Comparative analysis of microbiological and heavy metal

characteristics of tap and borehole water in owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

Keywords: Comparative, analysis, microbiological, heavy metal, tap, borehole, water.

ABSTRACT: The comparative analysis of microbiological and heavy metal characteristics of tap and borehole water in Owerri was carried out. The mean total aerobic plate count for the borehole water ranged from 2.48 ± 0.02 Log10cfu/mL to 2.58 ± 0.05 Log10cfu/mL while the tap water ranged from 2.00 ± 0.01 Log10cfu/mL to 2.42 ± 0.05 Log10cfu/mL. The mean coliform count for borehole and tap water ranged from 2.04 ± 0.02 Log10cfu/mL to 2.38 ± 0.10 Log10cfu/mL and 1.20 ± 0.03 Log10cfu/mL to 1.46 ± 0.30 Log10cfu/mL respectively. The mean fungal counts for borehole and tap water ranged from 1.95 ± 0.06 Log10cfu/mL to 2.20 ± 0.04 Log10cfu/mL and 1.65 ± 0.05 Log10cfu/mL to 2.24 ± 0.08 Log10cfu/mL respectively. The Escherichia coli, Salmonella-Shigella and Vibrio cholerae mean counts for both the borehole and tap water samples were 0 ± 0.00 Log10cfu/mL respectively. The microorganisms isolated were Proteus sps, Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella sps Geotrichum sps, Aspergillus sps and Fusarium sps. The mean values for arsenic, barium, cadmium, mercury and nickel in both the borehole and tap water were <0.001 ± 0.00mg/mL. The mean values for the other metals in borehole and tap water were Chromium, 0.008 ± 0.002mg/L and <0.001 ± 0.00mg/L; Copper, 0.230 ± 0.019mg/L and 0.194 ± 0.012mg/L; iron, 0.915 ± 0.010mg/L and 0.542 ± 0.090mg/L; lead, 0.004 ± 0.002mg/L and <0.001 ± 0.00mg/L; manganese, 0.111 ± 0.009mg/L and 0.092 ± 0.010mg/L and zinc, 0.420 ± 0.030mg/L and 0.272 ± 0.020mg/L respectively. The result showed that the water samples were contaminated and should be treated before consumption.

047-055 | JRPH | 2012 | Vol 1 | No 2

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www.jhealth.info

Journal of Research in

Public Health An International

Scientific Research Journal

Authors:

Eze VC1 and Okeke CO2.

Institution:

1. Department of

Microbiology, Michael

Okpara University of

Agriculture, Umudike,

PM.B.7267, Umuahia,

Abia State, Nigeria.

2. Department of

Microbiology, Madonna

University, Elele Campus,

Rivers State, Nigeria.

Corresponding author:

Eze VC.

Email:

mekus2020@gmail.com

Web Address: http://www.jhealth.info/

documents/PH0010.pdf.

Dates: Received: 15 Aug 2012 Accepted: 22 Sep 2012 Published: 30 Oct 2012

Article Citation: Eze VC and Okeke CO. Comparative analysis of microbiological and heavy metal characteristics of tap and borehole water in owerri, Imo State, Nigeria. Journal of Research in Public Health (2012) 1(2): 047-055

Original Research

Journal of Research in Public Health

Jou

rn

al of R

esearch

in

Pu

blic H

ealth

An International Scientific Research Journal

INTRODUCTION

Drinking water or potable water is the water

pure enough to be consumed or used with low risk of

immediate or long term harm. The water supplied to

households, commerce and industry in most developed

countries is all of drinking water standard, although only

a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in

food preparation. Water is essential for the survival of

all the organisms and has always been an important and

life-sustaining drink to humans. Water composes

approximately 70% of the human body by mass

excluding fat. It is a crucial component of metabolic

processes and serves as a solvent for many bodily

solutes. Drinking water with a variety of qualities is

bottled. Bottled water is sold for public consumption

throughout the world. Humans in most parts of the

world have inadequate access to potable water and use

sources contaminated with disease vectors, pathogens

or unacceptable levels of toxins or suspended solids.

Drinking or using such water in food preparation leads

to widespread acute and chronic illnesses and is a major

cause of death and misery in many countries. Reduction

of waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in

developing countries (Greenhalgh, 2001; USEPA, 2005).

The availability of water has become a critical

and urgent problem in many developing countries This

is a matter of great concern to families and communities

depending on non-public water supply system

(Okonko et al ., 2008). Increase in human population has

exerted an enormous pressure on the provision of safe

drinking water especially in the areas of the developing

countries (Umeh et al., 2005). There is a great variation

in the quality of water that comes out of our taps.

Depending on the country and the region, water comes

from different, sometimes mixed, sources - surface

water, underground sources or even desalinated

seawater, as is the case in the Middle East. It undergoes

disinfection and chemical treatments, such as chlorine

addition that affect the original taste of the water. The

processes and level of monitoring vary greatly

throughout the world. This water then flows through

pipes made of different materials that date from

different times and are hermetically sealed to varying

degrees, all of which greatly influence the quality of the

water that arrives in a home (Nestle Waters, 2009).

Unsafe water is a global public health threat, placing

persons at risk for a host of diarrheal and other diseases

as well as chemical intoxication (Hughes and Koplan,

2005; Agbabiaka and Sule, 2010). Unsanitary water

particularly has a devastating effect on young children in

the developing world. Nearly 90% of diarrhoeal related

deaths have been attributed to unsafe or inadequate

water supplies and sanitation conditions affecting a

large part of the world’s population.

The most common contamination of raw water

sources in most parts of the world is from human

sewage and particularly human faecal pathogens and

parasites. It was estimated in 2006, that waterborne

diseases cause 1.8 million deaths each year and about

1.1 billion people lacked proper drinking water. It is then

obvious that people in the developing world need to

have access to good quality water in sufficient quantity,

water purification technology and availability and

distribution systems for water. The only source of water

in many parts of the world are from small streams,

which are often contaminated directly by sewage (WHO,

2005; Hughes and Koplan, 2005; CDC, 2006, Ihejirika,

2011).

The principal objectives of municipal water are

the production and distribution of safe water that is fit

for human consumption (Lamikanra, 1999; Okonko

et al., 2008). Recently in Nigeria drinking water is

commercially available in easy-to-open 50-60mL

polythene sacks Known as sachet/pure water

Eze and Okeke,2012

048 Journal of Research in Public Health (2012) 1(2): 047-055

(Umeh et al., 2005). Confirmation with microbiological

standard is of special interest because of the capacity of

water to spread diseases within a large population.

Although the standard varies from place to place, the

objective is to reduce the possibility of spreading water

borne disease in addition to being pleasant to drink,

which implies that it must be wholesome and palatable

in all respects (Edema et al., 2001; Okonko et al., 2008,

Ihejirika et al.,2011). A collaborative interdisciplinary

effort to ensure global access to safe water, basic

sanitation and improved hygiene is the foundation for

ending cycle of poverty and diseases (Hughes and

Koplan, 2005).

The aim of this study is therefore to analyze the

microbiological and physicochemical characteristics of

borehole and tap water sources in Owerri municipal,

Imo State, Nigeria.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Collection of Samples

The water samples were collected aseptically

from 10 different boreholes and taps within the Owerri

municipality using sterile containers. They were

transported to the laboratory in an ice packed cooler

and immediately analyzed on reaching the laboratory.

Chemical Reagents

The chemical reagents employed in the study

were of analytical grade and were products of BDH

Chemicals, Pooles England and Sigma Chemical

Company St. Louis Missouri, USA. The microbiological

media used were products of Oxoid and DIFCO

Laboratories, England. They included nutrient agar used

for the estimation of total heterotrophic aerobic

bacteria, purification of isolates and for stock culture;

Sabouraud dextrose agar used for the isolation of fungi

and MacConkey agar for the isolation of coliforms,

eosin methylene blue agar for Escherichia coli,

Salmonella-Shigella agar for Salmonella-Shigella count,

thiosulphate citrate bile sucrose agar for Vibrio cholerae

count and Sabouraud dextrose agar for fungal count.

Enumeration of Total Heterotrophic Bacteria and Fungi

The borehole and tap water samples were serially

diluted in ten folds. Total viable heterotrophic aerobic

counts were determined using pour plate technique.

Then the molten nutrient agar, Sabouraud dextrose

agar, MacConkey agar, eosin methylene blue agar,

Salmonella-Shigella agar and thiosulphate citrate bile

sucrose agar at 45°C were poured into the Petri dishes

containing 1 mL of the appropriate dilution for the

isolation of the total heterotrophic bacteria and fungi,

Eze and Okeke, 2012

Journal of Research in Public Health (2012) 1(2): 047-055 049

Log10cfu/mL

Sample TAPC CC EC SSC VC FC

A 2.49 ± 0.03 2.04 ± 0.02 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.08 ± 0.27

B 2.58 ± 0.05 2.38 ± 0.10 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.20 ± 0.20

C 2.48 ± 0.02 2.32 ± 0.06 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.08 ± 0.22

D 2.52 ± 0.32 2.34 ± 0.20 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 1.95 ± 0.23

E 2.53 ± 0.04 2.26 ± 0.05 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.11 ± 0.07

F 2.45 ± 0.02 2.20 ± 0.05 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 1.95 ± 0.06

G 2.57 ± 0.08 2.34 ± 0.20 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.20 ± 0.40

H 2.51 ± 0.06 2.36 ± 0.02 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.04 ± 0.02

I 2.54 ± 0.20 2.28 ± 0.02 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.08 ± 0.09

J 2.56 ± 0.07 2.24 ± 0.02 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.18 ± 0.10

Legend: TAPC = total aerobic plate count; CC = Coliform count; EC = Escherichia coli count;

SSC = Salmonella-Shigella count; VC = Vibrio cholerae count; FC = Fungal count

Table 1 Mean Counts of Microorganisms isolated from Borehole Water Samples

coliform, Escherichia coli, Salmonella-Shigella and

Vibrio cholerae respectively. They were swirled to mix

and colony counts were taken after incubating the

plates at 30°C for 48 h and preserved by sub culturing

the bacterial isolates into nutrient agar slants which

were used for biochemical tests.

Characterization and Identification of Isolates

Bacteria isolates were characterized and identified

after studying the Gram reaction as well as cell

micro morphology. Other tests performed were

spore formation, motility, oxidase and catalase

production; citrate utilization, oxidative/fermentation

(O/F) utilization of glucose; indole and coagulase

production, starch hydrolysis, sugar fermentation,

methyl red-Voges Proskauer reaction and urease

production. The tests were performed according to the

methods of (Cheesbrough, 2005; Adeoye, 2007;

Agwung-Fobellah and Kemajou, 2007; Ochei and

Kolhatkar, 2007). Microbial identification was

performed using the keys provided in the Bergey’s

Manual of Determinative Bacteriology (1994).

Determination of Heavy Metals

The heavy metals of the borehole and tap water

samples were determined using Unicam atomic

absorption spectrophotometer (Model 969, Unicam).

RESULTS

The results of the microbiological and heavy

metal characteristics of the borehole and tap water

samples are shown in Tables 1 - 5.

The mean counts of the microorganisms isolated

from the borehole water samples are shown in Table-1.

The total aerobic plate count ranged from

2.48 ± 0.02 Log10cfu/mL to 2.58 ± 0.05 Log10cfu/mL

while the coliform count ranged from 2.04 ± 0.02

Log10cfu/mL to 2.38 ± 0.10 Log10cfu/mL. The fungal

count ranged from 1.95 ± 0.06 Log10cfu/mL to

2.20 ± 0.04 Log10cfu/mL. The Escherichia coli,

Salmonella-Shigella and Vibrio cholerae mean counts

were 0 ± 0.00 Log10cfu/mL respectively.

Table-2 shows the mean counts of the

microorganisms isolated from the tap water samples.

The total aerobic plate count ranged from

2.00 ± 0.01 Log10cfu/mL to 2.42 ± 0.05 Log10cfu/mL

while the Coliform count ranged from 1.20±0.03

Log10cfu/mL to 1.46 ± 0.30 Log10cfu/mL. The fungal

count ranged from 1.65 ± 0.05 Log10cfu/mL to

2.24 ± 0.08 Log10cfu/mL. The Escherichia coli,

Salmonella-Shigella and Vibrio cholerae mean counts

were 0 ± 0.00 Log10cfu/mL and has no count on it.

Eze and Okeke,2012

050 Journal of Research in Public Health (2012) 1(2): 047-055

Log10cfu/mL

Sample

TAPC

CC

EC

SSC

VC

FC

K 2.28 ± 0.03 1.30 ± 0.03 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 1.85 ± 0.06

L 2.35 ± 0.30 1.34 ± 0.05 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 1.95 ± 0.20

M 2.25 ± 0.04 1.28 ± 0.20 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.04 ± 0.30

N 2.00 ± 0.01 1.24 ± 0.04 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 1.90 ± 0.06

O 2.10 ± 0.02 1.46 ± 0.30 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 1.75 ± 0.10

P 2.22 ± 0.20 1.30 ± 0.08 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 1.65 ± 0.05

Q 2.30 ± 0.10 1.26 ± 0.10 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.00 ± 0.20

R 2.42 ± 0.05 1.22 ± 0.05 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 1.85 ± 0.40

S 2.40 ± 0.06 1.32 ± 0.22 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.24 ± 0.08

T 2.38 ± 0.20 1.20 ± 0.03 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 1.98 ± 0.06

Legend: TAPC = total aerobic plate count; CC = Coliform count; EC = Escherichia coli count;

SSC = Salmonella-Shigella count; VC = Vibrio cholerae count; FC = Fungal count

Table 2 Mean Counts of Microorganisms isolated from Tap Water Samples

The comparative mean counts of the

microorganisms isolated from the borehole and tap

water samples are shown in Table-3. The mean total

aerobic plate counts for the borehole and tap

water samples were 2.52 ± 0.09 Log10cfu/mL and

2.27 ± 0.21 Log10cfu/mL respectively. The coliform

count for the borehole water sample was

2.28 ± 0.07 Log10cfu/mL while the count for the tap

water sample was 1.29 ± 0.11Log10cfu/mL. The

Escherichia coli, Salmonella-Shigella and Vibrio cholerae

mean counts for both the borehole and tap water

samples were 0 ± 0.00cfu/mL and has no count in it .

The ANOVA, P < 0.05 showed that there is significant

difference in the total aerobic plate and coliform mean

counts for both the borehole and tap water samples.

The fungal counts for the borehole and tap

water samples were 2.09 ± 0.17 Lg10cfu/mL and

1.92 ± 0.15 Lg10cfu/mL respectively. The ANOVA,

P < 0.05 showed that there was no significant difference

in the mean fungal count.

Table-4 shows the microorganisms isolated and

their percentage of occurrence. The microorganisms

isolated and their percentage of occurrence in both the

borehole and tap water were Proteus sps, 46.7%

and 42.1%; Staphylococcus aureus, 16.7% and

26.3%; Klebsiella sps, 36.7% and 31.6%; Geotrichum sps,

31% and 36%; Aspergillus sps, 43% and 44%;

Fusarium sps, 24% and 20% respectively.

The mean values of the heavy metals in the

borehole and tap water are shown in Table-5. The mean

values for arsenic, barium, cadmium, mercury and nickel

in both the borehole and tap water were

<0.001 ± 0.00mg/mL respectively. The mean values for

the other metals in borehole and tap water were

Chromium, 0.008 ± 0.002mg/L and <0.001 ± 0.00mg/L;

copper, 0.230 ± 0.019mg/L and 0.194 ± 0.012mg/L; iron,

0.915 ± 0.010mg/L and 0.542 ± 0.090 mg/L; lead,

0.004 ± 0.002mg/L and <0.001 ± 0.00mg/L; manganese,

0.111 ± 0.009mg/L and 0.092 ± 0.010mg/L and zinc,

0.420 ± 0.030mg/L and 0.272 ± 0.020mg/L respectively.

DISCUSSION

The water samples were analyzed for the

presence of pathogenic and non pathogenic

microorganisms and heavy metals, which was used to

determine the level of contamination and the safety and

Eze and Okeke, 2012

Journal of Research in Public Health (2012) 1(2): 047-055 051

Log10cfu/L

Sample TAPC CC EC SSC VC FC

Borehole 2.52 ± 0.09 2.28 ± 0.07 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 2.09 ± 0.17

Tap 2.27 ± 0.21 1.29 ± 0.11 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 0 ± 0.00 1.92 ± 0.15

Table 3 The Comparative Mean Counts of Microorganisms isolated from the

Borehole and Tap Water Samples

Legend: TAPC = total aerobic plate count; CC = Coliform count; EC = Escherichia coli count;

SSC = Salmonella-Shigella count; VC = Vibrio cholerae count; FC = Fungal count

Microorganism No. of isolates

borehole water

No. of isolates

tap water

% Occurrence

borehole water

% Occurrence tap

water

Bacteria

Proteus sps 14 16 46.7 42.1

Staphylococcus aureus 5 10 16.7 26.3

Klebsiella sps 11 12 36.7 31.6

Fungi

Geotrichum sps 9 9 31 36

Aspergillus sps 13 11 43 44

Fusarium sps 7 5 24 20

Table 4 Microorganisms isolated from the Borehole and Tap water and their percentage occurrence

suitability of the water for human consumption

(Geldreich, 2000; Agbabiaka and Sule, 2010). The high

microbial counts showed that the borehole and tap

water were polluted. The coliform values were very high

and therefore were above the WHO limit for drinking

water of 0MPN/100mL. The presence of coliform is

suggestive of human faecal contamination which may

be as a result of seepage into the broken water pipes

and the boreholes. Coliforms are known to be the most

widely used indicator organisms to determine the level

of faecal pollution of the water system. It is also an

indication of inadequate treatment or post-chlorination

system (Okafor, 1999; Agbabiaka and Sule, 2010). The

few microbial species isolated from the water samples

may reflect depth and types of materials on the passage

routes, the dissolved salt and general human activities

especially those bordering on waste disposal system

(Yates, 1985; Agwung et al., 2006). The consistent high

level of total coliform and other microbial counts is an

indication of poor microbiological quality of the water

samples. It has been observed that sterile water devoid

of microorganisms rarely exists except in the laboratory

(Ogbulie and Akujiobi, 2006).

The isolation of these bacteria in the water

samples is an indicative of feaces or related pollution

that may result from poor sanitary conditions especially

during harvesting packaging storage and transport of

the product. Staphylococcus aureus is a normal flora of

the body and mucous membrane and a common

aetiological agent of septic arthritis (Ellen and Sydney,

1990; Eze et al., 2008). The consumer is at risk of

acquiring food borne diseases. Staphylococcus aureus is

the major cause of staphylococcal food poisoning. The

poisoning is characterized by diarrhea and vomiting

(Singleton, 1995; Frazier and Westhoff, 2004; Eze et aI.,

2008). The higher load of this organism in tap water

than in borehole water samples may be as a result of

handling of the taps and washing of hands or other parts

of the body on the taps by individuals who carry it on

their bodies as normal flora thereby leaving the

organism on the surfaces of the taps.

The fungi isolated showed that fungi could

survive in water, which agrees with the finding that

almost all classes of fungi have representatives in water

(Okafor, 1999; Agwung et al., 2006).

The heavy metal contents of both the borehole

and tap water with exception of iron were within the

WHO limit of potable water (WHO, 2006). The

accumulation of this metal in the water should be

minimized to avoid the toxic effect on human and other

animal species. It was observed that the value of the

iron was higher in tap water samples than in borehole

water samples. This may be attributed to the corrosion

of iron or steel pipes or other components of the

plumbing system where the acidity of the water

measured as pH is below 6.5. The reddish brown

Eze and Okeke, 2012

052 Journal of Research in Public Health (2012) 1(2): 047-055

Parameter Borehole water Tap water WHO Standard

Arsenic (mg/L) <0.001 ± 0.00 <0.001 ± 0.00 0.01

Barium (mg/L) <0.001 ± 0.00 <0.001 ± 0.00 0.7

Cadmium (mg/L) <0.001 ± 0.00 <0.001 ± 0.00 0.003

Chromium (mg/L) 0.008 ± 0.002 <0.001 ± 0.00 0.05

Copper (mg/L) 0.230 ± 0.019 0.194 ± 0.012 1-2

Iron (mg/L) 0.915 ± 0.010 0.542 ± 0.090 0.3

Lead (mg/L) 0.004 ± 0.002 <0.001 ± 0.00 0.01

Manganese (mg/L) 0.111 ± 0.009 0.092 ± 0.010 0.1-0.5

Mercury (mg/L) <0.001 ± 0.00 <0.001 ± 0.00 0.001

Nickel (mg/L) <0.001 ± 0.00 <0.001 ± 0.00 0.02

Zinc (mg/L) 0.420 ± 0.030 0.272 ± 0.020 3.0

Table 5 Mean values of the Heavy Metal Characteristics of the Borehole and Tap Water Samples

precipitate or particles that appear and settle to the

bottom of the tap water is as a result of the presence of

dissolved ferrous iron. It also gives water a disagreeable

metallic taste. The use of more resistant

polyvinylchloride pipes to avert the problem is

recommended (Eze and Okpokwasili, 2008; Kiely, 1998;

Quinn, 2010).

All the sampled water was contaminated with

microorganisms and the levels of contamination were

above the maximum permissible limits of World Health

Organization (WHO, 2004). It then follows that these

waters, not potable as water intended for human

consumption should be free from colour, taste,

hardness and microbial, chemical and other physical

contaminants (Nwaugo et al., 2006; Okoli et al., 2005).

Tap water should be regulated by law and treated to

guarantee that it meets certain health criteria and

should not be considered always suitable for drinking as

the case in many developing countries. Several types of

domestic filters are sold to that improve the

characteristics of tap water. Depending on the type of

filter, the protection it provides represents a more or

less reliable barrier against chemical, mineral or

bacteriological elements. Regular maintenance of this

sort of equipment is crucial to prevent the growth of

bacteria (Nestle Waters, 2009).

It is therefore the responsibility of the

government and the governed to see to the provision of

safe, clear and potable water. The essence is to improve

the public health standard of the people, which will

increase productivity, efficiency and improved social

status, but will result in low medical cost, reduced

mortality rate and economic loss.

CONCLUSION

The increase in the rate of indiscriminate

dumping of refuge, sewage disposal and other human

activities has lead to the contamination of our drinking

water systems. These activities are of public health

importance because of the diseases associated with

such dumping. It is therefore necessary that all these

activities should be controlled so that our drinking water

is always be potable.

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