactivities 11

Results:Nationbynation 13

Belgium(Flanders) 13

France 15

Germany 16

Denmark 17

UnitedKingdom 19

Table1:KeyfactsaboutdisabilityandpoliticsinfiveEuropeancountries 21

Inclusionatpartylevel:Acasestudy 22

InclusionintheEUParliament 24

Discussion 25

Conclusionandrecommendations 29

References 32

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SummaryAlthoughapproximately15percentofpeoplelivinginEuropehaveadisability,thisdiversityisrarelyreflectedinelectedofficialsorpoliticalappointees.InkeepingwiththeUNCRPDandtheEuropeanPillarofSocialrights,barrierstopoliticalparticipationmustbeunderstoodandremoved.

Togainmoreinformationaboutbothbarriersandfacilitatingfactors,datawerecollectedthroughliterature-basedresearchandaseriesofinterviewswithelectedofficials,politicalappointeesandpoliticalpartyactivists(n=9)withdisabilitiesinmultipleEuropeancountries.Interviewscoveredtheimpactofnationallawsandpoliciesonpoliticalparticipation,the(potential)roleofpoliticalpartiesinfacilitatinginclusion,theinfluenceofculturalandindividualfactors,andothertopics.

Results

Innocountrywasrepresentationofpeoplewithdisabilitiesinpoliticalrolesfoundtoexceed2%;insome,fewerthan1%ofelectedofficialsorpoliticalappointeeswerepeoplewithdisabilities.However,officialdatawasusuallynotcollected.Barriersfoundincludedlimitedaccesstoinclusiveeducation,especiallyregardingeliteuniversities;physicalbarriers,includingaccessibilityissuesinpoliticalvenues,onthecampaigntrailandwhileholdingoffice;culturalbeliefsregardingpeoplewithdisabilities,includingwithinpoliticalparties,suchasbeliefsthatpeoplewithdisabilitiescannotbe‘objective’aboutdisabilityissuesorarechosentomeetdiversitytargetsratherthanontheirownmerits;personallimitations,suchasfatigue;andfinancialbarriers,includingsomewithinbenefitssystems;andequalitieslegislationthatdidnotcoveroffice-holders.

Facilitatingfactorsfoundincludedaccesstoinclusiveeducation;opportunitiestobuildnetworksandskillsthroughpoliticalparties,DisabledPeople’sOrganisations,businessleadershiporotherpublicactivities;personalcharacteristics,suchasstaminaandmotivation;havingtherightsupportattherighttime(forexample,signlanguageinterpretationorpersonalassistantservices);equalitieslegislationthatcoveredpoliticalroles;andfundingforpeoplewithdisabilitieswhoarerunningforoffice.Somecountrieshadquotasregardingemployingpeoplewithdisabilities.Thesemighthaveanimpactoncareerdevelopmentfor(future)appointeesoroffice-holders,butinnocasewerethesequotasbeingmet,sotheirimpactcouldnotbedetermined.

Recommendations

Basedontheliteratureandtheexperiencesofthoseinterviewed,recommendationsweremadethatcouldbeactionedbytheNetherlands,otherEuropeanUnionstates,oratEUleveltoimproverepresentationofpeoplewithdisabilitiesinpoliticalofficeandaspoliticalappointees.Theseincluded:Robustcollectionofdatarecognisingandnurturingtheleadershippotentialofpeoplewithdisabilities;welcomingandsupportingpeoplewithdisabilitiesattheentrylevelofpoliticallife,forexamplepartyactivismandlocalraces;eliminatingbarrierscreatedbybenefitssystems;ensuringthatsupportservicesareavailableforpeoplewithdisabilitieswhocarryoutpoliticalwork,campaignorvolunteerwithapartyorpoliticalorganisation;establishmentofmentoringschemestorecruitanddeveloppotentialcandidates;targetedrecruitmentandsupportofpromisingleaderswhohavedisabilities;facilitatingjob-sharinginpublicofficeandseniorpolicyroles;strategicworkwithinpoliticalpartiestorecruitanddeveloppotentialcandidates,whichcouldinvolveindependentorganisations;andexperimentationwithquotaswithinpoliticalpartiesandalsoatnationallevel,includingenforcementofexistingquotas.TheideaofanEU-levelthinktankfocusedondisabilityinpoliticstorecognise,researchanddisseminatebestpracticeswasalsosuggested.

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Abbreviations

ACAS Advisory,ConciliationandArbitrationService

AEOF AccesstoElectedOfficeFund

CD&V Christendemocraten&Vlaams(ChristianDemocratsFlanders)party

DPO DisabledPersons’Organisation

ENIL EuropeanNetworkforIndependentLiving

EU EuropeanUnion

FIPHFP Fondspourl'InsertiondesPersonnesHandicapéesdanslaFonctionpublique(FundfortheInclusionofPeoplewithDisabilitiesinthePublicService)

HRM HumanResourcesManagement

MEP MemberoftheEuropeanParliament

MP MemberofParliament

NCD NationalCouncilonDisability

NGO Non-GovernmentalOrganisation

ODIHR OfficeforDemocraticInstitutionsandHumanRights(partoftheOSCE)

OSCE OrganisationforSecurityandCo-OperationinEurope

PA personalassistant/personalassistance

PSAC PublicServiceAllianceofCanada

SL signlanguage

UNCRPD UnitedNationsConventionontheRightsofPersonswithDisabilities

UK UnitedKingdom

US UnitedStates

CountriesdirectlycomparedBelgium(Flanders)FranceGermanyDenmark UnitedKingdom

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IntroductionThemodernEuropeanbodypoliticisdiverseintermsofgender,socioeconomicstatusandethnicity.ReflectingthisdiversityinnationalandEuropeangovernmentshasbeenanongoingstruggle.However,representationofwomenandethnicminoritiesinEuropeanUnionaswellasinnationallegislaturesandministriesisrecognisedasimportant,andmeasurablestrideshavebeenmadeoverthepast40years.However,thepopulationalsoincludespeoplewithdisabilities.Approximately15percentofpeoplelivinginEuropehaveadisability—inmanycountries,thelargestminoritygroup.Disabilityalsoimpactsthefamiliesandneighboursofpeoplewithdisabilities,andthenationalandEUinstitutionsthatservethem.Politicalinterestandtalentcancomeinmanydifferentpackages,anditthereforestandstoreasonthatthosewhoseektorepresenttheirneighbourhoods,cities,regionsandnationsonthepoliticalstageshouldreflectdiversityintermsofphysicalandmentalshapeandabilityaswellasgenderandethnicity.Thepotentialofpeoplewithdisabilitiesinpoliticshasnotyetbeentapped,andthisisalossforallcitizens.AnotherresultisthatvotersandpoliticalactivistswithdisabilitiesoftendonotseethemselvesandtheirexperiencesreflectedintheEuropeanParliament,intheirnationalparliamentsandregionalandlocalassemblies,orwithintheministrieswheredecisionsaffectingtheirlivesaremade.Theconsequencesareespeciallystarkwhenitcomestodisability-specificdecisions.AsBritishjournalistFrancesRyan,whospecialisesindisabilityissues,haswritten:

Watching[ConservativeSecretaryofStateforWorkandPensions]StephenCrabbandLabourbattleoverthecutstodisabilitybenefitsintheHouseofCommonsonMonday,onethingwasstriking:thelackofdisabledpeopleintheroom.AsbothpartyleadersandSecretariesofWorkandPensionsspoke,andasbackbenchMPsgotuptoaskquestions,itstruckmeoverandover:noneofthemhadavisibledisability.

That’soneofthosethingsthat’ssonormalisedyourbrainoftenforgetstonoticeit,inthesamewayyoucanuseawheelchaireverydaybutittakesastepinarestauranttoremindyouthatyou’renotviewedasanequal…WitheachmentionintheCommonsof“disabledpeople”–whatweneed,whatwefeel,whatwewant–thescenefeltmoreandmorepatronising…Therealityis,thepoliticiansmakingdecisionsaboutdisabledpeople’sliveslargelyhavenoknowledgeofwhatitistobedisabled.(Ryan,2016)

In2018,theSecretariatoftheConferenceofStatesPartiestotheConventionontheRightsofPersonswithDisabilitiesrespondedtothissituationwithanofficial‘Note’regardingparticipationofpersonswithdisabilitiesinpoliticalandpubliclife(CRPD/CSP,2018),whichwasfurtherdiscussedbymembergroupsthisyearaspartoftheongoingworkoftheCRPDConference.Inkeepingwiththemajorityofresearchandactiononpoliticalparticipation(e.g.,Savery,2015;Belt,2016;OSCE-ODIHR,2017),thefocusoftheNotewasprimarilyonensuringthatpeoplewithdisabilitieshavetherighttovoteandexpresspoliticalviews—butitwasalsoconcernedwiththerighttobeelected,ortoserveone’snationinanotherofficialcapacity.Politicalparticipationcanalsoencompassarangeofotherroles:membershipofapoliticalparty;formingorparticipatingincivilsocietyorganisations,includingorganisationsfocusedondisability;andvariousotherformsofactivism(SkeltonandValentine,2003;CampbellandOliver,1996;OSCE-ODIHR,2017).Theserolesareconnectedratherthanformingdiscretedomains.Forexample,accessingthepowertovotegivesindividualstheopportunitytoinfluencewhichpoliticiansareelected,butiftheydon’tlikethechoicesonoffer,theycanjoinapoliticalparty—andperhapsthenrunforofficethemselves.Andwhilebarriersto

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participationatvariouslevelsarewell-known(forexample,Schur,1998),factorsthatcontributetosuccessarenotasfullydefinedandcanthereforebehardertoreplicate.TheCRPD/CSPNotehighlightedthefactthatinmanycountries,barrierstobasicparticipationareoftenpresent.Butwhatofthosewhoseektoparticipateatahigherlevel:tobecomeanelectedofficial,apolicymaker,aminister?Whilebarriersalsoexisthere,therearealsoindividualsuccesses,andtheimportanceoffosteringdiversityinpubliclifeinordertofullyrepresentthediversityofnationalpopulationsisobvious.Therefore,thisresearchprojectwaslaunchedtoexploretheexperiencesofpeoplewithdisabilitiesinpubliclifeinseveralEuropeannations,withafocusonfactorsthatleadtosuccessorthatcanformbarriers.Thesefactorsmayincludeprocesses,practices,policiesorlaws,aswellasculturalbeliefsaboutpeoplewithdisabilities.Researchquestions

SeveralresearchquestionsweresetbytheMinisterievanBinnenlandseZakenenKoninkrijksrelaties(BZK)atthebeginningoftheresearch.Thesewere:

1. Whatlevelofparticipationinpoliticsandgovernanceisfoundinothernations?2. Whatarethepoliciesinthesecountrieswithregardstopoliticalofficeholderswitha

disability(distinguishedbetweenappointeesandelectedrepresentatives)?3. Aretherelegalregulationstoimproveparticipation?Areprovisionsmadeforoffice-holders

coveredbythegovernment?Havequotasbeensetinothercountries?4. ArethebarrierssimilartothosefoundintheNetherlands?5. Whatsolutionshavebeenchosentoovercomethesebarriers?6. PeoplewithdisabilitiesareactiveinDutchsocietyinmanyareas,butmoreoftenincare-

relatedrolesthaninpolitics.Asaresult,wecanonlyidentifyalimitednumberofgovernmentdirectorswithadisability.Whenpeoplewithdisabilitieschoosetogetinvolvedinpolitics,itismostoftenasanelectedrepresentative.Isthesituationthesameinothercountries?Aretheredefinitelycurrentrolemodelselsewhere?

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MethodologyThisreportisbasedonacombinationofliteratureresearchandinterviews.Anextensiveliteraturereviewwasundertakeninsearchofresearchevidence.Thiswasaugmentedwithreportsfromorganisationsandnewsarticles.

Over40politicianswithadisabilityinsevenEuropeancountries(France,Germany,Belgium,UnitedKingdom,Sweden,NorwayandDenmark)wereapproachedforinterviews,asweretheBelgian,HungarianandGreekpresidentsoftheEuropeanParliament’sDisabilityIntergroup,andaformerFederalpoliticalappointeefromtheUSwhohasadisability.Inaddition,oneEuropeanpoliticalpartywithacurrentnationalcampaigntoimprovecandidateandactivistdiversityonthebasisofdisabilitywasapproached,aswasalocalactivistfromthatparty.

Intotal,nineinterviewswithcurrentorformerpoliticians,ministersandpoliticalpartyactivistswhohavedisabilitieswerecompleted,representingtheUnitedKingdom,Denmark,BelgiumandHungary.Intervieweeshadavarietyofdisabilities,rangingfrommobilityimpairmentstovisualand/orhearingimpairmentstoautism.InterviewquestionsweredevelopedbasedontheresearchgoalsprovidedbytheMinisterievanBZK,andtranslatedintoEnglish.AllinterviewswereconductedinEnglish,viaeitheremailoronlinevideoconferencing.Respondentswereprovidedwithaconsentformthatallowedthemtoremainanonymousorbequotedbynameintheresearchoutputs.Whererespondentschosetoremainanonymous,carehasbeentakentoavoidmentioningnationaloriginorotherdetailsthatmightleadtoaccidentalidentification.Whereattributedquoteshavebeenused,respondentsagreedtobenamed.

Theresearchprocesstookplaceduringtheautumnelectionperiod,sothemajorityofpersonsapproachedeitherdidnotreplyorsaidtheywereunabletotakepartduetoelection/partyactivities.Twootherscontactedwereunabletotakepartduetocurrenthealthissues.Tomakeupforthelackofdirectinterviewswithpoliticians/politicalappointeesfromGermanyandFranceinparticular,materialfrompreviouslypublishedinterviewswithpoliticianswhohavedisabilitieswasemployedtoreflectthesituationinthesecountries,andwasalsousedtoexplorekeyissuesinothers.WherequotedmaterialwasinlanguagesotherthanEnglish,translationsweremadebythefirstauthorofthisreport.CountryreportsrelatedtotheEuropeanPillarofSocialRightsandothermaterialspreparedbytheAcademicNetworkofDisabilityExpertsin2017wereusedtoestablishadditionalfacts.

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Results:Literaturereviewonbarriersandfacilitatingfactors

Participationofpeoplewithdisabilitiesinpoliticallifehasrarelybeenthetopicofacademicenquiry,exceptinrelationtothecareersofspecificindividuals,ortodisabilityactivism.Forthatreason,thisliteraturereviewhasdrawnonavarietyofacademicandnon-academicsources,includingnewsarticles,speeches,Websites,andpublishedinterviewswithpoliticianswhohavedisabilities.Theliteraturereviewrevealedthatbarriersandfacilitatingfactorscouldbefoundinthefollowingareas:Networks,mentoring,resources(money,timeandenergy),the“disabilityhierarchy,”andaccessibilityofpoliticalspacesandactivities,asdiscussedinthefollowingsections.NetworksBarrierstopoliticalparticipationofpeoplewithdisabilitiesthatwereidentifiedintheliteratureincludeisolationanddecreasedresources.Participationinapoliticalparty,fromtheleveloflocalactivistorofficialonuptorunningasacandidate,requirestime,energyandfinancialexpense.Successbeginswithhavingastrong,large,well-connectedpersonalnetwork,asituationthatnaturallyfavoursindividualsfrompoliticallypowerfulfamiliesandthosewhohaveattendedeliteeducationalinstitutions.France’sSciencesPo,theuniversitythathaseducatedalmostallFrenchprimeministersandpresidents,aswellasmostofitsnationalelectedofficials(andthemajorityofjournalistscoveringFrenchpolitics),offersperhapsthemostextremeexample.Asnotedinarecentresearchreportonhowsocialnetworksandpoliticalbeliefsrelate,“allthedifferentgenerationsofFrenchpoliticalleadershavemetforthefirsttimeonSciencesPo’sbenches,andmostofthemhaveformedtheirmoresolidfriendshipandnetworkrelationshipbythattime”(Algan,Dalvit,Do,LeChapelainandZenou,2015).Andaswitheliteuniversitiesinothercountries,thedoorsofSciencesPohadbeenfirmlyclosedtostudentswithdisabilitiesuntilquiterecently.Barrierstopoliticalparticipationofpeoplewithdisabilitiesthereforebeginwithlackofaccesstothepoliticalsocialcapitalandknowledgeobtainedduringsecondaryandhighereducation.Addressingthisbarrier,throughmakingeliteinstitutionsmoreaccessible,bybroadeningtheeducationalbackgroundsofthoseenteringpubliclife,orbyfindingotherwaystoactivateandincludepeoplewithdisabilities,islikelytofacilitateparticipation.ThefactthatDamienAbadoftheFrenchcentre-rightpartyLesRépublicains,whohasaneuromuscularconditionthatlimitshismobility,wasbothoneofthefirststudentswithadisabilitytograduatefromSciencesPoin2004,andthenthefirstFrenchmemberoftheEuropeanParliamentwithadisability(Baudu,2009),isanillustration.Abad’sconnectionsandcompetencyhaveenabledhimtoriserapidlythroughthepartyranks:havingstartedhiscareerwithamunicipalcouncilpostjustthreeyearsaftergraduation,heiscurrentlyoneofhisparty’sfivenationalvice-presidents,aswellashavingachievednationalofficeandservingintheEuropeanParliament(Equy,2013;20MinutesPolitique,2013).Asnoted,personswithanimpairmentwhocomefromwealthyandpowerfulfamiliesarefarmorelikelytobeabletopursuetheirpoliticalambitionsthanequallypassionatepeoplewithdisabilitiesfromamorehumblebackground.Thepossessionofconnectionsandpowercanmakeupforperceivedlowercapabilityorbodilydifference,asintheexampleofformerUSPresidentFranklinDelanorRoosevelt,whobecamedisabledduetopoliobutcamefromoneofAmerica’swealthiest

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families(Gallagher,1994).Theabilitytohideone’sdisabilitycanalsobeafacilitatingfactorinpoliticalsuccess,asitwaswithRoosevelt,thoughitcomesattheexpenseoftheindividualandmayreducetheirabilitytoleadeffectivelyonrelatedissues(ibid.).

Somepoliticianswithdisabilitiesdeveloppoliticalsocialcapitalthroughalternativemeans,includingdisabilityactivism.Forexample,HorstFrehe,currentlyaGreenmemberofthestateparliamentinBremen,Germany,beganhispoliticalcareerasadisabilityactivist.Hewasoneoftheorganisersofthewell-knownprotestsbyGermanswithdisabilitiesduringtheUNInternationalYearoftheDisabledin1981,aswellassettinguporworkinginmultipleDisabledPeoples’Organisations(DPOs),includingtheEuropeanNetworkforIndependentLiving(ENIL).Frehehasnotedthatthesocietalchangeofmovingfromamedicalmodelofdisabilitytowardsasocialorhumanrightsmodelisacrucialfirststepforempoweringpeoplewithdisabilitiestohavepoliticalinfluence,includingasoffice-holders.Hehasalsostressedtheimportanceofdevelopingcandidateswhohavedisabilitiesatstate/provinciallevelinFederalcountrieslikeGermany(Frehe,2008).

ThisechoestheexperienceofoneofEurope’sbest-knownpoliticianswithadisability.DavidBlunkett,whoisblind,waselectedtoSheffieldCityCouncilwhilestillauniversitystudent.Ittook17yearsinlocalandregionalpoliticsandpartyactivismbeforehebecameamemberofparliament.AftertheformationofaLabourgovernmentin1987,BlunkettwasnamedasSecretaryofStateforEducationandEmployment,andthenpromotedtoHomeSecretary,laterservingasSecretaryofStateforWorkandPensions.HewaswidelyconsideredtobeinlinetoserveasPrimeMinister.Buthistrajectorywouldhavebeenimpossiblewithouttheopportunitytobuildanetworkatlocalandthenregionallevel,becauseBlunketthadattendedspecialschoolsforblindpupils,andcamefromaworking-classbackground(BlunkettandMacCormick,2002).

Noteverypoliticallyengagedpersonwithadisabilitywouldwishtoformtheirpoliticalidentityarounddisabilityissues,butthereisreasontobelievethat“claiming”disability,understandingthatitisacommonpartofthehumancondition,understandinghowimpairmentandsocialconditionsintersecttoproducedisability,andrecognisinghowhavingadisabilitymeansmembershipinanimportantminoritygrouparekeytopoliticaldisabilityidentity(Putnam,2005).AsJeanCristopheParisotdeBayard,aFrenchpoliticianatmunicipallevelwhoisawheelchairuseranddisabilityactivist,hasstated:

“Iwantthetalents,theimagination,thefellowship[ofpeoplewithdisabilities]toberealitieslived,wanted,defended.Itisoftenourbrothers,menwhoputbarriersinfrontofus,withoutevenknowingitorwantingtodoso.Butwearedefinitelylivingprofoundsocialchange.”(ParisotdeBayard,2014)

Politicalpartiesandorganisationscanplayaroleinencouragingparticipation(Schur,opcit.)Thishastodatebeenfarmorenotableintermsofpartyeffortstodevelopalargerpoolofpotentialappointeesandcandidateswhoarefemaleorfromethnicminorities.MostmajorpoliticalpartiesinEuropenowhaveinternalpartycaucusesorcommitteesthataredevotedtothesegoals,andwhichcanprovideastartingpointforpoliticalneophytesfromunder-representedbackgrounds.However,veryfewhavemadesimilareffortsregardingpeoplewithdisabilities.

TheUK’sLabourPartyisanotableexceptioninEurope,withanindependentsocietyknownasDisabilityLabourinexistenceforaboutfiveyears.DisabilityLabourhasservedthepartyasapolicymakinggroupondisabilityissues,butnowalsoaimstosupportanddeveloppartymemberswithdisabilitiestoserveaspolicymakers,ministersandelectedofficials.Todate,itsgoalshaveincludedprovidingdisabilityequalitytrainingtolocalpartybranchesandcampaigningforimproved

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accesstopartyactivitiesformemberswithdisabilities(includingremoteaccesstopartyconferencesandannualgeneralmeetings),althoughitstenurehasnotbeenwithoutcontroversy(Pring,2018).Aninterviewwiththecurrentco-chairsofDisabilityLabourhasinformedthisreport(seeResults—NationbyNation,p.18).

Mentoring

Mentoring,eitheraspartofastructuredprogrammeoronanunofficialbasis,canofferanothersolution.France’sAbadhasnotedthathisriseinpoliticsbeganwithbeingnoticedasastudentoratorbyFrenchmemberofparliamentHervéMorin,whoencouragedhimtogetinvolvedintheyouthbranchofhisparty,andthathehasalsoreceivedadvicefromthepartyleader,formerFrenchPresidentNicolasSarkozy.Interestingly,Sarkozy’sadvicetoAbadincludedawarningtonot“allowhimselftobeconfinedtothesubjectofdisability”(Equy,opcit.).

Manymentoringschemesexistthatareaimedatfosteringleadershipskillsamongst(usuallyyoung)peoplewithdisabilities,offeringcapacity-building,networkingopportunitiesandoftenaccesstorolemodelswhoalsohavedisabilities(forexample,seeOfficeofDisabilityEmploymentPolicy,2018).Althoughinformationaboutformalmentoringschemesforpeoplewithdisabilitiesseekingcareersinelectoralpoliticsorpolicymakingwassoughtaspartofthisproject,nonewerelocated.However,anumberofpoliticianswithdisabilitieshavehighlightedtheneedformentors,includingWelshcouncilorFenellaBowden,whohasaspinalcondition(Flint,2018).

AproductivementoringprojectmightresemblethemodeldevelopedbyEMILY’sList,anAmericanorganisationfoundedin1985topromotepro-choicefemalecandidatesinDemocraticPartyraces.EMILY’sListbeganasafundraisingnetwork,butin2001itstartedthePoliticalOpportunityProgram(nowknownasRuntoWin)todirectlyrecruit,trainandsupportfemalecandidates,havingrecognisedtheneedforsuchassistance.Withover5milliondues-payingmembers,EMILY’sListhasbecomeanimportantnetworkingforumaswell.Itoffersin-persontrainingandanonlinetrainingplatform,andarrangesmentorships.Over10,000prospectivecandidateshavereceivedsupportthroughtheprogramme(EMILY’sList,2018).

Somerecruitmentandmentoringprogrammesexistforpeoplewithdisabilitiesinpublicemployment,acategorythatmayincludesomepotentialpoliticalappointees.Theseareusuallyrunbyunionsrepresentinggovernmentworkers.Unionsalsoplayakeyroleincollectingdataaboutemployeesinpublicservicewhohavedisabilities(manyofwhommaynotfeelsecureaboutofficiallydeclaringtheirdisabilitystatusdirectlytoemployers),andaboutcounteringdisabilitydiscriminationandprovidingeffectivesupport.ThePublicServiceAllianceofCanada,whichrepresentsFederalandProvincialemployees,isanexampleofaunionthathasawell-developedresearch,outreachandinclusionprogrammefocusedon“EquityGroups,”acategorythatincludesworkerswithdisabilities(PSAC,2018).Becauseleadershipofunionsandothercivilsocietyorganisationsisanalternativesteppingstoneintopoliticallife,successfuleffortsinthisarenacancontributetodevelopingfuturepoliticalleaders.

MentoringwasalsoatoprecommendationintheLordHolmesReview(Holmes,2018)toredresspoorrepresentationofdisabledpeopleonpubliccommissionsintheUK.HolmessuggestedthattheUKgovernmentshould“establishamentoringprogrammetosupporttalenteddisabledcandidates”(ibid.,p.8)toimprovetheirreadinesstoapply.HolmesalsosuggestedthatdisabledpeopleshouldbeproactivelysoughtandencouragedtojoinanexistingmentoringschemerunbytheCabinet

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Office,whichincludesjobshadowingofcurrentcommissionersandmembershipofadvisoryboards(ibid.,p.24).

Money,timeandenergy

TheUKwastheonlycountryfoundwherestatefundshavebeenmadeavailabletocompensatecandidateswithdisabilitiesforadditionaldisability-relatedcostsduringpoliticalcampaigns,althoughtheefforthasbeenlimited(seeResults—Nationbynation:UK).Thisisanareawherepoliticalpartiesthemselves,DPOsorothercivilsocietyorganisationscouldalsoinnovate.

Onenotableresultfromtheinterviewsconductedforthisreportisthatthewaypersonalassistance(PA)servicesprovidedbyEUstatesarerunandfundedcanhaveamajorimpactonpoliticalparticipation.IfPAservicesarestrictlylimitedtoprovidingsupportfor“activitiesofdailyliving,”e.g.eating,dressing,bathingandusingpublictransport,peoplewithdisabilitieswhowanttovolunteerforapoliticalparty,attendpoliticalmeetingsorhitthecampaigntrailwillbedisadvantaged(seeResults—Nationbynationforfurtherdetails).

Timeandenergyarealsoimportantresources,andtheirlackcanposeseriousissuesforpeoplewithsomedisabilities.AsEmilyBrothers,ablindwomanwhohasrunforbothnationalandlocalofficeintheUK,writes,thiscanleadtooverworkforsomepeoplewithdisabilitiesinpolitics:

Despiteourbestendeavours,itoftentakeslongerforadisabledpersontoaccomplishatask.Thatiswhysomanysuccessfuldisabledpeopleworkridiculouslylonghours,whichisn’tpossibleifyouexperiencefatiguebecauseofyourdisabilityorhealthcondition.Goingtheextramileisequallytrueformanywomencompetingin‘aman’sworld.’Intruth,weallneedtosharetheloadinsomanydifferentways.Sowhyshouldpoliticsbeanydifferent?(Brothers,inBrothers,etal.[2017]:p.32)

Toaddressthisproblem,theorganisationDisabilityPoliticsUKhasforseveralyearscampaignedtomakejob-sharingpossibleforMembersofParliament(DisabilityPoliticsUK,2018).Thiswouldassistnotonlypeoplewithdisabilities,butalsothosewithparentingorcaringduties,andthosewhowishtomaintainaprofessionalrolealongsidepublicservice.

Althoughsofarnobillpermittingjob-sharingintheUKparliamenthaspassed,andacourtcasebytwoGreencandidateswhowishedtojob-share(oneawomanwithadisability,theotheraparentwithachildwithadisability)wasdismissed,theideacontinuestobediscussed.Recently,theinfluentialFawcettSocietyreleasedareport(Brothersetal.,2017)explaininghowjob-sharingcouldworkintheBritishparliament,andadvocatingitsuse.Thereportcalledonresearchrevealingthatjob-sharingisalreadysuccessfullyusedintheUKbyjudges,governorsofutilityfirms,executivesintheNHS,andpolicymakersintheUKMinistryofJustice.Italsoquotedthejudge’sdecisionwhendismissingthecasebroughtbythetwowould-beMPs:

“Therecanbenodoubtabouttheseriousnessoftheissueorthefactthatjobshareis,inmanyfields,ameanswherebydiversitymaybeincreasedinthemakeupofparticularprofessionsorroles...Inmyjudgmenttheissuewhichtheclaimantsraiseisafundamentaloneinrelationtoourparliamentarydemocracy.”(CopeandPhilipps,inBrothers,etal.,2017:p.23)

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Indeed,job-sharingandpart-timeworkingarealreadywell-establishedwithincivilserviceemploymentinmanyEuropeancountries,includingtheNetherlands,andthereisnoreasonthatthispracticecannotbeextendedtopoliticalappointeesaswell.Politicalpartiescouldpioneerthepractice,andseveralEuropeanGreenandfeministpartieshavealreadyexperimentedwithjob-sharingarrangements.Forexample,leadershipoftheUKGreenPartyissharedbetweenMPCarolineLucasandJonathanBartley(Bartleyhascaringresponsibilitiesforachildwithadisability.)However,atthistimejob-sharingisprohibitedbylawforelectedpoliticiansintheNetherlands.

InBelgium,thereisajob-sharing-likeprocessthatgivesanelectedofficialswithadisabilityatlocalandprovincialleveltherighttoselectavertrouwenspersoon(confidentialadvisor)toassistthemwiththeirduties.ThisgoesbeyondprovidingaPAservice,asitcanincludediscussionofpolicies,butthevertrouwenspersooncannotactasaproxyvoterfortheelectedperson.Aletterfromadoctorisneededtoprovetheneedforassistance,andthevertrouwenspersooncannotbeacouncilemployee.(Formoreinformation,seehttps://lokaalbestuur.vlaanderen.be/faq/werking-bestuur/wie-heeft-recht-op-persoonlijke-bijstand-van-een-vertrouwenspersoon-welke-rechten-en-plichten-heeft).

Forexample,avisuallyimpairedpoliticianfromtheCD&Vparty,PolVerest,choseanotherCD&Vmember,KarlTierens,ashisvertrouwenspersoonwhenhegainedaseatontheGent(OCMW)citycouncilin2013.Tierensreceivedpaymentforhisworkintheformofanattendancefee.VerestandTierensdiscussedcouncilagendaitemstogetherandpreparedwhatwouldbesaid,submittedorrequestedofthelocalgovernmentbyVerest,withinputfromtheirparty(VanRossem,2013).However,inallcouncilmattersVeresthimselfhadtotaketheleadandspeakforhimself.ForTierens,theroleprovidedawaytolearnbydoing:hesoonjoinedthecouncilhimself,andVerestchoseanewvertrouwenspersoon(HLN,2014).

NostatisticswerefoundaboutthenumberofBelgianpoliticianstakingadvantageofthisscheme,orwhetherithasincreasedthenumberofdisabledpeoplerunningforoffice.Theauthorwasabletofindthreeexamplesofcurrentlyservingvertrouwenspersonen,inHulshout,MannuDox,andtheaforementionedexampleofGent,ofwhomtwowereworkingforvisuallyimpairedpoliticiansandoneforapoliticianwithahearingimpairment.Thevertrouwenspersoonreceivesthesameattendancefeeasthecouncilmembertheyworkwith,whichdependsonthesizeofthepopulationthatthecouncilrepresentsandcanbeaslowas€400permonth,ascouncilmembersareexpectedtodotheirworkasasecondjob.

Thereisapotentialdownsidetojob-sharingarrangements,ofcourse,whichistheriskthatpeoplewithdisabilitiesinpoliticswhojob-sharecouldearnlessthantheirfull-timecompatriots.

The“disabilityhierarchy”

Theterm“disabilityhierarchy”haslongbeenusedtodescribethefactthatperceptionsofpeoplewithdisabilitiesareoftendependentonthekindofimpairmenttheyhaveandhowitoccurred.Thisistrueforpeoplewithdisabilitiesaswell(Deal,2003),andmayimpactthechancesofsomewould-bepoliticians.CanadianwheelchairuserKristenWilliams,forexample,notesthatpeoplewithphysicaldisabilitiesthatareacquiredmaybevieweddifferentlythanthosewhoseimpairmentswerepresentatbirth,anddisabilitiesthatimpactverbalspeechorintellectattractmorenegativeviews(Williams,2014).Whetheranindividual’sdisabilityisviewedpositively,negativelyorasaneutralfactordependslargelyonculturalfactors,sothiswillvarybetweencountries.

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Forexample,impairmentthroughmilitaryservicecanbeadriverratherthanabarrier–someonewhohasthesamelevelofimpairmentfrombirthorduetoanaccidentorillnessisfarlesslikelytoachieveinpoliticsthanawarveteran,suchasthelateSen.JohnMcCainintheUS,orsomeonewhohasotherwiseacquiredtheirimpairmentinthelineofduty,suchasWolfgangSchäuble,formerMinisteroftheInteriorforGermanyandcurrentPresidentoftheBundestag,whobecameparalysedbelowthewaistafteranassassinationattemptin1990.Symionidou(2009)alsonotedthehigherstatusofDPOmemberswhoarewarveteransintheirinteractionswithpoliticiansinCyprus.However,impairmentsthatoccurredbecauseofacarcrashordiabetesmightattractblameratherthanrespectamongstsomepersons.Self-stigma—havinganegativeviewofoneselfbecauseofadisability—canformapowerfulbarriertoachievementaswell.

Certainimpairments,suchasmentalillhealthorintellectualdisability,maybemorelikelytotriggerbarriersthanothers;theextentofthesewillbeinfluencedbycultureandcircumstances.Butevenindisability-focusedroles,disabilitycanbeseenasabarriertoservice(Baker,2011).Forexample,whentheBelgianGreenPartyranayounglocalpartyvolunteerwhohasDownsyndromeasacandidateforhislocalcouncil,theywereoftenaskedbyreportersifitwassomekindofattention-gettingstunt(seeResults:NationbyNation—Belgium).

Thistendencycanalsoimpactthecareersofpoliticalappointees.Forexample,in2009,AriNe’Emen,anadultwithautismwithBAinpoliticalscience,wasnominatedtotheNationalCouncilonDisabilitybyPresidentObama.TheNCDisaFederalagencythatadvisesCongressandtheexecutivebranchondisabilityissues,contributingtopolicymaking.PrevioustohisserviceontheNCD,Ne’Emenhadfoundedandrunahigh-profileNGOforautisticadults,theAutisticSelf-AdvocacyNetwork,aswellasservingwithotherdisabilityNGOs.

However,hisnominationsparkedcontroversywithparent-runorganisationslikeAutismSpeaks,withsomeparent-activistsvitriolicintheiropposition.Hisnominationwasblockedforsixmonths,althougheventuallyNe’EmenwasabletojointheNCD(Diamant,2010).Heservedtwoterms,includingachairoftheCouncil’sEntitlementsandPolicyandProgramEvaluationcommittees.SincetheendoftheDemocraticadministration,Ne’EmenhasreturnedtoworkingwithindependentdisabilityNGOsandasaconsultanttotheAmericanCivilLibertiesUnion.Intelligent,agoodpublicspeakerandexperiencedatbuildingcoalitions,Ne’Emenisexactlythekindofpersonwithadisabilitywhoisattractedtoandwell-qualifiedforthisformofpublicservice,butthepersonalattackshesufferedduringbothhisnominationandhisserviceweredifficulttohandle.“Thelevelofprejudicewasprettyshocking,”hetoldjournalistSteveSilberman.“Somepeoplereliedonoutrageousbutall-too-familiarstereotypestoclaimthatitdoesn'tmakesensetohaveanautisticpersonontheNationalCouncilonDisability,suchasthebizarrenotionthatautisticpeopleareemotionlesssociopaths”(Silberman,2010).

Accessibilityofpoliticalspacesandactivities

Measurescanbetakentomakepoliticalspaces—fromlocalmeetingroomstothedebatingchambersofnationalparliamentsaccessibleforall.Thisissuewashighlightedbyseveralrespondents,andisalsofoundintheliterature.Forexample,DameAnneBegg,awheelchairuserandmemberoftheUKparliamentfrom1997to2015,facedaccessibilitybarriersinthe19thCenturybuildingthathousestheHouseofCommons:

TheHouseofCommonsisn'tasaccessibleasitcouldbeandshewasunabletositdirectlyalongsideotherMPsinthechamber,butitdidn'tbotherher.“Irememberaftergetting

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elected,someonesaying:‘It'sterribleyoustickoutintheaisle,theyhaven'tcutabitoutofthegreenbenchesforyoutoslotinto’.”Beggsaysshewrotebackandsaid:"I'vebeeninvisibleforfartoolong,I'mgladthatyounoticedI'mthere."(Rose,2015)

Obviously,everydayaccessibilityissues,suchasaccesstopublictransportoradaptedvehicles,willalsohaveanimpactonparticipation.Theavailabilityofsign-languageservicesfordeafpoliticians,andscreen-readersorBrailletranslationsforblindpersons,isalsocrucial—buttheseservicesaddcoststhatpoliticalactorswhodonothavedisabilitiesneednotbear.Itisnotalwaysclearwhopaysforreasonableadaptationswhenitcomestoelectedofficials.WelshcouncilorAnitaDavis,whoisblind,saidshehadattimesfoundithardtomakedecisionsbecausetheinformationsheneededwasnotprovidedinaccessibleformats,andparticipantsinmeetingssometimesforgottoidentifythemselves.

Shenotedthatcanvassingdoor-to-dooralsoposedchallenges:

"Ididn'tknowthelayoutsofthewardsIwascovering,soIwouldn'tnecessarilyknowifsomeonehadstepsoraramp,orjusthowtofindthefrontdoor.SoIhadanumberofaccidentswhereIfelldownthestepsorcouldn'tgetinthegate.”(Davis,inFlint,2018)

Addressingaccessibilityissuesalsoincludeslookingcloselyathowpoliticalworkiscarriedout.Ifthesystemasitisassumesthatallparticipantshavethesame,able-bodiedsetofcapabilities,itwillexcludepeoplewithdisabilities.Changesmaybeneededinareassuchasmeetingandcommunicating.UniversalDesignprinciplescanbehelpfulheretoprovideguidanceandinspiration(Hamraie,2017).Betterandmorereliablydisability-friendlystrategiescanbestbedevelopedwithinputfrompeoplewithdisabilitiesthemselves.

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Results:Nationbynation

Inthefollowingsections,thesituationforpeoplewithdisabilitiesinpoliticallifewillbeexploredwithregardstofiveEuropeancountries:Belgium,France,Germany,DenmarkandtheUK.Thiswillbefollowedbyashortcasestudyonimprovinginclusionwithinapoliticalparty,andabriefsectiononinclusionintheEUParliament.

SeveralintervieweesmentionedthattheUNCRPDandtheEuropeanPillarofSocialRightsprovidethefoundationsforimprovingpractice.Forexample:

TheimplementationoftheUNCRPDisanexcellenttoolforgovernmentstobringwordsintopractice.Manygovernments,includingtheDutchgovernmentandtheBelgianandFlemishgovernments,havesignedandratifiedtheUNCRPD,andtheymustnowbringitintoactionbyimplementingitandmakingchangestotheirlegislation,practicesandculturetoensurethatcitizenswithdisabilitiescanactuallyandfullyenjoythesamerightsothercitizenswithoutdisabilitiestakeforgranted.—HelgaStevens,MEPforBelgium

Foraquickoverviewofsomekeydescriptivedata,seeTable1onp.21.

Belgium(Flanders)

TherearespecificActsinboththeFlemishandWalloonareasofBelgium,andintheBrussels-Capitalregion,toimproverepresentationofpeoplewithdisabilitiesinpublicemployment.In2007,a3%quotawassetbydecree,althoughthisfigurehadbeenmentionedasagoalinofficialdocumentssincethe1970s(Stevens,2018).However,onlysixfederaldepartmentshavereachedthislowtarget.In2016,theaverageemploymentrateforpeoplewithdisabilitiesintheFederalgovernmentofBelgiumwas1.44%(DeBruyker,2017).IntheFlandersgovernment,thefigurewas1.3%(Stevens,2018).1

Thequotaisunenforced,andisnotwellknown.Itdoesnotapplytopoliticalcandidates.AsAnneliesvandenBrande,2018candidateforGroenSint-Niklaasandapersonwithavisualimpairment,saidwheninterviewedforthisreport:“InBelgiumtherearenoquotasorrulesconcernedwithmakingiteasierforpeoplewithdisabilitiestobeelectedortogivethemextrahelpinpolitics.Thatdoesn’texistinBelgium”(personalcommunication,AnneliesvandenBrande,25October2018).TherearenospecificpoliciesorlawsinBelgiumregardingholdingapoliticalofficeorgovernmentpostwhenyouhaveadisability,foreitherelectedorappointedofficials(personalcommunication,HelgaStevens,MEP,24October2018.)

Belgiumwas,however,uniqueinthatatleasttwopersonswithanintellectualordevelopmentaldisabilityhavesoughtpublicofficewithbackingfrommainstreamparties.GentpoliticianDidierPeleman’sbackgroundiswithanNGOforpeoplewithdevelopmentaldisabilities.HeranfortheChristianDemocratsFlanders(CD&V)Partyin2009,whereasyoungGreenPartyvolunteerTaneDepuytjoinedtheBruggecouncilraceonbehalfofhispartyin2018,gaininginternationalattention

1Whiletechnicallygovernmentandcivilserviceemploymentisaseparateworldfromholdingappointedpoliticalposts,inthisandthesectionsthatfollowitisusedtoexamineparticipationinbroadlysimilargovernmentwork.Innocasewerequotasfoundthatappliedtoappointedroles,forwhichcandidatesarechosenbyrulingpoliticalparties.

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forhiscandidacy(VRT,2012;vanBastelaere,2018).Supportingacandidate,office-holderorpolicyadvisorwithanintellectualordevelopmentaldisabilitywouldposechallengestomostpoliticalpartiesandgovernments,butitissomethingthatneedsattentionforthefuture.Withmorethan1%ofthepopulationontheautismspectrumandintellectualdisabilityalsocommon,itisnotrighttomaketheassumptionthatparentsorothersshouldalwaysrepresenttheirinterests.Moreover,weknowfromresearchthat“proxies”don’treportthesamethingsasthepeopletheyrepresent(Claesetal.,2012),norshouldweassumethatpeoplewithintellectualordevelopmentaldisabilitiesdonothaveexpertiseinareasbeyondtheirpersonalsituationordisabilityissues.Inparticular,peoplewithautismhavealreadyservedatalllevelsofgovernment,inbothelectedandappointedposts,aswillbefurtherdiscussedelsewhereinthisreport.

Overall,disabilitydiscriminationinBelgiumisaddressedthroughageneralratherthandisability-specificdecreeonequalparticipationintheworkplaceinFlanders(2002).The2007Anti-DiscriminationAct,whichisalsonotdisability-specificandwhichwasrevisedin2016,isalsoimportant.

Provisionofservicessuchasjobcoaching,workadaptations,travelsupportandsign-languageinterpretationishandledbyregionalagencies,withworkoftencarriedoutbyexternalorganisations.Employerscanreceivefundsforadaptingworkspaces.MEPHelgaStevens,whoisdeafandserveswiththeNieuw-VlaamseAlliantie,notedthatthewaysign-languageinterpretationisprovidedcouldbeafacilitatororabarrier.“TheFlemishgovernmenthasapolicysince1994topayforsignlanguageinterpretersinworksituations(10%oftheworkingtime,beitasemployeeorasself-employedperson—withapossibilitytodoublethisuponmotivatedrequest)andprivatesituations(verylimited:18hoursayearwhichcanbedoubled),”shesaid.Comingtopoliticsfromabackgroundasanattorney,Stevenssaidittooktimeforherpartytounderstandhowtoworkwithadeafperson.“Icontributedasvolunteertotheinternalworkinggroup‘Policiesforpersonswithdisabilities’ofthepredecessortomyparty—thiswaythepartyhadtheopportunitytogettoknowmeandtoobservehowIcanfunctionwithsignlanguageinterpreters,”shenoted.“Asaself-employedpersonIwasabletousemysignlanguageinterpretersmoreflexibly,comparedtootherdeafpersonswhoareemployees—theyneedthesignatureoftheiremployertobeabletousework-relatedinterpretinghours”(personalcommunication,HelgaStevens,MEP,24October2018).

Stevenssaidshewasunsureaboutquotas,althoughthereiscurrentlyalawinBelgiumrequiringgenderbalanceinthetopthreeplacesonparties’candidatelists.“Iamnotagainstquotaperdefinition,itcanhelptoturnaroundadisadvantageintheshortterm,andtospeeduptheprocessofachievingmorediversityingovernmentsandparliaments,aswehaveseenwithfemalepoliticians,”sheadded(ibid.).

InBelgium,therehavebeendisabilityawarenesscampaignsbygovernmentemployersandthroughgovernmentworkersunions.

Stevensprovidedveryusefulinformationaboutthesituationandneedsofdeafpoliticiansatregional,nationalandEuropeanlevels.HeraccountofhowsignlanguageserviceswereprovidedduringhertrajectoryfromregionaltonationaltoEUservicehighlightshowdifferentrulesaboutprovingsupportforpeoplewithdisabilitiesinpoliticscanimpacttheirabilitytocarryouttheirduties:

AttheFlemishParliamentIwasimmediatelyprovidedwithsignlanguageinterpreters.Ittookashorttimetofindtherightworkingformula,buteversincethen,theFlemishParliamenthasbeenexcellentinfollowingupandpayingtheSLinterpreters.Theyevenpaid

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forSLwhenrelatedtomyparliamentarymandate,e.g.workingvisits,meetingswithcitizens,localpartybranchmeetings,nationalpartymeetings,etc.

WhenIbecamememberoftheBelgianSenate,IpressedthemtoadoptthesamesystemasusedbytheFlemishParliament.Ajointagreementwasmadetoavoidoverlapsanddoublefinance,whichisofcourselogical.

Inthisregard,theEuropeanParliamentislessflexible.Theyrefusetopayfornon-officialmeetings...soforthesemeetingsIfallbackupontheFlemishsystemforreimbursementofexpensesforwork-relatedSLinterpretation.However,IampressingtheissuewithintheEuropeanParliament,asitisunfairthatSLinterpretationrequestedbyexternalpeopletoattendofficialmeetingssuchasplenarysessions,committeemeetingsattheEuropeanparliamentarehiredonthesamebasisasthespokenlanguageinterpreters,whilemysignlanguageinterpretershavetoworkunderdifferentconditionsandarepaidlessanddonotenjoythesamebenefitsastheinterpretershiredbytheParliamentitself.

Mybiggestproblemisthegenerallackofaccesstotheaudio-visualmedia,suchasradioandTV.Access,however,hasimprovedovertheyears:moreTVprogrammesarenowsubtitledandrecently,duringthelocalandprovincialelections,somekeyTVdebatesweresigninterpretedonthesecondpublicTVchannel.Accesstotheradioisstillproblematic,nottosaynon-existent.Anewphenomenonarethepodcastsoninternet:thesearenotaccessibleforme(andotherdeafpeopleingeneral)whiletheyarebeneficialforblindpeople.

AbarrierwhichIcontinuetoface—after14yearsinpolitics!—istheattitudesofreportersandpresentersinmedia(radioandTV)whoarestillmorehesitanttointerviewmeortoinvitemeforaTVdebate.Theyalwaysworryaboutthesignlanguageinterpreters,whichtheytendtoseeasaformofvisualpollution/interference.Ihaveonlyappearedonthe“ZevendeDag”(debateprogrammeonVRT)twice,whichisverylowwhencomparedtothenumberofotherFlemishMEPsappearingonthisshow.Andtheywillonlyallowonesignlanguageinterpreteratthetable,whileinfacttwosignlanguageinterpretersshouldbeworkingtheretobeabletodeliveragoodqualitytranslation/interpretingservice.Afterthelastdebate,theinterpreterandIwereoutragedandmadeitverycleartothepresentersthatnexttimethereshouldbetwoSLinterpreterspresentatthedebate.

ItisalsoalwaysahassletokeepthesignlanguageinterpreteroutofthepicturewhenIambeinginterviewed.Theyliketohavetheinterpreterinthepicturewithme,buts/heisjustarelayer/translatorofmessages!Ialwaystrytomakethatclear,thatIamthepersonthecamerashouldfocuson,notontheinterpreter.Andtheinterpretershouldgetthemicrophone,notme!

Asadeafperson,itcontinuestobedifficulttoparticipateinthesmalltalkandinconversationsinthehallways:Ialwayscomeinteamwithmytwosignlanguageinterpreters,andsomehowthisisabarrierbetweenmyhearingcolleaguesandmyself.”(ibid.)

France

OnlyonememberoftheFrenchnationalparliamentisknowntohaveadisability,andhewasunavailableforinterview.Politiciansatlowerlevelsalsodidnotrespondtoinvitations,ordidnot

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havetimetotakepart.NodataisavailableaboutthepercentageofregionalandlocalofficialsorpoliticalappointeeswithadisabilityinFrance.Anationallawprotectspersonswithdisabilitiesagainstdiscriminationinemployment.RedressisthroughtheLeDéfenseurdesDroits(similartoCollegevoordeRechtenvandeMensintheNetherlands),anombudsmanagency,whichcanrefercomplaintsontoacourtwherewarranted.A2005lawrequiresallcompanieswith20ormoreemployeestoemploy6%peoplewithdisabilities.Iftheydon’t,theycanbefined.Thislawalsoappliestogovernmentemployers.However,therearemanywaysforemployerstobeexemptedfromfollowingthislaw(ANED,2017).Nopoliticalpartywasfoundthathasaquotaforcandidateswithdisabilities.Interestingly,thislawalsocreatedtheFondspourl’insertiondespersonneshandicapéesdanslafonctionpublique(FIPHFP,FundfortheInclusionofPeoplewithDisabilitiesinthePublicService),whichusesthefinescollectedfromgovernmentemployers(noneofwhicharecurrentlymeetingthe6%quota…)tofundsupportsandtraining.TheFIPHFPalsoholdseventsforpublicemployerstoencouragethemtohiremorepeoplewithdisabilities,andtheyhavepublishedguidanceonreasonableadaptationsforpeoplewithdisabilitiesinpublicservice,suchasguidanceonhowtosupportworkerswithhearingimpairments,andonhowtoimproverecruitmentpracticestoavoiddisadvantagingemployeeswithdisabilities(FIPHFP,2018).SomesupportsandsubsidiesareavailableforpersonswithadisabilityinFrancewhowishtopursueaprofession,includingpublicservice,suchastuitionreductions.Atime-limitedsubsidyisavailabletoemployersthatwanttoemployapersonwhohasadisability.Someflexibilityinhoursandtasksispermitted.TheagencyAgefipharrangesforpersonalsupportinwork,suchasjobcoachingandworkplaceadaptations,includingrehabilitationservicesforpeoplewhobecomedisabledasadults.Thisagencycansometimesmakedirectjobplacementsforqualifiedapplicants.However,despiteanti-discriminationlawsandincreasedavailabilityofin-worksupportandadaptation,unemploymentrateshaveincreasedforpeoplewithdisabilitiesinFranceinrecentyears(NicolasandEbersold,2017).ExpertsanalysingthelackofsuccessofthesemeasureshavepointedtothefactthatinFrance,mostpersonswithdisabilitiesareoverage50soagediscriminationmaycombinewithdisabilitydiscrimination.Inaddition,Francelagsbehindininclusiveeducation,andlessthan50percentofdisabledadultshaveachievedaqualificationatBaccalaureatelevel(pre-university)orabove,inanerawherehigherqualificationsareincreasinglyrequiredbyemployers.

State-fundedsupportservicesarenotavailabletocandidatesforuseduringpoliticalcampaigns.

Germany

NodataisavailableregardingthenumberofpoliticiansorpoliticalappointeesinGermanywhohaveadisability,butitisbelievedtobeverylow.Representationappearstobehigheratlocallevelthanatprovincialornationallevel.Therearecertainlyseveralprominentpoliticalfigureswithadisability,includingWolfgangSchäuble,thecurrentpresidentoftheBundestag(nationalparliament).AlthoughnoGermanpoliticiansorpoliticalappointeesagreedtobeinterviewedforthisproject,itwasnotablethatseveralcurrentlyservingatlocalorstatelevelstartedtheirpoliticalcareersasDPOactivists.ThisindicatesthatDPOscouldbeagoodrecruitinggroundforpartiesinsearchofqualifiedcandidates.

InGermanythereisa5%quotaregardinghiringpersonswith“severe”disabilities(schwerebehinderte).Justover25percentofemployerscurrentlymeetthequota.Employerswhodonotmeetitonlypayaverysmallfine(currently125-320eurospermonthpercompany).These

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fundsgototheFederalEmploymentAgency(BMAS),and30percentthengoestoanequalisationfund(Ausgleichsfonds)usedtosupportpeoplewithdisabilitieswhoaretransitioningintoemployment,includingsubsidiestoemployers(EuropeanCommission,1999;Cuppage,2013).Inpractice,thisfundmostlybenefitsyoungschool-leavers.Someoftheremaining80percentgoestootherprojectsthatarealsointendedtoimprovehiringpracticesfordisabledpeople,suchassupportforsocialworkplaces.In2016,BMASsaidthatitexpectedtoreceive230millioneurosfromthefundoverthenextfewyears(BMAS,2016.)

Thisquotaalsoappliestogovernmentemployers.Nopoliticalpartywaslocatedthathasaquotaforcandidateswithdisabilities.

Anewlawtoencourageparticipationofpeoplewithdisabilitiesinworkcameintoforcein2017.Therearenowanumberofpilotprojectsrunningin2018.Mostofthesearenotapplicabletopoliticalofficeholders,butthereissomeprovisionfortrainingfocusedonprofessionalcareers(broadlydefined).Atthistime,legalmeasuresdonotappeartobeeffectiveinimprovingaccesstohigh-levelemploymentforpeoplewithdisabilities,includingingovernmentministries.Infact,between2007and2017,therewasa40%declineinprofessionaltrainingcontractsforpeoplewhohaveadisability.

Somesubsidiesareavailabletoemployersthatneedtoadaptworkspacesorprovideworkplaceassistance,suchasjobcoaching,butthesystemissaidtobeexcessivelybureaucratic,limitingaccess.Anotherissueisthat60%ofwomenwithadisabilityand40%ofmenwithadisabilitydonotqualifyforwork-relatedsupport,astheyareeither“notdisabledenough”orhavenotsuccessfullygonethroughthesystemtogettherequiredpassforaccesstothesesupportschemes.

Personalassistanceandtransportsupportareavailabletosomeworkerswithdisabilities,andispaidforbythestate.Thisincludespersonswhoarenotinreceiptofadisabilitypension.However,thissupportismeans-tested,soapersonwhohasbeenelectedorappointedtoapaidpostwithareasonablesalarymightthenlosetheiraccesstopersonalassistance,andneedtopayprivately.Suchsupportcanbequitecostly.AsdisabilityactivistChristianBayertoldtheIndependentLivingInstitute,thiscanformabarrierforpeoplewithdisabilities:““Idon’twanttopayformyassistance,soIworkpart-timetoavoidexceedingtheincomelevel.Ifthelevelwerehigher,orifthereweren’talimit,Iwouldbeabletoworkmore”(Bayer,inBernt,2008).

Denmark

ThenumberofpeoplewithdisabilitiesinpublicofficeinDenmark,eitherelectedorappointed,isunknown.Accordingtothetwopoliticianswithdisabilitiesinterviewedforthisreport,bothwheelchairusers,itislikelytobeverylow—perhapslessthan1%.SarahGlerup,whobrieflyservedintheDanishparliamentascoverforaRed-GreenPartycolleaguewhowasonleave,wasthefirstpersonwithadisabilitytoserveatnationallevel(personalcommunication,SarahGlerup,17October2018).

Supportfordailyliferequirements,suchasPAservice,areavailableinDenmark,andareneitherattachedtobeinginreceiptofbenefitsnormeanstested.Supportinworkcanbeprovidedforupto20hoursperweek.Historically,disabilitybenefitsinDenmarkhadbeenrelativelygenerous,buta2013lawchangedthis.Now,thebenefitsofpersonswithadisabilitywhoareunabletosecure225hoursormoreofworkontheopenmarketarecut,asarethebenefitsofpeoplewithdisabilities

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whohaveaworkingpartner.Theprovisionsofthislawhavehadanespeciallyhighimpactonpeoplewithdisabilitieswhoareunderage40.

Glerupnotedthatthebenefitssystemcancreateverydirectbarriersforpeoplewithdisabilitieswhoareinterestedinpoliticallife:

Inrecentyearswehaveseenexamplesofpeoplereceivingdisabilitypensionwhohavebeenbulliedbyauthoritiesintogivinguprunningforlocalofficesorevenparticipatinginpublicpoliticaldebates.Theyhavebeentoldthattheymightlosetheirpensioniftheyremainpoliticallyactive,becauseitwillbeseenasasignthattheyareabletoworkanddowithoutapension.(Personalcommunication,SarahGlerup,17October2018)

Anationallawprohibitingdiscriminationagainstpeoplewithdisabilitiesinemploymenthasbeeninforcesince1996,andwasupdatedin2017.However,therearenotanti-discriminationlawsregardingotherareasofdailylife—sothislawwouldnotcoverselectionforpoliticalcandidacy,participationinapoliticalpartyetc.(EuropeanNetworkofLegalExpertsinGenderEqualityandNon-Discrimination,2018).Adaptationstoworkplacesarecovered,andthisispaidbythemunicipality.

Thereisalawrequiringemployerstograntaninterviewtoallqualifiedpeoplewhohaveadisability.Asmallwagesubsidyisalsoavailabletoemployers,andthereisa‘flexjob’subsidyforpart-timeemployeeswithadisabilitythatincludesapermanentsubsidypaidtotheemployer.

Denmarkdoesnotoperateaquotaschemeforemploymentofpeoplewithadisability,nordoesanypoliticalpartyhaveaquotaschemeforcandidates.

Theavailabilityofhigh-qualityPAservicesisafacilitatingfactorforpoliticianswho,likeGlerup,haveseveredisabilities:

IngeneralIwouldsaythemostimportantfactor/policywhenitcomestomyparticipationnotjustinpoliticallife,butinsocietyasawholeisthefactthatIamentitledtoapersonalcareassistant[PCA]24hoursaday.ThisistheonlyreasonIcanliveindependentlyandworkinspiteofaveryseveredisability(Icannotwalkorevenbreatheonmyown).WithoutourPCApoliciesIwouldbestuckataninstitutionordead.(Personalcommunication,SarahGlerup,17October2018)

KristianHegaardiscurrentlyamemberofamunicipalcouncilinDenmarkbutalsoservedbrieflyasamemberofthenationalparliament,whereheactedasSpeakerforForeignAffairsandDefence.Hesaidthatpeoplewithdisabilitiesneedtobequiteexceptionaltogetpastthebarriersthatexist,includingculturalbeliefsandexpectations:

Expectationslike—isitpossibletogetelectedassuchayoungage?Canyouhandlesomuchworkasanpoliticianwithdisability?Iwaselectedasan18-yearoldforthemunicipalcouncilandhavegotaseatsincethat.

I’mextremelyhardworkingandfocusedtoachievemygoals.IthinkIwouldn’thavedoneitwithoutmywillpower,becausetherearesomanyfightsinthepartytogettoelectedpositions.(Personalcommunication,KristianHegaard,16October2018)

Hegaardnotedthatextrain-worksupporthasnotbeenavailableduringeitherhismunicipalornationalparliamentservice,despitethehighdemandsmadeonpersonsholdingtheseposts.

Glerupdiscussedfactorsinpoliticallifethatwillbefamiliartopartyvolunteersandwould-becandidatesorappointeesacrossEurope:

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[Thereisa]lackofflexibility—youhavetobeabletoworkfulltimeormoretobeapartofthesystem,really.Thereisnotreallyroomforpeoplewhocanonlywork,say18hoursaweekorwhoseabilitytoworkfluctuates.

Lackofaccesshasbeenahugeissueespeciallyearlieroninmylife.Manyoftheplaceswhereyou“learn”howtobecomepolitical,networkwithotherpeople,etc.,areinaccessibleifyouareinawheelchair.

Also,IhavebeenmetwithsomesuspicionfrompeoplewhothinkIwaschosen/hiredasadiversityposterchildinsteadofbasedonmyskills—orthatIcanonlythinkaboutdisabilitypoliticsandamunabletobeobjective(ofcoursenooneisobjective,able-bodiedpeoplethinkfromasubjectiveable-bodiedperspective,butnooneevercriticisesthat).(Personalcommunication,SarahGlerup,17October2018)

UnitedKingdom

Asof2017,therearesixmembersoftheUKHouseofCommonswhodeclarethattheyhaveadisability.Oneofthesewasinterviewedforthisreport,butaskedtoremainanonymous.Nodataisavailableaboutrepresentationatcountyorlocallevel,orintheranksofpoliticalappointees(Brothersetal.,2017).Thesituationhasnotchangedinthelastdecade(HouseofCommons,2010).TwoadditionalpeoplewhoholdorhaveheldlocalpoliticalofficeintheUK,bothofwhomareactivistswithintheLabourParty,wereinterviewed,aswasalocalLabourPartychair.

TheUKprovidedoneofthemostsurprisingvarianceswithprevailingpracticeelsewhereinEurope:theEqualityAct2010,whichpreventsdiscriminationinemploymentandrequiresemployerstomakereasonableaccommodationsforworkerswithdisabilities,coverspaidemployeesbutnotelectedofficials(HMGovernment,2010).TheMPwhowasinterviewedforthisresearchconfirmedthisfact,saying:“LawsthatapplytootherdisabledpeopleacrossthecountrydonotapplytoparliamentordisabledpeopleelectedtoTheHouseofCommonsorTheHouseofLords.Therearenolawsorofficialpoliciesrelatingtodisabledpeopleinpubliclife.”

TheUKgovernmentdoesnotsetaquotaforemployerstoencouragethemtohireemployeeswithdisabilities,nordoesanyUKpoliticalpartyhavesuchaquotaforitscandidatelists.Someflexibilityinworkhoursispossible,butemployeeshavetoasktheiremployerdirectly,andtheydon’thavetosayyes.Employersareresponsibleforadaptingworktasksandworkplaces.EmployeescanseekredressviatheAdvisory,ConciliationandArbitrationService(ACAS).

Inreality,helpfromACASisdifficulttogainaccessto,andemployershavemanywaystoavoidspendingmoney.Apopulartrickisinsistingthatthepersonhastoworkasanindependentcontractor/freelancerratherthanasanemployee,whichmeanstheemployerhasnoobligations.AccordingtotheCitizensAdviceBureau(2015),whichispubliclyfundedtoprovideadviceonissuessuchasbenefitsclaims,employmentanddebtproblems,1in10self-employedpersonsmayhavebeenplacedinthissituationbytheir(former)employer.

Disabilityismentionedasa“pushfactor”forself-employmentbyresearchersinothercountriesaswell:forexample,MooreandMueller(2002)inCanadaandavarietyofEUcountries,includingtheNetherlands(Beulen,2009.)Bogusself-employmentis,ofcourse,agreaterphenomenon,includingbutnotonlyasexemplifiedby“gigeconomy”self-employment(Deliveroo,Uber,etc.).Employersincreasinglyusebogusself-employmentasawaytoavoidtheirsocialsecurityobligations,includingintheNetherlands(Floren,2013).Althoughnodisability-specificresearchwaslocatedaboutbogus

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self-employment,aGermanstudyfoundthatfactorsmorefrequentlyassociatedwithdisability—experienceofhavingbeenunemployedandloweducationalattainment—werestronglyassociatedwithbogusself-employment(DietrichandPatzina,2018).

Bogusself-employmenthasalsobeenpushedbyprivateserviceprovidersforunemployedpeoplewithdisabilitiesintheUK(forexample,seeTracey,2013),whichreceivepaymentsfor“jobplacement”whenclientsstartbusinesses—evenwhenthosebusinessesturnouttonotbeviable.

TheUK’sAccesstoWorkschemehasprovidedsupportinworkformanypeoplewithdisabilities,includingthosewithseveredisabilities.Supportcanincludejobcoaching,interviewsupport,communicationsupport,andPAsupport(e.g.tocompletepaperworkthatwouldbedifficultforaworkerwithaphysicalimpairmentordyslexia).FundingforAccesstoWorkhasbeencutandindividualfundingisnowcapped,however,sonowfewerpeopleareaccessingthefund.Thishashadaparticularimpactondeafemployeeswhorelyonsignlanguageinterpreters(Smith,2018).Asnotedpreviously,thissupportisnotavailabletoelectedofficials.

TheMPwithadisabilitywhoprovidedevidenceforthisreporthasstruggledconsiderably:

Ihavehadanumberofaccessissuesunresolved,asparliamenthasrefusedtomakeadjustmentsformetocertainpracticeswhichIneededformydisabilitiesinordertodomyjobtothebestofmyability.Theseincludeaccesstoremoteelectronicvoting/proxyvotingasandwhenneededontheoccasionsmydisabilitiesmeanIamunabletoattendparliament,forotherMPsnottoshoutandhecklewhilstinthechamberwhilstsomebodyisspeaking(anarchaicandchildishpracticetheyareparticularlykeentopreserve),guaranteeofaseatinthechamberatbusytimesasIcannotstandforverylongandtherearenotenoughseatsforeveryMP,anddisabilityawarenessandequalitytraining…foreveryelectedofficialandtheirstaff.Ialsohaveaskedparliamenttodomoretopromoteequalityandraiseawareness,andthistoohasbeenrejected.Ignorancetowardsmydisabilitiesandhowtheyaffectme,andalackofcommitmenttodisabilityequalityandawarenessinbothparliamentandtheUKatlarge,hasaffectedmyabilitytodomyjobandhasalsoharmedmymentalhealth.(Personalcommunication,Anonymous,18September2018)

ThisMPfurthernotedthatwhilesomesupportisavailableforMPsthroughtheIndependentParliamentaryStandardsAuthority,itisnotguaranteed,andMPsmayhavecoversomesupportcoststhemselves.

OneareawheretheUKhasdistinguisheditselfistheestablishmentoffundstocoverthesupportneedsofpeoplewithdisabilitieswhoarerunningforoffice.InEngland,therewasa£2.6millionAccesstoElectedOfficefundforafewyears,butitwasthenclosed.Thelossofthissupporthadadirectimpactoncandidatesinautumn2018.Forexample,oneblindcandidatehadtoaskfamilyandfriendstotaketimeoffworksothattheycouldaccompanyherduringdoor-to-doorcanvassing,becausetherewasnofundingforaPA(personalcommunication,FranSpringfield,29October2018).Acampaignbythecross-partypoliticalorganisationMoreUnited(https://www.moreunited.uk)wasinstrumentalingettingthefundreinstatedattheendof2018,andgrantsofupto£4000willbeavailabletolocalcandidatesinthe2019electioncycle.ThiscanbeusedtocovercostsforthingslikeBrailletranslation,signlanguageinterpretationandspecialisttransport(Booth,2018).

InScotland,asimilarschemehasrunsuccessfullyforseveralyears,andisoperatedbyInclusionScotland(seehttp://inclusionscotland.org/what-we-do/employability-and-civic-participation/access-

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to-politics/aeofs/).Thefundwaslaunchedwithabudgetof£200,000(approximately220,000euros).Candidatescanreceivefundingtocoverthecostofpracticalsupportneededduringtheircampaign.ConservativePartycouncillorEricHolfordhadhelpfromthefund,andstated:

Asawheelchairuser,theAccesstoElectedOfficeFundreallyhelpedtoleveltheplayingfieldbetweenmeandotherable-bodiedcandidates.HavingaPersonalAssistant,paidforbytheAccesstoElectedOfficeFund,reallygavemeconfidencewhencanvassingaruralcommunityfrommywheelchair.Asatetraplegic,assistivedevicesprovidedbytheAccesstoElectedOfficeFundreallyhelpedmeovercomemyparalysisandmanagemyonlinecampaignjustaseasilyasable-bodiedcandidates.(InclusionScotland,2018)

Initsfirstyearofoperation,theAccessFundhelped44potentialcandidates,ofwhom39ranforofficeand15wereelected.Basedonthepilot’ssuccessatwideningparticipation,theScottishparliamentthencommittedtocontinuingthefundthrough2021,whenitwillbeevaluatedagain(Young,2018).

LarryArnoldisalocalLabourPartychairinCoventry,England,andhasautism.HehasalsobeenanNGOboardmemberandinvolvedinnationalpolicymakinginitiatives.“Ouractivemembershipcontainsanumberofdisabledpeople,wemeetinaccessiblevenues,”hesaidregardinghisworkaspartychair.“Ihaveallowedaparenttobringherautisticchildtothemeetingwhenshecouldnotarrangechildcare.Disabilityisalwayshighonouragendagiventhebackgroundofourward,andourmembership.Thebarrierstoparticipationaremoreofanexternalnature,giventhefinancialrestrictionsondisabledmembersandpoorpublictransportintheevenings.Inadditiontoformalmeetings,weholdanopenbreakfastonceamonthinapubliccommunityspace”(Personalcommunication,LarryArnold,30October2018).

Arnold’scommentsmakeclearthatreasonableaccommodationsforpeoplewithdisabilitiesarealsovaluabletoothergroupswhostruggletoaccess“politicsasusual”:singleparentsandpeoplewithalowsocioeconomicstatus,forexample.Overcomingculturalbarriers,includingtheexpectationsofpeoplewithdisabilitiesthemselves,isalsoimportant,hesaid.“Ithinkthereismoreofafearofparticipationthanactualbarriers,ananticipationthattherewillbebarriersandsocialdifficulties”(ibid.).Thissuggeststheneedtoencourageandsupportparticipationatthelocalentrylevel.

Table1:KeyfactsaboutdisabilityandpoliticsinfiveEuropeancountries

Country Employmentquota?1

%politicianswithdisabilities?2

Directsupportforpoliticiansw/disabilities?

Conflictreportedpoliticalworkandbenefitssystem?

Fundedsupportavailableatwork?4

Equalitieslawsapplytoelectedofficials?

Belgium 3% 1.3-1.44% N N Y YGermany 5% 1% N Y Y YFrance 6% 1% N N Y Y

Denmark n/a 1% N Y Y YUK n/a 1% Y3 Y Y N

1Quotaregardingaspecificpercentageofworkerswithdisabilitiesappliesto(some)employers.2Approximate,basedoninterviewsand/orpublishedsources,asnoofficialdataisavailable3Atthetimeofwriting,onlyinScotland,butEnglandannouncedthatitspreviouslyclosedAccessFundwouldberelaunchedin2019.4Inallcases,personalcareanddisability-relatedsupportislimitedandconditional.Denmarkmakespersonalcaresupportavailableatworkorwhenvolunteeringmoreeasilythanothers.

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Inclusionatpartylevel:Acasestudy

Onanotherpositivenote,theUKprovidedtheonlyexamplefoundduringthisresearchofconcertedactiontoimproveaccesstoapoliticalpartyforpeoplewithdisabilitiesthatspecificallyincludedactionsregardingcandidacyforoffice.DisabilityLabourisanindependentgroupwithintheLabourParty(therearesimilargroupsfocusedonLGBT,femaleandethnicminoritymembers):seehttps://www.disabilitylabour.org.uk.

FranSpringfieldisco-chairofDisabilityLabourandformerlocalcouncilmemberinSuffolk,withabackgroundinnursing.Shehasalsobeenacampaignorganiserandresearcherforothercandidates.SpringfieldwasinterviewedalongwithKathrynBole,LabourCouncillorforWhitton/Whitehouseandapartyactivist.Bole’sbackgroundwasinbusinessandDPOgovernance.BothSpringfieldandBolearewheelchairusersduetoconditionsthatlimittheirmobility.

Wespokenotlongaftertheautumnpartyconference,duringwhichthegovernanceofDisabilityLabourwascompletelychangedandtheorganisationeffectivelyrelaunched.“Inthelasteightweekswe’vebeeninpost,we’veprobablydonemorethanthepreviousleadershipdidinlasttwotothreeyears,”saidSpringfield.“Frommyperspective,theexecutiveasitwashadbeencompletelytakenoverbythefactthattheyweregettingaccesstotheupperechelonoftheparty.Thatbecamemoreofthefocusthandoingtheactualworkofbringingotherdisabledpeopleupalongwiththem.”Thiscommenthighlightsoneofthedangersofequalitycampaigns:ashassometimesbeenthecasewithcampaignsforwomenorminoritieswithinlargeorganisations,servingonequalitiescommitteescanbeacareer-buildingexercise.Personalbenefitandvisibilitycanleadcampaignersawayfromdoingthehardworkofrepresentingabroadergroup.

ThenewteamatthetopofDisabilityLabourseestheirroleas“toraiseawarenessoftheissuesthatdisabledpeoplehavecomingtothepartyandparticipating,”saidBole.“It’sstillfiledbygrey-hairedoldmen:theydon’tadoptthetechnology,they’renotasopentochange.AndIthinkthereisa‘politicalcorrectness’tabootoaskingpeopleaboutaskingpeoplehowtheirdisabilityaffectsthem.SoyouendupwithaMexicanstandoff,withonesideafraidtosayanythingandtheotherbeingnotheard.”

Bole,whohadpreviouslybeenactiveondisabilityissuesinhertradesunion,wassurprisedatthelackofknowledgeaboutaccessissuesintheparty.“Howmanyofthethingspeoplethinkaresimpleareholdingpeopleback–likedoor-knocking,”shenoted.“Ihappentouseapowerwheelchair,andthat’snotgoingtoworkverywell.[Tobeselectedasacandidate]intheLabourParty,youhavetogobeforeateamofpeople,yourlocalcampaignforum.Thefirstthingtheyaskishowmanydoorsyou’veknockedon,howmanyleafletshaveyoudelivered.”

DisabilityLabourarealsoworkingtoimprovesupportforcandidatesandappointees.Forexample,SpringfieldhassupportedthecampaignofMarshadeCordova,arecentlyelectedBlackMPwhoisblind.“She’sbeenanMPsincelastyear,andevennowtheHouseofCommonscan’tgetherpaperstoherontimeinordertobeabletoreadeverythingbeforedebatesstart,”shesaid.“Allsheneedsislargeprint,notBraille!TheydiditforDavidBlunkett,buthewasacabinetminister.”Workingasapoliticalappointeecanalsotriggeraccessproblems,sheadded.“YouhavetobefittoworkintheHouse!IwasaresearcherforanMP30-oddyearsago,Icouldwalk

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anydistanceyouwantedatthatpoint,”shesaid.“Thebuildingisincrediblyhardtogetaroundifyouhaveanyformofdisability,andifyou’reawheelchairuser,heavenhelpyou.LasttimeIwasthere,ittookmehalfanhourtogetfromthegatetowhereIwantedtobe.”

BoleandSpringfieldsaidthatimprovinginclusionforcandidates,electedofficialsandpoliticalappointeeswithinthepartyisnotjustaboutensuringthatpeoplehavesupportonthecampaigntrailorwithday-to-daytasks.Partyconferencesarewherealliancesaresolidified,internalleadershipdecisionsaremade,andpoliciesarefinalised.Forthisreason,improvingaccesstoconferencesisoneofDisabilityLabour’smaingoals.AttheSeptember2018conference,Bolesaid,conferenceorganisersarrangedforhertobeabletoattend(manypartyactivistsarenotinvited),listenedtoheradviceonaccessibilityandactionedherideas.“TheonlypossiblestickingpointIcanseeisdisabilitiesalongthelearningdifficultiesline,andalongtheautism,Aspergersandneurodiversityline,”shesaid.

Thisissuewashighlightedwhenaright-wingjournalistandcameracrewinvadedaquietroom(“safespace”)thathadbeensetupforsuchdelegatesandtweetedmockingcomments.DisabilityLabourapproachedthepartyexecutive,andthejournalist’spresscredentialswerepulled.Springfieldsaidshewassurprisedthattheirappealwassuccessful,andquickly.“There’sthislittlegroupofeightpeoplewhomakealltherulesforconference,andtheyareknowntobedinosaurs!Ithought,‘that’snotgoingtohappen,’butwehadfourwheelchairusers,andKathy’s[service]dog,andoneoftheautisticwomenwhowasmostaffected,”shesaid.Boltadded:“Wefoundoutthewaytogettothemwasbringthemchocolate–achocolatelab!Hewentaroundgreetingeveryone.Thedoghasmet[partyleader]JeremyCorbyn,butIhaven’t!”Thisstoryillustratesapointthatwasmadebyotherinterviewees:whenpeoplewithdifferentkindsofimpairmentscometogether,theyaremoreinfluentialthansingle-issuegroups.Whilethe“disabilityhierarchy”tendstodevaluepeoplewithdevelopmentalorintellectualdisabilities,cross-disabilitycoalitionworkcanmakesureeveryone’sneedsaremet.

SpringfieldandBoltbothnotedthattheAccesstoElectedOfficeFundisworkingonScotland,andmuchmissedinEngland,wheretheyhopeitwilleventuallybeextendedtocoverlocalandregionalracesaswell.Theyaddedthatthebenefitssystemcurrentlypresentsbarrierstoparticipationthatneedtobeaddressed.Localcouncillorsreceiveasmallallowancetocoverthecostsofundertakingpublicservice.Thismoneyisnotconsideredasalaryfortaxpurposes,sothosereceivingitcannotclaimWorkingTaxCredits.However,thebenefitsystemconsidersit“personalincome”andusesitasareasontocutmeans-testedbenefits.Thispolicyhasaparticularlyperniciouseffectonpeoplewithdisabilitiesandsingleparents,Springfieldsaid.

Springfieldalsopointedoutthatbenefitpaymenterrorscanleavelocalcouncillorsbehindontheirrentorcounciltax.Itisagainstthelawfordebtorstostandforoffice,andtheycanbesuspendedduetoarrearsifalreadyinoffice.

DisabilityLabourislookingcloselyatthepossibilityofdisabilityquotasforcandidates.“Inthestateitisnow,ifyouhadtwopeoplecomeinwhoputthemselvesforwardtoapanel,andonewasdisabledandcouldn’tcampaignasmuchastheother,theywouldfindawayofselectingtheotherone,”saidBole.”Mypersonalfeelingisthatthereshouldbedisabled-onlyseatsordisabled-onlyshortlists,”asthishasprovedhelpfultogetmorewomenintooffice.

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InclusionintheEUparliamentandEUgovernance

AsnotedbyBelgianMEPHelgaStevens,theEuropeanParliamentandrelatedEUinstitutionsstillhavesomewaytogoifcandidatesandpolicymakerswhohavedisabilitiesaretohaveequalaccesstothereinsofpower.AninterviewwassoughtwithÁdámKósa,currentlyservinghissecondtermasMEPforHungary’sEuropeanPeople’sParty(Fidesz.)Kósa,whomovedintopoliticsafterservingasheadofaHungarianNGOfordeafandhearingimpairedpeople,isdeafandcommunicatesviasignlanguage.ThisisanotherindicationthatDPOleadersdevelopskillsthatcanbevaluableinpoliticalcareers.Heprovidedwritteninformationtoinformthisresearch.

KósaandStevens,bothfromright-wingparties,havebeenactiveinpromotingbillsthatensuresignlanguageistreatedlikeallotherlanguagesintheEU.Kósahasmadethepointthataslongasdisabilityaccessisseenasa“left-wing”socialissue,peoplewithdisabilitiescanendupaspawnsinpoliticalgames.HefavoursandhasbeenactivelyworkingtowardsaEuropeanAccessibilityActthatwillharmonisepracticeacrosstheEU.HealsoadvocatesattachingaccessibilityregulationstoanyfundinggivenoutbytheEU,forexamplegrantsfromtheEUStructuralFund(Martinsson,2014).

UnlikeStevens,KósasaidhehasbeenabletoaccesssignlanguageinterpretationservicesheneedstosupporthisEUwork.Thisismainlybecauseaconflictbetween“EUBrussels”and“BelgianBrussels”introducescomplicationsforStevens(ibid.)Suchconflictsmayaffectpoliticiansandappointeeswithdisabilitieswhoreceiverecognitionoftheirdisabilityorservicesfromamunicipalityorstatewhentheybeginworkinginanation’scapital,aswellasthosewhomovetoanothercountry—forexample,totakeupapolicymakingpost.Whilesomedisability-relatedsupportsareportableacrossstateorevennationalborders(forexample,specialparkingpermitsforpeoplewithdisabilitiesthatareissuedbyEUstatescanbeusedthroughouttheEU),otherscouldbelostoronlyretainedwithextrapaperwork(Eichhorstetal.2010).

Theorganisationisalreadyinstitutingjob-sharingacrossitsmanagementgroup,andencouragechangestotheLabourPartyconstitutionthatwillmakethismorecommonacrosstheparty.Job-sharinginofficeisanideathatbothBoltandSpringfieldagreedon.

Finally,DisabilityLabourispushingthepartytoadopt“digitaldemocracy,”togivemorepartyactivistsaccesstoparticipationondistrictandnationallevelandtohelpoffice-holderswhohaveconditionsthatmaylimitmobilityorcausefatigue.“Iknowforme,whenwhileI’vebeenoffsick[asacouncillor]it’sduetopain,andIcan’tbeupforlongperiodsoftime,”Bolesaid.“ifIcouldbeacounsellorvirtually,Iwouldn’thavehadtohaveamotionputforwardthatIhadn’tattendedameetinginsixmonths.”(Personalcommunication,KatherynBoleandFranSpringfield,29October2018).

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DiscussionManycommonaltiescanbeseenintheaccountsofpoliticallifewithadisabilitysharedbytherespondentsforthisresearch,andtheirexperiencesdonotdivergegreatlyfromtheresearch,policybackgroundersandpersonalstoriesretrievedfromtheliterature.Inthissection,theresultsarediscussedinrelationtotheresearchquestions,andalsowithrelationtotheNetherlands.

Levelofparticipation

ArepresentativelevelofparticipationinpoliticsandgovernancewasnotfoundinanyEUcountry,andthereisnoreasontobelievethattheNetherlandsisdifferentinthisrespect.Thecountrieslookedatmostcloselyappearedtomakingsmallstepstowardsfosteringparticipation,andlinkscouldbeobservedbetweeninclusiveeducationandlaterinclusion.

Severalrespondentssaidthatgreatervisibilityofpeoplewithdisabilitiesinpoliticscouldhelptobringaboutsocietalchange.Thisincludesservingasrolemodelsforotherpeoplewithdisabilitiesandprovidinganexampletothegeneralpopulationofwhatpeoplewithdisabilitiescanaccomplishaswellasdirectpoliticalorpolicyinterventions.However,formanycandidatesorappointeeswhohavedisabilities,successrequirespracticalsupport.AstheBritishMPinterviewedsaid:“AnumberofmyconstituentswhomIrepresentaregladtohaveadisabledMPrepresentingthem…[but]mydisabilitymadebothmyelectioncampaignandmytimeintherolesincemyelectionharderthanitwouldbeforanon-disabledcandidateandMP.”

Participationstartswithvoting,partyvolunteeringandlocalraces,soattentionisneededtoensurethatpeoplewithdisabilitiesarewelcomedandsupportedatthislevel.Thereisclearevidencethatpeoplewithdisabilitiesexperiencebarrierstovoting,with30percentsayingtheyhaddifficultyvotinginthe2012PresidentialelectionintheUS(Gilbert,2016).ActionstakentostrengthenandsupportdemocraticprocesseswithinNGOs,suchasvisualvotingsystems,canbebuiltupontoimproveaccesstolocalandnationalelections.ConsideringUniversalDesignprinciplescanhelptomakespacesandmaterialsusedinpoliticalactivitiesaccessibletomost—althoughasneedsrelatedtoimpairmentscansometimesconflictwitheachother,attimespersonalsupportmayberequiredtoensureaccess.AnexamplefromtheUSistheinvolvementofDPOsinassistingpeoplewithdisabilitiestotakepartonthepoliticalprocess.TheDPODisabilityRightsIowa,forexample,receivesfundingundertheHelpAmericaVoteActof2002,whichitusestohelppeoplewithdisabilitiesintheirstateregistertovote,enterapollingplace(manyintheUSarenotfullyaccessible),casttheirvote,trainotherpeopleinhowtosupportdisabledvoters,andtesttechnologiesthatcouldhelppeoplevote(DisabilityRightsIowa,2018).TheHAVA2002includingfundingof3.9billionUSdollars,spreadacrossthe50USstates,toimprovetheirvotingproceduresgenerally.AlthoughHAVAfundinghassincerunout,effortstouseUniversalDesignprinciplestoimprovevotingaccesshavecontinued,includingfree,moreaccessible,open-sourcevotingsoftwarethatrunsonmultipleplatforms(Gilbert,op.cit.)Experiencingthiskindofbasicparticipationencouragestheformationofpoliticalambitionandactivity.

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Policiesaffectingpoliticiansandappointedofficials

Inmostcountries,asintheNetherlands,therewerenopoliciesthatspecificallyaffectedpoliticiansorpoliticalofficeholders.Francepresentedapartialexception,becausethestateusedfundingraisedfromfinesongovernmentemployerstofundrecruitment,developmentandotherservicesforpersonsinpublicservicewhohaveadisability.However,sofarthisprogrammehashadalimitedimpact.

TheAccessFundsinEnglandandScotlandlooktobeaverypositiveapproachtoensuringcandidateshavethesupporttheyneed,butfundingwasnotavailabletocandidatesatalllevels.TheEnglishfund,whichwasclosedandhasnotyetre-opened,supportedonlycandidatesatnationallevel.TheScottishfundsupportscandidatesatlocalandregionallevel,butnotfornationaloffice.

Benefitspolicieswerementionedbyrespondentsinfourcountriesashavingunintendedconsequencesforpoliticallyactiverecipients,andtheseweresaidbyfourrespondentstohaveblockedsomepeoplewithdisabilitiesfromrunningfororcontinuingtoserveinoffice.

Legalregulations,provisionsforoffice-holdersandquotas

Inmostcountries,therewerenolawsorregulationsthatspecificallyaffectedpoliticiansorpoliticalofficeholders,andthisisalsothecaseintheNetherlands.Generally,theywereabletobenefitfromgeneralanti-discriminationlaws.HeretheUKwasanoutlier,withpoliticalofficeholdersnotcoveredbytheEqualitiesAct.ThismeansthatintheUKthereisnodutyongovernmentstomakereasonableaccommodationsforelectedofficials.

Office-holdersinsomecountrieswereabletobenefitfrompubliclyfundedsupport(forexamplePAservicesofcommunicationsadaptations)whilecarryingoutpoliticalwork.However,thisaccesswasoftendescribedaslimitedoruncertain,andsomerespondentsdescribedconflictsbetweenfundersthatimpactedtheformandamountofsupporttheycouldhave.TheAccessFundinScotlandhashadagoodrecordofsuccesssofar,andEnglandhasrecentlydecidedtoreopenitsAccessFund.

Theestablishmentofquotasforcandidateswithdisabilitiesbypoliticalpartiesisapossibility,asmanypartiesnowoperateofficialorunofficialquotasforfemaleorethnicminoritycandidates.Forexample,inonecountry,Belgium,agender-basedquotawaslegallymandatedforthetopthreepostsinpartylists.TherearenoDutchpoliticalpartiesknowntohaveadisabilityquotaforcandidates.In2016,theLiberalDemocratsintheUKusedadisabled-onlyshortlistforthefirsttime,foraseatinanationalparliamentaryelection.Theparty,whichhadalreadyusedwomen-onlyshortlistsforsomeseats,hadagreedtotrythetacticatitsnationalconvention(Pring,2016).

Quotasapplicabletoemployers,includinggovernmentdepartments,forhiringpeoplewithdisabilitieswerefoundinsomecountries,butnotall(theNetherlandsdoesnothavesuchaquota:althoughtheParticipatiewetincludedprovisionsforinstitutingaquota,ithasnotyetbeentriggered.)Thesequotascouldaffectpoliticalappointees,indirectlyordirectly,whentheyapplytogovernmentemployers,politicalpartiesorNGOs/thinktanks.However,nonationalgovernmentsintheEUhadmettheirownquotas,norhavethemajorityofbusinessesinanyEUstatewithaquota.Basedonthisinformation,suchquotasdonotappeartobeeffective—butitisalsonotedthattherearemanyexceptionsavailableforcurrentnationalquotas,andfinesfornoncompliance(ifany)aresolowastoprovidelittleincentiveforemployers,includinggovernmentsandpoliticalparties.

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Job-sharingisapracticethatcouldbenefitmanyelectedofficialsorappointees,butisoftenblockedbypoliciesor,inthecaseofelectedoffice,bylaw.EUstates,includingtheNetherlands,ministriesandpoliticalpartiescanallfindpossibilitiestoinnovatehere.Job-sharinginappointedrolescouldbetrialledfirst,asitdoesnotrequirelegislativechange.Ministerscouldbeencouragedtoconsiderwhethertwopart-timeappointeescouldbringmoretoarolethanonefull-timeappointee.Thiscouldbroadenaccessnotonlyforpeoplewithdisabilities,butalsoforparentsandpeoplewithcaringresponsibilities.Aprecursorforsuccesswouldbetodevelopdisability-inclusivelistsofpotentialappointees,andpotentiallytoprovidesupporttodeveloppromisingindividualsintostrongcandidatesforappointedroles.Guidancetosupportmorediverserecruitmentforandjob-sharinginsuchrolescouldbecreatedanddistributed.

TheBelgianvertrouwenspersoonpolicyforelectedofficialswithadisabilityatlocalandprovinciallevelprovidesanotherpossiblewayforwardforelectedoffice.Inthissystem,onlytheofficialiselected,andthevertrouwenspersoonisselectedbytheofficialtoprovideassistance.SeeRecommendations,p.29,foradditionalsuggestions.

Asnotedearlier,thereisagroundswellofapprovalforjob-sharinginelectedofficeintheUK;itisalsobeingdiscussedbysomeScandinavianparties.OtherEUstateswoulddowelltoexaminetheFawcettSociety(Brothers,etal.,2017)reportandtokeepaneyeonfurtherdevelopments.

Barriers

ThebarriersobservedinneighbouringcountriesweresimilartothoseseenintheNetherlands,althoughculturaldifferenceswillplayapart.IncontrasttotheScandinaviancountriesandtheUK,whichhavehadmoreinclusiveeducationandanindependentlivingmovementforquitesometime,theNetherlandsismostsimilarinitsdisabilitypoliciesandpracticestoBelgium,GermanyandFrance.Thismeansthateducationiscomparativelylessinclusive,fewerstudentswithdisabilitiesattenduniversity,morepeoplewithdisabilitiesareinresidentialcareorotherwiseisolated,andamedical/professionalratherthansocial/humanrightsmodelhastendedtoprevail.

InBelgium,Germany,FranceandtheNetherlands,however,thissituationisbeingchallengedbypeoplewithdisabilities,includingpoliticians.Itwasnotablethatthischallengecomesfrompoliticianswithdisabilitiesontherightaswellastheleft,withacallforbarrierstosuccesstoberemoved.Wherepoliticianstendtodifferalongtheleft/rightaxisiswithregardstotheprovisionofpubliclyfundedservices—butheretoo,commongroundcanoftenbefound.

Itseemsclearfromtheresultsthatoneparticularbarrierthatshouldbeavoidedispermittingestablishmentofanoverlynarrowrouteintopoliticallife.Theover-representationofSciencesPograduatesinFrenchpoliticsandthesimilarroleplayedbyOxfordandCambridgeintheUKpresentcautionarytalesfortheNetherlands.

Businessleadershipisalsooftenaprecursortopoliticalleadership.Thispathwayisstymiedbythepoorrepresentationofpersonswithdisabilitiesinemploymentgenerally,andathigherlevelsofemploymentspecifically.AtEUlevel,fewerthanhalfofpeoplewithdisabilitiesareinemployment(Grammenos,etal.,2013),withemploymentlevelsintheNetherlandstheverylowestoverallraterecorded(7%).Overthepastfiveyears,anumberofnationalinitiativeshavebeeninitiatedtoaddressthisemploymentgapintheNetherlands.Asof2016,theyoungestgroup(personsaged25to45)hadthehighestrateofpaidemployment,at42%,butthiswillincludepersonsworkingonlyafewhoursperweekandthoseclassifiedasself-employed,whomayormaynotachieveaminimum

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wagethroughtheirwork.Themajorityareinlow-paidoccupations,suchashairdresserorcleaner,andtheyarelesslikelytohaveapermanentcontractthanworkerswithoutdisabilities(CentraalBureauvoordeStatistiek,2016).

Despitethesepooremploymentfigures,thereareindividualswithdisabilitieswhoholdgovernanceroles,orwhoareworkinginsectorswhereonemightexpectthatthereisapotentialtomoveintosuchroles.Forexample,theCBSreportindicatesthat3%ofthegroupwhoareinworkholdmanagerialroles,and4%-5%areemployedinthepublicsector.Asimilarpercentageworkintheeducation,technicalorbusinesssectors.AlthoughlargecompaniessuchasShellorPhilipsmayhaveinternalcampaignstorecogniseanddevelopthetalentofemployeeswithdisabilitiesaspartoftheirdiversitypolicies,theCBSstatisticsindicatethatthesecanonlyreachasmallnumber.

Anotherpathwayintopoliticalrolescomesthroughappointmentofpersonswithdisabilitiestopubliccommissions,manyofwhichareconcernedwithbusinessissues.DataonthenumberofpersonswithdisabilitiesinthesetypesofappointedrolesintheNetherlandscouldnotbefound,andmaynotbecollectedatthistime.However,a2018UKinvestigation(Holmes,2018)foundthat3%ofsuchappointeeswerepersonswithadisability,andlocatedanumberofbarriersintherecruitment,applicationandhiringprocesses.Crucially,commissionersneededtobepushedtowardsproactivity.Asonecontributortotheresearchstated,otherwise“peopletendtobetappedontheshoulderbypeoplewholooklikethem,actlikethem,areeducatedlikethem”(ibid.,p.21).Suggestionsweremadeonhowtoovercomethesebarriers,andthesehaveinformedtherecommendationsmadeinthisreport.

Rolesingovernance,androlemodels

AsintheNetherlands,itiscommonforpeoplewithdisabilitieswhoenterpoliticstoincludedisabilityissuesintheirportfolio.Thiswasespeciallymarkedforpoliticianswhocamefromadisabilityactivismbackground.However,someseemedtobewaryofover-focusingondisabilityissues,outofadesiretonotbepigeonholed,tofurthertheircareers,orbecausetheyhadstrongpoliticalinterestsinotherareasaswell.

Notmanypoliticianswereinterviewedwhojoinedthefieldafterexperiencinggovernancerolesinbusinessorsocietalorganisations,otherthanafewwhosebackgroundwaswithDPOgovernance.

However,thefactthatpeoplewithdisabilitiesinsuchgovernancerolesdoexistinallcountriesrepresentsanuntappedresourceforpartiesseekingexperienced,knowledgeablepotentialrecruitsforcandidacyorministrywork.Denmark’sKristianHegaardaddressedthistopicdirectly:

Firstofall,Ithinkyoungpeoplewithdisabilityneedrolemodels.Maybethereshouldbesomekindofquotaintheparties,ortalent-developinginyouthdisabilityorganisationswiththefocusonbecomingapolitician.(Personalcommunication,KristianHegaard,16October2018)

Thepeoplewithdisabilitieswhocurrentserveinpublicofficeorasappointedofficialstendtobeexceptionalover-achievers,andarethereforeexcellentrolemodels.AlthoughtheirnumbersarelimitedatnationalorEUlevel,thereisalargergroupofprovincialandlocalpoliticiansandpolicymakerswhoarealsomakingveryvaluablecontributions.Theseindividualsarelessvisiblethantheiroccasionalnationalcounterparts.Ifawaycouldbefoundtobringthemtogether,forexamplethroughparticipationina“thinktank,”theywouldalsorepresentafantastic“braintrust”forhowtorecruit,encourageanddeveloppoliticiansofthefuturewhohavedisabilities.

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Conclusionandrecommendations

Toconclude,thelevelofinclusioninpoliticallifeofpeoplewithdisabilitiesdoesnotmatchthepercentageofthepopulationwhoaredisabledinanyEuropeancountryinvestigated.Thereasonsforthisaremultifactorial,andsowillbeanysolutions.Peoplewithdisabilitiesmayfacesomewhatdifferentcultural,economic,supportoraccessbarriersinthevariousEUcountries,andwithindifferentregionsofthosecountriesaswell.

ThiswillalsoholdtruefortheNetherlands,whichisstillstrugglingwithacceptanceandenforcementofbasicpolicies,suchasinclusionineducationandemployment,thatleadtoacceptanceandawarenessinsocietyandawiderwindowofopportunitiesforpeoplewithdisabilities.Astheprevioussectionmadeclear,accesstoeducationandworkimpactaccesstopoliticalactivity.Thesamecanbesaidofphysicalandsocietalaccessibilityingeneral.

HavingratifiedtheUNCRPDquiterecently,however,theNetherlandsisinagoodpositiontolearnfromthesuccessesandmisstepsofitsneighbours,andtotrialthosestrategiesthatseemmostlikelytoimproveinclusion.Insomeareas,itisalreadyahead:whilecertainEuropeancountriesstilldenyvotingrightstopeoplewithsomedisabilities,theNetherlandsguaranteesuniversalsuffrage.Accesstovotingisconsideredthefirstlevelofpoliticalparticipation,withtheabilitytorunforofficefollowingonfromit(EuropeanUnionAgencyforFundamentalRights,2010).IntheNetherlands,thistooisarightprotectedfordisabledcitizens.However,forbothvotingandstandingforoffice,accessbarriersmayexist,andneedtoberemoved.Evidenceindicatesthatnotonlydoesvotingincreasepoliticalparticipationamongstpeoplefromdisadvantagedgroups,thepoliticalsuccessofpersonsfromthesegroupscanpositivelyimpactthelevelofvotingamongstitsmembers(Logan,DarrahandOh,2012).

Recommendations

First,robustandtrustworthydataneedstobecollectedatalllevelsofpoliticallife:local,provincial,nationalandEuropean.Withoutfirmnumbers,itisimpossibletogaugeprogresstowardsgreaterinclusionofpeoplewithdisabilities.ImproveddatacollectionthroughouttheEUhasalsobeencalledforbytheOSCEOfficeforDemocraticInstitutionsandHumanRights,whichstated:“Atthenationallevel,comprehensive,sex-andimpairment-disaggregateddataarenecessarytodirectimmediateaction,aswellastomonitor,andcorrectwhereneeded,interventionsandprogressachievedovertime”(OSCE/ODIHR,2017).Second,onlyonepoliticalpartywasfoundtohaveaquotasysteminplacetoencourageselectionofcandidatesorappointedofficialswhohavedisabilities,andithadonlyusedadisabled-onlyshortlistonalimitedbasis.Whethersuchaquotasystemwouldworktoencouragerecruitmentofsuitablyqualifiedcandidatesforofficeorotherpoliticalpostswoulddependverymuchontheattitudestowardsdisabilityheldbythemembersofthatparty.ThisisanissuethatpoliticalpartiesintheNetherlandsshouldbeencouragedtograpplewith.Aquotathatisdecidedonbythepartymembersthemselveswouldreflectastrongdesiretoimprovediversity,andprovideamechanismwithwhichtodoso.ItcouldbeusefulforpartyleaderstotalktotheircounterpartsintheUK’sLiberalDemocrats,forasfarastheauthorcantell,itissofartheonlypartyinEuropetoexperimentwithdisability-onlyshortlists.

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AlthoughsomeEUstatesdohavedisabilityemploymentquotasthatmighthaveanimpactonthedevelopmentandemploymentofpoliticalappointeeswhohavedisabilities,theseappearedtobelargelytoothlessandthereforeineffective.ShouldtheNetherlandswishtoinstitutesuchasystem,eithergenerallyorinrelationtogovernmentemployment,carewouldneedtobetakentoeliminateloopholesandsetfinesatalevelthatincentivisescompliance.Inaddition,governmentHRMdepartmentsmightneedextrasupportandguidancetoimprovetheirrecruitmentandsupportofemployeeswithdisabilities.Thesemeasurescouldhelpsomeappointedofficials,eitherdirectlyorbycontributingtotheirdevelopmentthroughearlieremploymentingovernment.Governmentsalsoneedtoremainalerttothedangerofbogusself-employment,whichcanleaveemployeeswithdisabilitieswithoutprotection.

Anumberofotherpracticesweredescribedintheliteratureorbyintervieweesthatcouldaddresssomeparticipationbarriers.IftheNetherlandswishestoimplementanyofthese,itwouldbeimportanttocarefullyresearchtheimpactofpilotschemestoensurethattheyareeffectiveintheDutchpoliticalclimate.AtleastsomeoftheseareareaswheretheMinisterievanBinnenlandseZakenenKoninkrijksrelatiescoulditselflaunchprogrammestoaddresstheissuesidentifiedinthisreport.Measuresthatmighthelpinclude:

• Leadershippotentialneedstoberecognisedandbuiltuponfromanearlyage.Fullinclusionineducationandworkarethefoundationsoffullinclusioninpoliticallife:itisfromthisbasisthatleadershipemerges.Inaddition,universitiesofferingpoliticalscience,governanceorsimilarprogrammesshouldactivelyseekqualifiedapplicantswithdisabilities,andensuretheyhavetherightsupport.(Higher)educationinstitutionsshouldalsoattempttoidentifyandnurtureemergingleaderswhohavedisabilitiesinallsubjects,astheseindividualscouldbethepolicymakersorministersofthefutureintheirareasofspecialism.

• Welcomingandsupportingpeoplewithdisabilitiesaspoliticalactorsattheentrylevel—asvoters,indebates,asmembersofpoliticalparties,ascampaignworkersandaslocalcandidates—isthebasisoffullparticipationathigherlevels.Severalbarrierstoparticipationwereidentifiedthatcanberemoved.

• Ensuringthatfundingforsupportisavailableforallwhoneedit,isnotmeans-tested,andcanbeusedwhileindividualsarecarryingoutpoliticalwork,campaigningorvolunteeringwithapartyorpoliticalorganisation.TheAccessFundcurrentlyrunbyScotlandandsoontoberestartedinEnglandprovidesapositiveexamplethatcouldbereplicatedinothercountries.

• Ensuringthatbenefitsystemrulesdonotcreatebarrierstoparticipation.• Mentoringschemesaimedatrecruitinganddevelopingpotentialcandidatesandpolitical

appointeeswithdisabilitiescouldbelaunched,eitherbystates,bypoliticalparties,bysocietalorganisations,orbypartnershipsoftheseentities.AEuropeanschemetodeveloppoliticalleadershipbypeoplewithdisabilitiesinallmemberstatescouldexpandtheimpactofthisconcept.Mentoringshouldnotberestrictedtoyoungpeople—peoplewithdisabilitieswhohavegainedexperienceingovernanceofcompanies,NGOsorDPOsareobviouscandidatesforpotentialcandidacyorpublicserviceinappointedroles.

• TargetedrecruitmentandsupportalongthelinesoftheFrenchFIPHFPlookslikeaverypromisingapproach.Supportcouldbepersonalisedordeliveredtospecificgroups.TheFrenchschemeisfundedfromfinesleviedonpublicemployersthatdonotmeetemploymentquotas,acreativeideathatcouldbesomethingofawin-winforpeoplewithdisabilitiesandemployersalike.Thiscouldhelptobuildthecareersoffutureandcurrent

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politicalappointeesastheygaincompetenceandgrowtheirnetworksthroughpublicservice.However,astheFrenchexampleshows,itneedstohave“teeth”tobeeffective.

• Job-sharinginpublicofficeandseniorpolicyrolescouldsolveproblemsforpeoplewithdisabilitieswhosestaminaisaffectedandforthosewithsensoryimpairments.Ithasbenefitsformanyotherworkersaswell,andfitsthecommonDutchpreferenceforpart-timework.Itcouldevenhelptoaddresscomplaintsabouttheimpossiblyhighworkloadsofsomepublicofficials.AstheFawcettSociety(Brothers,etal.,2017)reportindicates,however,therearecultural,proceduralandlegalissuestoworkout.Forappointeestheissueswouldbethesameasforotherhigh-levelemployeeswhowishtojob-share.Forelectedoffices,thejob-sharepartnerswouldhavetorunforofficeasateam,andtheteamwouldhaveonlyonevote.Wherethereisadifferenceofopinionwithintheteam,theteammighthavetoabstain.Ithasalsobeensuggestedthatanelectedjob-sharingteamcoulddividethejobtemporallyinavarietyofways(mornings/afternoonsorseasonally)orcoulddivideitbytask(e.g.workinthechamberandworkatconstituencylevel)(CampbellandChilds,2017).TheBelgianvertrouwenspersoonprovisionforelectedofficialswithadisabilityisadifferent,morelimitedformofjob-sharing,andcouldprovideaworkaroundforlegalbarriers.However,itwouldalsorequirelegalchange,andfunding.

• Politicalpartiesshoulddevelopatargetedstrategyforrecruitinganddevelopingpotentialcandidates,ataskinwhichtheycouldbehelpedbyindependentorganisations,suchasDPOs.TheUK’sDisabilityLabourcommitteeandtheEMILY’sListapproachoffertwo,potentiallycomplementary,modelsforimprovingrepresentationofpeoplewithdisabilitieswithinpoliticalparties.

• ADisabilityinPoliticsthinktankmightbeausefultoolatEuropean(ornational)leveltoensurethatbestpracticesarerecognisedanddisseminatedwidely.

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