CHAPTER - 111

COMMUNICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF

KERALA

Communication of Environmental Problems of Kerala

Exposure to ecological dangers becomes possible only when people communicate

about the problems like the pollutic,n of rivers or deforestation of the land etc.' The

one permanent factor in communic:ation is commonality requiring a shared social

relationship to facilitate social interaction.* When such a communication takes place,

the dangers in the environment are addressed and resolved collectively. It is not merely

the 'transfer' of information, but the social practice of knowledge. Therefore, ecological

communication is designated as an independent** operation that combines knowledge

and action into an emergent unity, with which the society resolves problems and

generates further communication.^^ Effective communication is the selling of the

concept of environmental conservation through social interaction to a variety of people

from varied backgrounds. If the conlmunication process is faulty, then everything else

can be affected? With this ideal in mind communicative efforts around the environmental

problems of Kerala have to be examined. This involves more than just the spoken

word: the use of gimmicks, catchy slogans, attractive visuals and various other means,

and even a nod, a smile or a movemr:nt can convey a myriad of feelings. As a major part

of an awareness-raising campaign, the traditional methods of mass communication such

as folk theatre, music and dance, puppetry, etc. as used by KSSP are more effective

than interpersonal and group comm~nication.~ They are less expensive and very effective,

for they reach out far and wide in a direct personal way. These methods have been

traditionally responsible for social change. In the twentieth century, the word

communication has transcended its original meaning. The rapid development of modem

methods of mass communication including the print media, telegraph, telephone,

* In this connection it may be noted that the word communication itself is derived from the Latin'communics', meaning common. Commonality of synibols and culture can alone create a receptive environment for communication.

* * N. Luhmann uses the term 'autopoietic' for this independent operation, which is extensively dealt with in chapter I I. Autopoiesis is the mode of reproduction ~ f a l i the elementary components out of which they arise by means of a network of these elements and in this way ilistinguish themselves from an environment.

photography, radio and television and more recently, the computer and internet, has

changed attitudes and even cultural symbols, clubbed under the term 'mass media'. They

are more effective, but limited in feetiback.

Communicative Rationality about Environmental Problems of Kerala

The total area of Kerala is 38,855 sq.km. of which the net area sown is 21,898

~ q . k m . ~ The population of the State is around 30 million, so much so, the per capita

cultivated land is only about 0.08 ha. The average number ofdwellings per sq. km. is

about 1 10. Compared to the national average, one unit of land in Kerala has to sustain

3.6 times population and as a result every unit of land has to produce 3.6 times more

food and biological mass6 These figures indicate the magnitude of the population

problem and the pressure of the population on the land and other natural resources of

the State, which manifests itself ~ I I the nature of encroachment into the forests,

reclamation of wetlands for food prclduction, intensification of agricultural activities

and the adoption of modem technology to increase productivity.' Increase in population

coupled with rapid urbanization and industrialization and consumerism, without due

regard to environmental considerations, have led to extensive pollution of air, water

and land.8 The raw materials consumed during these activities has resulted in the

dwindling of non-renewable resources and accumulation of wastes. These wastes are

indiscriminately disposed of and as a consequence the water, air and land become more

polluted. Added to these, the recurten? drought and water scarcity, sand mining resulting

in the death of rivers and rivulets, change in land use pattern leading to severe soil

erosion, depletion of biodiversity, increasing incidence of natural disasters like earth

quakes, landslides and so on are undermining the once serene and splendid environment

of this 'God's own land'. All these environmental problems have become the focus of

much media and public attention in recent years? To list all these environmental problems

would take pages to explain them all and detail their causes, significance, and

ramifications of each would take volumes. Environmental organizations have found it

easier to categorize the major problems into broad headings. The most commonly cited

environmental problems of the State and those which are peculiar to certain areas, are

presented through the reports of the Kerala State Legislative Assembly, media reports

and scientific institutions and NGOr;.

119

Reports of the Kerala State Legislative Assembly Committee on Environment

111 the context of escalating c:nvironmental problems, the Kerala Government

State Assembly initiated its enviror~mental activities and formed an Environmental

Committee to study the environmental problems of the State and suggest remedial

measures. The rules for its formation came into effect on 241h July 1992 and the

Committee was established on 27Ih July 1992. The aims and objectives of the Committee

are mainly to understand the nature of environmental issues such as water pollution, air

pollution, sound pollution, industrial pollution, vehicular pollution and problems related

to deforestation and hospital waste disposal etc. and to measure the extent of imbalance

created by them in the environment so as to take action to prevent such problems and to

regularly monitor the activities of the various departments of the state, boards and

industries." The Committee will report to the State about the projects implemented,

structural progress of departments, reduction in administrative expenditure, efficiency

etc. as per the provisions by studying the activities of various departments and boards

related to environment, the amount of money spent by them and the appreciation and

achievement made by them. The Environmental Committee as part of its hnction also

receives representations from people regarding environmental problems and after

scrutinizing the same, sends them to related agencies and recommends to the government

to take immediate action on such environmental problems.''

1) Report on the three fresh water lakes of Kerala

Lakes are an important, but: often ignored component of river systems. There

are 34 lakes in Kerala. Of these, the Legislative Environment Committee studied the

environmental problems relating 1.0 the three fresh water lakes of Kerala namely

Vellayani Kayal (Thiruvananthapu~am), Shasthamkotta Kayal (Kollam), and Pookkod

Thadaka~n (Wayanad) and submitted their first report on Feb 2"* 1993.12 The Committee

found that these fresh water lakes face a number of adverse environmental impacts due to

many factors such as draining the water from the lake, reclamation of low lying areas for

agriculture, increasing the depth of the lakes due to siltation as a result of soil erosion,

using the lake areas for building houses, construction of bunds in the lakes for pisciculture,

growth of algae in water, pollution th~ough fertilizers, chemicals from agriculNre and

letting wastes in to the lakes. The report, prepared after examining all the available

information and holding discussions with Government employees and public, included

37 recommendations to rectify tht: adverse environmental impacts. The major

recommendations were, deepening the bottom areas by removing the silt, eviction of

illegal settlers form the lake areas, entrusting the administrative control of the lakes to

Irrigation Department and constituting a Committee consisting of the District Collector

as the Chairman and members f?om Fisheries, Forests and Water Authority for integrating

their works.13 The Committee also suggested taking measures to prevent waste from

letting into the three lakes in order to maintain them free from pollution.

2) Report on Mining by a Public Sector Industry.

Mining and mining industry. put together, could cause irrevocable damage to

environment. This has happened in Kerala in spite of its lower capital-intensive mineral

based industries. There are several industrially important mineral deposits of different

origin in abundance in the State. As a case study, we take apublic sector industry namely

Kerala Clays and Ceramics Products Ltd. which makes use of the clay deposits. Eight

MLA's under the Chairmanship of Sri. K.P. Noorudeen prepared this report, in response

to a complaint received from a cettain Anamtham Nambiar, President of Madai

Sri.Vadakunna Shivkshetra Committee about the environmental problems arising out

of mining by the public sector company (Kerala Clays and Ceramic Product Ltd) situated

at Madaiparampil in the Kannur district. The Committee visited the place and held

discussions with the employees and the public and the report was presented to the

Legislative Assembly on 3* March 1934. It contained 39 recomtnendation~.~~According

to Metalliferous Mines Regulations, 1961, blasting shall be done in such a manner as

approved by the Chief Inspector of M~nes, so that flying fragments from blasting should

not project beyond a distance of 10 meters from the place of firing.15 But the company

management had held that the mines do not blast within the danger zone (300 meters

from the firing of shots). However the Committee recommended that since the topsoil

accumulated as a result of mining should be removed from the area as and when they

are formed, as it will create environmental problems by flying fragments and dust to a

far distance. And the deep pits formed as a result of mining should be filled as and

when they are formed. The Committee also recommended that since the dirty water

from the mines pollute the nearby wells, urgent measures should be taken to stop

this. Since there were no clear-cut instructions about the distance from the temple

where mining should be done, an expert Committee should study and give

recommendations to make sure that environmental problems of any sort are not

created. However, there are still several such quarrying activities in the State whose

environmental impacts of very serious nature remain unnoticed, or even if brought to

notice, are often neglected.16

3) Report on Deforestation in Different Parts of Kerala

Kerala's forest resources are under the severest stress. It is diminishing so

fast that within the next 50 years, the quantum of forest and related natural resources

will reach a level much below the minimum required for sustaining life. According to

the Forest Survey of India's report for 1993, the 'effective forest cover is 9,400 sq. km

(including original forests and plantation forest) which comprise only about 24.2 per

cent of the State's area.'' Experts, however, put the real figure at somewhere between

five to twelve per cent. The total area under rain forests in the world comes to about

7 14 million hectares. Of that, Kerala's share is only 0.35 million hectares. The critical

nature of the remaining forests is evident from this alone. Blame it on high population

density, flawed State decisions in opening up for cultivation, artificial fires and

corruption even among the law enforcing agencies in encouraging illegal encroachments,

the deforestation has been relentles~.'~As forests are destroyed, the suitability of the

habitat for their wild animals is also seriously jeopardized, with the result that a number

of forest animals have become scarce if not extinct.I9 Moreover this has skewed the

rainfall pattern, substantially reducing the water in its rivers, creating a drought condition

even in traditionally water rich areas. Sustained development of the forest resources of

Kerala would call for a rational and dynamic approach, which among other things should

include management of existing natural forests for non destructive uses such as

conservation of biodiversity, rehabilitation of degraded natural forests through

protection and care, promotion of'agroforestry and social forestry for meeting local

needs and promotion of effective people's participation in all types of forest activities,

particularly plantation fore~try.~"

To maintain a balanced environment and optimum climate, the total area of

forest should cover 30% of its land surface. Statistics reveal that in India this is only

19.7% at present. In Kerala althou:<h the forest cover is believed to be 24%, the

increasing deforestation has been adversely affecting its climate and balanced

environment since last two decades.ll Using the loopholes in the Forest Act of 1986,

forests are being depleted by illegal telling and encroachments by the powerful forest

Mafia. But today in different parts of Kerala the public has come forward to raise

objections through direct action movements against illegal tree felling and deforestation.

These public protests are raised particularly by NGOs, scientists and Nature lovers

through public statements and newspaper writings. Since the problems related to

deforestation are identical in almost all parts of Kerala, three such areas namely

Jeerakappara - Achankovil area, Nelliampathy in Kavilpura and Sabarimala which are

investigated by the Legislative Assembly Committee on Environment are considered

here as case studies.

A report was prepared under the Chairmanship of Sri. K.P. Noorudeen when

some well-known environmentalist!; like Sugathakumari and K.V. Surendranath gave

their representation to the Environment Committee. Mr. V.D. Joseph, President of the

Kodaicheri Panchayat and Convener of Western Ghat Forest Conservation Society had

earlier stated in his representation that by releasing 540 acres of dense forest to private

individuals, one of the most beautiful tourists centres, Thuasharagiri was under threat.22

It was also pointed out that Chembukadavu Mini Electric Project will also be affected

by that. The Environment Committee met and held discussions with all the parties

concerned. The Committee's report including 39 recommendations was submitted to

the Government on 2nd August 1999. Some of the major recommendations were: (1)

Make modification of the existing laws particularly 2(2), 3(3) Forest Prevention Act

of 1921, because the trees were being lost through loopholes of these laws.23 They

also suggested that Section 5 of the Kerala Tree Protection Act (1986) should be

amended to plug the loopholes of the law. (ii) About the felling of trees in Jeerakappara,

the Committee expressed its shock on learning that the illegal felling of trees was

done with the knowledge of the Forest officials and under police protection. The

Committee therefore recommended that all encroachers and squatters should be evicted

from the illegally occupied areas ant1 that a detailed inquiry should be made about the

felling of trees in this area (Fig. 3).*

4) Report on Destruction of Forests in Nelliampathi

In the wake of several complaints received, it was also a matter ofconcern for

the LEC regarding the ongoing destruction of forests in Nelliampathay.24 Its report

containing 18 recommendations was submitted on 291h July 1997. Nelliampathy, a tourist

centre resplendent with congenial weather, is situated in the Western Ghats at a height

of 1500 meters above the sea level.* * It was the green forests in the eastern region of

Nelliampathy that stopped the dry wind coming from Coimbatore plains and maintained

the total temperature of Kerala balanced. But the private estate owners under the guise

of cultivation have destroyed the 'wind belts'. There are about 9100 acres of land at

Nelliampathy known as1LeasedEstate', leased by the Government but the actual extent

of land possessed by the planters at Nelliampathy has not been measured and estimated.

In the context of large-scale destruction of the forests by private estate owners,

encroachers and illegal truncations, tqe Committee strongly recommended urgent steps

to preserve the forest sector including necessary legal action to cancel the lease and

pattayam (title) and to take back the forest lands which were given on lease.*** The

Committee records its strong dissa~isfaction over the present system of conducting

the cases and recommends that in order to protect the interests of the State in the

forest cases, efficient government advocates should be engaged and their functioning

assessed periodically and that stringent penal action may be taken against those

government officials who failed to take over the forestland, the lease periods ofwhich

already expired. It has become extrc:mely necessary to protect the trees for regulation

In response to a specific representation from Smt. Sugathakumari, the Committee enquired into the illegal felling of Trees of Achankovil Forest Division. The contractor in this area in the name ofdry, dead and diseased and falling trees removed about 25,000 big trees. This was done at a time when selection felling had been already stopped. ~.

** The Adivasis who claim to be the real landowners comes to 15% of the total oo~ulat ion in this area soreadine over - about 576,54 sq Km. This hilly region assumes a pivotal position in hiodiversiiy of Kerala. Rarest okrare orchids, wild thippaly, wild pepper, wild coconut tree:; and a variety of rarest creatures are also seen here.

***"Trees are the royalty of Government. Nobody shall have the right to cut down any tree". The Committee recommends that such provision may also be included in the Kerala Preservation of Forests Act.

124

Fig. 3: Distribution of Forests given in 'The NaturalResources ofKerala: WWF Thiruvananthapuram, 1997, Page 426.

of weather, prevention of soil erosion and to increase the fertility of soil. So the

Committee recommended that new trees should be planted where they had been

It also recommended prohibition of the hunting of birds, lion tailed monkey, presbyters

w~ld squirrel, horn bill, the great horn bill, owl hawk, wild fowl, pangolin, varanus and

wild hog which are endemic to this .3rea. It was also recommended that the public men

giving information regarding the unauthorized felling and removing of trees and the

officers adopting stringent measures to prevent destruction of forests should be

encouraged by giving cash awards.

5) Report on Deforestation in Kavilumpara and Maruthomkara Panchayat

Another typical case taken up by the LE Committee, in response to a number

of representations from people, voluntary agencies and MLAs like Mr. M. Dasan and

Mr. Satyan Mokery was the indiscriminate deforestation at Kavilumpara and

Maruthomkara Panchayat in the Kczhikode district. There were widespread complaints

from the public that the acute shortage of drinking water and frequent occurrence of

landslides in the area were due to cleforestation. The Committee visited the area and

was convinced that large-scale deforestation was going on depleting 300 acres of forest

land in Meenpatty and Mulakumtho~tam area alone. The report of the Committee headed

by Prof. A.V.Thamarakshan submitted on Sh August 1998 contained 11

re corn mend at ion^.^^ A major con~.ention of the report was that the existing rules,

regulations and laws were not adequate for protecting the forests. This has been clearly

reflected in many court verdicts. In its verdict OP No. 202195 Supreme Court has

categorically mentioned the necessity of Section 11 and its strict implementation. The

loopholes of the Forest Act should be plugged. The Forest land owned by private

individuals in the controversial area should be immediately taken back. Some of the

forest officials and Police Circle Ir~spector who were helping the forest mafia should

be brought under the law, the Committee recommended. The Committee was convinced

that effective protection of forests would be possible only by creatingproper awareness

among the public and by involving people's participation and NGO activism.

6) Report on Environmental Pollution a t Sabarimala and nearby places during

Pilgrimage Season.

River Pampa runs through Sabarimala, which is a serene forest area, located

about 1200 feet above sea level. Second only to Periyar River, Pampa is one of the

most polluted rivers because of the disposal of waste by pilgrims, particularly during

the seasons. Lack of clean drinking water, frequent electricity interruptions during the

night, heavy rush of pilgrims, insufficient medical facility, deforestation, and lack of

road facilities etc. add to the intensity of pollution. Periyar Tiger Reserve, which is a

part of the forest area, is also under theat. Because of the steep gradient through which

pilgrims travel to reach the temple, a number of people die every year due to heart

failure. The Kerala Legislative Cominittee on Environment, headed by Mr. George J.

Mathew in its report submitted on 17 October 200 1 recommended that a cardiac unit

with all necessary facilities and instruments should be immediately installed and the

Erumeli Community Health Centre should be converted into a hospitaL2' Cleanliness,

which should be the hallmark of a pilgrim centre, is totally lacking in these areas. The

major reason for this environmental problem is indiscriminate disposal of human

excreta. So the Committee suggested that a modem sewage treatment plant should be

installed to remove human excreta and other wastes. The KLCE, in its Pd report about

the environmental problems of Sabarimala submitted on July 2002 noted that another

important environmental problem of this area was plastic pollution.28 The report insisted

that steps should be taken to remove :he leftover plastic containers, plastic bottles and

cany bags and prevent the pilgrims from bringing the plastic into the area. The

Committee also recommended that incinerators should be installed in Sabarimala and

Pampa region and waste materials should be removed as and when produced. It noted

that the biological balance of the forest area was in danger.* The Committee suggested

that a long-term master plan was necessary for solving the environmental problems at

Sabarimala and its surrounds. The colnmittee regretted that pollution control measures

suggested by three previous reports are not implemented in full.29 Although the

* More than 3 crores of people from different parts of lndia teach Sabarimala every year. Nowhere else in lndia such a large number ofpeople visit in a short period of tinie, the heavy rush during seasons produceda variety ofenvironmental problems. Two environmental committees, one .n 1995 under the Chairmanship of Sri. K.P. Nurdheen and the other under the chairnmnship of Prof. A.V. Thamarakshan in 1998 studied the problem in detail and presented appropriate recommendations. Again an interim repon was submitted on 17' October 2001.

Travancore Dewasam Board is the main agency responsible for dealing with all these

problems, an integrated approach of different agencies was recommended as highly

essential. The committee noted that pure drinking water should be made available to

pilgrims and the money sanctioned by HUDCO may be utilized.

7) Report on the Rudravanarn Project (1993-1995)

The Rudravanam project was a Government sponsored scheme for creating

basic facilities for the increasing number of pilgrims who reach Sabarimala every year.

The project was originally proposed to be implemented on hundred hectares of forest

land just half a kilometer away from the Sabarimala temple where forty-five story

building with car parking facilities, shopping complex and approach roads were planned

for construction. Rudravanam is the only few remaining biologically unique natural

forest that came into existence through hundreds of years of evolutionary process in

the 'Periyar Tiger Reserve Area'. It is a biological treasure because of the richness of

biodiversity existing in this area since time immemorial. Severe criticism and

controversy followed as soon as the Rudravanam Project (1993- 1995) was proposed,

for construction work in this area would lead to deforestation and impairment of

biodiversity, leading to severe environmental problems. This is also the ecosystem

consisting of many species on the verge of extinction such as Malabar Squirrel, Nilgiri

Langur, Great Indian Horn Bill etc.'O In the wake of such a controversy, as directed by

the Kerala High Court, the Kerala Government appointed a Committee under the

Chairmanship ofprof. A.V. Thamarakshan MLA and 7 other MLAs to study the problems

in detail and suggest remedial measures. The Committee met nine times and visited

the place twice and took evidence from several people including Scientists, NGOs and

Government Secretaries, related CIF's, environmentalists, the pilgrims and Devasom

Board members and others. Questionnaires were sent to different sections of people

about the project and their opinions were collected and reports from STEC, CESS,

Additional Chief Secretary, etc werc: invited. On the basis of their sh~dy, an interim

report was submitted on 4Ih July 1995.:" Subsequent to this, a complete report explaining

all the problems relating to provisiol~ of facilities was prepared and presented to the

128

Government on 8lh August 1995. The report contained 16 recommendations.* The

Conlmittee came to the conclusion that Rudravanam project was prepared in a huny

without proper study and the project , ~ o u l d help only anegligible number of pilgrims,

that even at a heavy environmental cost such as deforestation, land slide, biodiversity

loss, total disappearance of some species on the verge of extinction, further pollution

and disruption of ecological balance.32 So the Committee suggested the creation of a

detailed new Master Plan taking into account the environmental problems likely as a

result of the Rudravanam project.

8) Report on the Crematorium in Municipal Corporations

A report prepared by the Environment Committee chaired by Sri. K.P.

Noorudeen MLA about the environmental problems created by the crematorium of

three Municipal Corporations (Trivandrum, Kochi and Kozhikode) was presented on

1 1"' August, 1994. The members ofthis Committee visited all the towns and obtained

the views of the public and political parties and held discussions with the employees of

the Government Depa~ t rnen t~~ The enquiry was mainly centered on the crematorium

of these three Municipal Corporations. In Kozhikode, the biggest crisis was observed

in the Mavoor Sanatorium, which is not only right at the centre of the city, but also is

the hub of all its developmental activities. The most important point considered was

the hazard to the health of the people living or working in the neighbourhood. The

combustion of human bodies with a large amount of organic material produces air

pollution or contamination of air by smoke and harmful gases mainly oxides of Carbon,

Sulphur and Nitrogen. Air pollution directly causes bronchitis, sinusitis, migraine and

headache and indirectly produces a basic nidus for the implementation of tuberculosis.

Air pollution on a long-term basis i:; also carcinogenic or cancer pr~ducing. '~ The

pem~issible levels of these gases have all been defined under pollution laws. But

unfortunately nobody has cared to make these estimates around the crematorium as to

ascertain whether they exceed the permissible limit.'5 There are eight crematoriums

* The major directions o f the Rudravanam Project c ~ f the Kerala Government are the fol1owinr:- The project is to be implemented in 100 hectare of forest land on the eastern side about halfakilometer away from the temple; Construct 40 five-story buildings, each cc,ntaining 50 rooms with the facility for ten people to reside ineach room with other facilities such as ~arkitlearea for vehicles: Constmct a 7-kilometer road from Pannoa to Rudravananm - ~r~~ ~

tlirough the forest; Develop a 20-acre land o f the 'Yudravanam as a shopping complex with bus stand, police station, lhospital, telephoneexchange etc.

under the jurisdiction of Kochi Corporations, two in Trivandrum City Corporation, two

under Trichur Municipality and one in Kottayam Municipality. The problems in these

were fewer when compared to those of Mavoor. The main recommendations of the

Committee were (I) Examine how the sanatoriums can be modernized, as it is difficult

to find out additional space in the cit). .I6 Make natural fencing around them by planting

trees. Gardens may be made by planting flowering plants, medicinal plants and non-

flowering plants. (2) Increase the height of the chimneys for preventing air pollution in

the nearby places. (3) Electrical Crematorium should be made as it creates less

environmental problem (4) More funds should be allotted for making electrical

crematorium. (5) In addition to electricity, LPG energy should be used, wells should

not be made near by and prevent encroachment of land.

9) Reports on Drinking Water Issues

Clean water has become a precious commodity and the quality is threatened

by activities such as agricultural discharge, domestic sewage, municipal slid waste burial

grounds and industrial effluents in Kerala." Ground water quality problems are also

associated with the presence of excess salinity, iron, fluoride, hardness and coliforms

etc. Low pH, high iron content, high hardness, high TDS, and salinity are common

quality problems in the coastal areas. Excess chloride concentration has also been

reported from the coastal zone. In the wake of such a situation it came to the notice of

the Environment Committee that the drinking water supplied particularly to the people

in the cities was not properly purifted. Hence the Committee decided to study the

quality of the drinking water and the source of supply of drinking water in district

centres particularly of Allapuzha ant1 Cherthala towns. These two areas were specially

selected on the basis of the reports that fluoride content in the water was higher in the

tube well water collected in Alleppy (in some areas, the fluoride content was found to

be 2.60 milligram per litre) and salt content higher in the water of Cherthala area.I8

Iron and magnesium are also higher. Water released into river from the prawn farming

has added to the pollution. Hence they visited all the district headquarters and held

discussions with the representative of the public, voluntary organizations, leaders of

political parties and concerned government officials. The report of the Committee

containing six recommendations was submitted to government on 1" February 1995. The

Committee, after making a careful study recommended that the Piravum Water Supply

Scheme intended for distributing pure water in Allapuzha and Cherthala areas should be

immediately completed on a war foot basis. Simultaneously, awareness programmes should

be conducted to prevent water pollution, particularly sewages released into the river.j9

The Committee also recommended thxt an expert Committee Report should be obtained

about the extent of water pollution in those areas. Comfort stations of the areas should

be scientifically revised to prevent urine and faecal matter released from the latrines.

Water and waste from the prawn farmir~g fields should be prevented from directly entering

the river and anti-pollutant laws should be strictly implemented.

Another report regarding the environmental issues related to the distribution

of drinking water was also submitted by the Committee under the Chairman ship of Sri.

K.P.Noorudin MLA and seven other MLAs in the wake of widespread complaints

regarding the environmental issues related to the distribution of drinking water in Kerala.

Hence the Committee studied the quality of the drinking water, the sources of drinking

water distribution and the methods of purification process in the cities and villages of

Kerala. The Committee found out that human faeces, washing of clothes, bathing,

washing of vehicles and livestock, dumping coconut leaves etc. are polluting most of

the rivers in Kerala whereby paving way for the incidence of about 80% of water-borne

disea~es.~~Uncontrolled sand mining is a common problem in all the rivers, hindering

natural purification ofwater and the lowering of water level of nearby wells and lakes.

kve r s are used for dumping city pollutants, agricultural wastes and poison to kill fishes,

which cause an environment of contagious diseases and disappearance of fish fauna,

aggravating the drinking water probll:m. The Committee called for greater awareness

programmes to rectify these problems and even suggested a Surveillance Schedule to

check the quality of drinking ~ a t e r . ~ ' The Committee also opined that we were not yet

able to ascertain the extent to which the drinking water could be protected. In the villages

the problem is more acute because of the absence of any purification process. The

Committee recommended that scientific water purification system is a must in the

villages and towns of Kerala.

10) Report on the Stone Crusher Units in Kerala

This report, prepared by the Committee under the Chairnlanship of Sri

K.P.Noorudin on the basis of about twenty complaints received about the environmental

problems created by the stone crusher units in the state, was submitted to Government

on 151h March 1996. It contained 11 recommendation^.^^ The main complaint of the

affected people was that inhaling the air containing the dust formed as a result ofblasting

of rocks caused several diseases in the area such as silicosis, asthma, and allergy. Sound

pollution produced during the operation of the stone crusher units created hearing

problems and disturbed the learning capacity of school children in the area. The dust

and fragments of rocks from the units fly in the air and fall into the nearby wells and

water systems whereby polluting thern. The particulate matter and dust fall on the trees

nearby preventing the pollination of flowers. The particulate matter also falls on all the

household articles causing lot of inconvenience. The Committee, on the basis of its

study and discussions with all parties concerned came to the conclusion that the stone

crusher units were increasing in number and that they were responsible for air and

water pollution in the areas. The Pollution Control Board has very effective rules and

regulations to control them, but unfortunately 99% of Stone Crusher Units had not

implemented those regulations. Hence the Legislative Committee strongly

recommended that license of such units that do not comply with the instructions of

PCB should be cancelled.43 The existing rule is that there should not be houses or other

establishments within a radius of 250 meters where stone crusher units are installed.

The Committee also recommended th.~t in the case of stone crusher units, license should

be given only after verifying that all conditions of the law are strictly obeyed and the

existing law should be modified if necessary in the interest of environmental protection

by incorporating more stringent mea., wres.

11) Report on Oil Pollution by Relineries

Land based oil pollution occllrs mainly from accidental oil spills from storage

tanks and pipelines and also durirg transportation of oil through automobiles.

Components of oil such as methane and ethane can cause suffocat ioi~.~~ Benzene is

toxic and its inhalation can cause anemia and components of sulphur can damage the

llver and kidneys. Suspendedparticulate matter released in to the air by refineries can

cause lung diseases. People living near Southern Refineries at Kuzhinjalvilyil at

Parassala in Thiruvananthapuram District registered several such complaints to the

Legislative Environment Committee. The Southern Refineries was established to

separate loose 011, diesel, petrol, asphalt and lines in by distilling the waste oil using

modem technol~gy.~~ But the complainant held that the people living around 2 kms had

developed different kinds of diseases like suffocation, coughing, headaches, asthma,

and skin diseases due to the polluteld air from the factory. In response to several

complaints received from the public, the Committee consisting of eight MLAs under

the Chainnanship of Sri. K.P.Noorudin visited the place and held discussions with the

management and representatives of affected people before presenting their report to

the Government on ISth March 1996. It contained 6 recommendations. The Committee

recommended that the several methods suggested by the Pollution Control Board should

be strictly implemented to prevent the air and water pollution from the factory.46 The

lung and chest diseases are mainly due to the irritants contained in the exhaust and

hence an Expert Committee should study and suggest remedial measures. To prevent

the unbearable odour from the factory and to rectify other problems, the Committee

suggested that the Pollution Control Board should strictly implement effective measures.

Experts from the IIT Madras and environmental experts from the Cochin University in

consultation with the PCB should submit their report within three months to prevent

the environmental problems in the area, the Committee suggested.

12) Report on Epidemics in Kerala

The recurring epidemics in Kerala such as Elephantiasis in Cherthala town, Typhoid

infection at Mattancherry region of Emakulam District and Rat fever (Leptospirosis),

Japanese fever (Japanese encephalitis) etc are a direct impact of spread of mosquitoes

and fast growing environmental pollution in our water-logged areas." One of the

major findings of the Legislative Environment Committee was that the vector mosquito

responsible for spreading filariasis is able to thrive in Cherthala area because of

some peculiar algae that grow in this area. Hence the growth of algae in the rivulets

and wells should be controlled, the Committee reported. The General Convener of

Filariasis Control Movement (Filco Movement) working in Cherthala Taluk of Alleppy

district submitted a representation tc) the Government on this peculiar environmental

problems of Cherthala, particularly filarisasis. The Environment Committee that

considered the representation visited the area, which contains several wells and

rivulets and studied the problem in tietail. The Committees under the Chairmanship

of Sri. K.P.Noorudin submitted its report on 19th March 1996.48 The report consists

of 4 recommendations. To control filariasis, a permanent unit of VCRC unit should

be maintained in Cherthala, it recommended. The Committee also found that the recent

spread of Japanese fever (Japanese encephalitis) is due to certain peculiar species of

mosquito named Culex vishnui. Expert opinion of scientists and environmentalists

should be sought to control this disease and a permanent unit of ICMR should be

maintained. It was also decided that as per the directions of World Health

Organization, the medicine D.E.C mixed with some salt should be distributed free of

cost to the area and awareness programmes should be conducted to explain the quality

of this salt.*

Another recurrent epidemic, namely Leptospirosis (Rat fever) reveals that

although Kerala is a highly literate state, proper public health policy receives only

secondary importance here. As a result, Leptospirosis is spreading through out the

State, whereas it was previously endemic to waterlog stretches ofAlapuzha, Emakularn,

Kottayam and Thiruvananthapuram districts. What worries the State is the alarming

increase in the death toll and number of reported cases every year. A study on the cases

reported from five medical colleges of the state, since 1998 showed that the death toll

was gradually increasing every year, while the number of reported cases almost doubled

through the years.49 This epidemic hiis been a recumng event, since 1994 in Kerala.

Since then it claimed more than 250 lives every year. Though the disease is an annual

feature in the State, the Government has not taken any concrete measures to control it

once again points to the lacuna of environmental communication in controlling the

disease. The only step the authorities have taken is to declare rat fever a noticeable

* Bnvironrnent Committee-of Kerala Legislative A!.sembly- 1996- 1998 Dur~ng the period ofthe loth Kerala Leg~slative A jsernbly (1996-1998) a new environment committee was formed on 6'"ugust 1996 under the chairmanship of Prof. A.V. Thamarakshan. They studied several environmental problems of Kerala, which are of great public importance and submitted 13 reports to the Government suggesting measures to solve these problems. They are described in this section

disease. This makes it mandatory :o report all suspected cases to the designated

authorities.* Leptospirosis, which is characterized by high fever and renal failure,

spreads from the casual organism 'leplospira' that multiplies in soil in areas with stagnant

water. The bacterium is transmitted to humans through cuts and abrasions when they

come in contact with contaminated water. Rats are one of the carriers of the disease.s0

The disease is the result of the envil.onmental pollution in waterlogged areas that is

growing day by day in its magnitude and diversity like Kuttanad, suburbs of Eranakulam

etc. Pollution has converted many of'our water resources into alkaline pools, which is

a favourable medium for the bacteria. Besides, our waste disposal practices have turned

our rivulets and canals into suitable breeding grounds for rats.

Water-borne diseases constitute around 40% of communicable diseases in

Kerala. Among them Acute Diarroheal Diseases (ADD) including cholera and typhoid

rank first. Scarcity of safe drinking water and poor sanitation are the basic causes of

water-borne diseases. Regional peculiarities of Kerala also contribute much to the

high prevalence of ADD and typhoid. Certain districts in Kerala show endemically for

typhoid.51 Outbreaks are common in Fort Cochin, Emakulum, Malappuram, Kozhikode

and Palakkad during monsoon. It was brought to the attention of the LEC that in August

1999 the number of typhoid cases in Kochi particularly Panayappally, Chackamadam,

Kappalandimukku, Amrnayimukku and Mattancheny was increasingly high. Many other

diseases, which were once thought to have been eliminated, were reported in different

parts of Kochi, the Industrial Capital of Kerala. 392 typhoid cases are reported in

September 1999.** The Committee investigated the matter and came to the conclusion

that increasing typhoid cases and other diseases are mainly due to lack of pure water

distributing system.s2 Older pipes were leaking in many areas and new pipes never

installed. So Committee recommended that water-distributing pipes in Mattancheny

area should be immediately replaced and the waste deposited in Rameswaram Canal

and Kalvathy Canal should be immediately removed. They also recommend that

extensive sewage disposal should be ir~troduced with farsightedness. Awareness should

* Unless the rat population is kept under contrcl and pollution curbed, the disease will escalate in an alarming proportion, warns Dr. Punnen Kurian. the Principal Investigator of Kerala Rodent Research Centre.

** About 7521 cases and 6 deaths were reported in the state during 2001. (Rarnani. 2004)

be created among the public to prevent the spread of communicable diseases. The

Committee expressed its deep concern that the area was under the grip of several

communicable diseases because of l~olluted water.

13) Report on Biomedical Waste Management

A peculiar feature of Kerala is that while the State accounts forjust 3 per cent

of the nation's population, the hospttal bed strength is 27 per cent. But most hospitals

still do not have an efficient biomedical waste management system because of the

commercialized approach that investment for waste disposal is a waste, for it brings no

return^.^' Biomedical waste means any waste, which is generated during the diagnosis,

treatment or immunization of hum;m beings or animals or in research activities or in

the production or testing of biological preparations. According to a directive given by

the PCB under the Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998,

following a gazette notification from the Union Ministry for Environment and Forests,

it is the duty of all health care institutions like hospitals, nursing homes, clinics,

dispensaries, pathological laboratories and blood banks which generate biomedical waste

to ensure that such waste is handled. treated and disposed of without any adverse effect

to human health environment'. In Kerala there are over 5000 hospitals including small

clinical labs, with a bed capacity of about 30,500 (In India the total bed capacity,

according to a statistics of 200 1 is 1,13,530, of which 26% is in Kerala)." In Kottayam

District alone there are 440 hospitals and only 10% of them have taken treatment

authorization from thePollution Control Board. According to the Environment Act of

1986, not only PCB, but also even an individual can file a case against any hospital that

does not comply with the biomedical waste treatment directives. Hospitals must handle

biomedical waste with more care or ~nvite stem action. The basic principle ofbiomedical

waste treatment is to kill all the genns at their source of production. Wastes generated

from these institutions are classified into ten categories, out of which four require

mandatory treatment and disposal through the in~inerator .~~ These include hospital-

generated waste like human anatomical waste, microbiology and biotechnology waste,

discarded medicines and cytotoxic drugs and solid waste. The PCB had been issuing

directives to hospitals for erection of incinerators right from 1998. However, many

hospitals have taken these directives lightly.

There were also several complaints about the accumulation of hazardous waste

in Calicut, Trichur and Alleppy Medical Colleges. In the wake of several such complaints,

newspaper reports and statements from prominent public men, the Legislative

Committee under the Chairmiin ship of Prof. ~ . ~ . ~ h a m a r a k s h a n MLA and other eight

MLAs held discussions with many organizations and prominent public men as well as

making personal visits to areas of pollution studied the problem and submitted their

report on 18Ih March 1997.'6 The Committee suggested several methods for the

segregation and disposal of solid waste, comprehensive schemes for the disposal and

treatment of sewage and to improve the supply of drinking water - all intended for the

health care of the people. The Committee suggested that stringent measures should be

adopted to immediately install modern sewage and solid waste treatment plants in the

areas covering the medical college and to connect the same to the underground sewage

channel system of the corporation. Anangements should be made to remove biomedical

waste, solid waste, plastic waste, bottles, syringes, needles etc. as and when they are

found and they should not be allowed to accumulate at any cost. The second report

contained 1 1 recommendations on Trichur Medical College and 18 recommendations

on private hospitals and the third repo~t contained 18 recornrnendati~ns.~~ All the three

reports recommended that all the hospitals should treat their effluents for the removal

of pollution such as organic matter, pathogens etc. to the tolerance limits stipulated by

the Kerala State Pollution Control Board.s8 Maintenance of sewage lines within the

hospitals is necessary for the free flow of effluents. The existing capacity of the septic

tanks in all these hospitals is not adequate to hold the sewage generated. This leads to

pumping the sewage containing fresh night soil to open drain causing foul smell in

surroundings. This practice should be dispensed with immediately. The solid wastes

such as needles, syringes, slides, etc., should be carefully destroyed and disposed of to

avoid reuse or The infectious and hazardous wastes should not be kept open

for long and should be incinerated immediately. The incinerator required should be of

special design with air pollution cont1.01 measures.

14) Report on Coastal Erosion

The coastal zones of Kerala, both sea and backwaters are facing a big crisis.

The sea coasts covering about 10-15% of the State total area (33,869 sq.km) with a

length of 560 km and our back waters with its lagoons, estuaries, barrier islands and

other coastal land form cover over 100 kms. About 50% of the people live in or near

the coastal zone with a very high density of more than 2500 persons per sq.krn. But

private entrepreneurs, in the name of tourism and development, have taken control of

the coast. Their sphere of activity extends all along the coasts in the form of luxury

hotels & boats, swimming pool, chains, of cottage and helicopter services. Already our

coasts are suffering from various types of environmental problems such as coastal

pollution, erosion, flooding and salt-water intrusion adding to the chaos of destruction

of the coastal en~ironment.~~About 370 Km of Kerala coast is subject to coastal erosion

of various magnitudes (Figure 4 on cc~astal erosion) due to one or more or combination

of several factors like early onslaught of monsoon and subsequent high and steep waves

and rise in water level, geological factors, sea level rise, turbulent zones near

Lakshadweep, laterite cliff erosion and reaction of seas to protection work etc. The

erosion tendencies may increase with human activates such as urbanization, construction

of dams, prevention of soil erosion in the midland and high land belts, development of

harbours etc. (Baba 1979). Moreover, developers and planners deplete groundwater by

extracting it through tube wells even up to 100 feet. This has resulted in the intrusion

of saline water into the ground water. No actual research study has been done on the

extent of the impact of such activities.* Again, developmental projects in the name of

tourism are damaging the highly fragile ecosystem of the coasts. Bird population and

mangrove forests are the most affected. Some birds like Cormorants are showing

50% reduction on the Vembanad lake^.^' Such disturbing trends are also shown by

other birds such as ducks, herons, egrets and eagle etc. Most alarming is the desertion

of the Kayal areas by the birds due to the degeneration of their roosting places along

the coasts by the tourism activities such as increased transportation, movement of speed

boats and the sudden increase in the 1c:vel of pollution caused by the direct disposal of

faecal matter and other waste from speed boats in to the water.** Developers are also

destroying the mangroves known as 'tidal forests', which constitute the fascinating

ecosystem by the sea.

* Ones right to enjoy Nature's richness on the coast is going to he a thing o f the past. Today one cannot easily walk into the favourite spots o f familiar coasts extendin: from Kollam along with Konaysm and Alappuzha which form the triangle of town on the coast, without pelmission Keralites become aliens in their own land!

** When the bird population declines it should be naturally assumed that the environmental equilibrium is upset because birds occupy the apex o f the food chain in a wetlmd ecosystem.

EROSION

ACCRETION

Fig. 4 Erosinal and Accretional Trends of Kerala Coast Ref: The Natural Resources ofKerala, WWF Thimvananthapuram, 1997, Page 122

139

The LE Committee studied the serious adverse impact due to human interference

on the coastal region. I11 the light of coastal control laws enacted by the Government of

India, the Committee suggested several measures to protect the coastal region to stop

the increasing environmental problems. The Committee held detailed discussions with

all the parties concerned and took ev idences in this c~nnect ion.~~The Committee noted

that the coastal stretches of Kerala have some peculiar features. The land area of the

state is 38,853 crore kilometers anti the length of the coastal area is 590 kilometers.

With 44 rivers and 34 lakes, about 362,000 hectares of land is covered with water. It is

one of the most populous States in India. The average population density is 749 persons

per kilometer and the same in the coastal area is 2 162 person, which is 8 times higher

than the national average. 40% of the people live within 25 kilometers nearer to the

coast and hence the major economic activity of the state takes place within this area.

In view of such peculiar environmental features of coastal Kerala unlike many other

parts of India, the Committee came to the conclusion that a unified coastal law for the

whole country is not practicable and that the coastal region laws could be introduced

only by taking into account the special environmental features of Kerala.63 This report

includes five recommendations on tne increased environmental damage on the coastal

regions of which the most noteworthy is that the Central Coastal regulatory notification

of 199 1 should be modified to suit ):he peculiar features of Kerala coasts and that the

State should be included in CRZ-IV of the notification. The coastal zone management

strategies will of course reduce the iosses due to erosion; the possibilities of sea level

rise also may have to be kept in mind while formulating management plans.

15) Report on Problems of Plastic Waste

The flimsy plastic cany bag has come to symbolize an environmental hazard that is an

offshoot of growing and reckless consumption. Communication needs to be enhanced

that when the shopkeeper supplies ;i 'free' plastic canying bag to the consumer, he is

contributing his share to a deadly pollution whose ill effects are irreversible. The major

chemicals that go into its making are highly toxic and cause serious threats to public

health.64 Some constituents like benzene and vinyl chloride are known to cause cancer

while many others are gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons that vitiate air and earth. When

burned, plastic releases a host of chemicals into the air including dioxin, the most

toxic substance known to science. The only way to reduce the hazard of plastic is to

reduce its use and thereby force a reduction in its production. Educating the masses on

the damage potential of plastic is no easy task mainly since its ill effects are not

immediate or tangible as with vehicle smoke or factory fumes.6s Awareness against the

use of plastics below 20 microns has oeen growing in different parts of the country and

much of the credit for this awareness can be attributed to various pressure groups,

including NGOs. On direction from Hon. Supreme Court, the Kerala the State Pollution

Control Board has introduced a ban 3n plastic bags with less than 30 microns thick in

2003. None of the bans on plastic bags has been accompanied by fiscal measures to

either encourage alternatives or discourage plastics.66

In Kerala, which is a consunier State, there is an unprecedented increase in the

use of plastics. There are about 65 lakhs families in Kerala and three to twenty plastic

bags of different varieties reach each house daily. Moreover, more than ten lakhs of

tourists in addition to nearly 50 l a b pilgrims that reach Sabarimala bring in a lot of

plastic in the form of carry bags, mineral water bottles and several other types.67 In the

circumstances of plastic having a threat to the life of Keralites, the fifth Report of LE

Committee presided over by Prof. A V.Thamarakshan contained ten recommendations

to reduce the production and exces:. use of plastics and for destroying plastic wastes.

This report created a lot of awareness on plastic use and recommended that in the first

phase, the production and use of plastic carry bags, packing materials and other things

such as tumblers, straws, pet bottles. wrapping materials etc. should be controlled. The

most familiar use of plastic is in carry bags, which are of low cost and suitable for

temporary use, may be once or twic e. Thereafter the consumer throws these bags out

as waste. These wastes accumulate 011 streets, sea, backwaters, rivers, and even in interior

forests and agricultural lands causing nuisance and preventing natural water infiltration

and waste degradation. The Committee also recommends that persons who violate the

prohibition should be subjected to penal action and that in order to create public

awareness about the problems of plastic pollution, wide propaganda should be given

through media such as news paper, radio, television etc. and through NGOs, Nature

Protection Council and volur~tary organizations and by organizing environmentally

friendly societies at the school l e~ t : I s .~~ Packing materials should be made of bio

degradable materials such as paper, cloth, etc. instead ofplastics and for that purpose,

the Khadi and Small Scale Industries should be encouraged by providing necessary

financial assistance including subsidy. The Committee is of the opinion that the use of

plastic bags in tourist centers should he banned and penal action should be taken against

persons using plastic bags in such places.

16) Report on Pollution Problems of Alleppey- Kuttanadu Region

Kuttanadu, the rice bowl of Kerala, is blessed with rich water resources inter-

linked by rivers, canals and lakes. The fact that such a water-rich place is facing tenible

water scarcity is a contradiction in itself. Its water channels are now converted into

depository of solid and liquid waste of different types, with the result that severe

mosquito menace, communicable diseases and unusual growth of floating plants

popularly known as African Algae (salvinia and water hyacinth) have become the

hallmark of the region. Japanese fever and rat fever were first reported in these areas.

In this context a number of representations were made on the subject from different

sections of p e ~ p l e . ~ ~ T h e Legislative Environment Committee made a thorough study

of the severe water pollution in detail and suggested 14 recommendations to solve the

crisis. The Committee noted that 2.5 lakh people are living in the Alleppey City but

there is no drainage facility to prevent human excreta from reaching canals and lakes.

The municipality does not have enough vehicles and hence 60% of solid wastes are

dumped on roadsides, rivers, canals and other water bodies. Waste materials are taken

to a dumping ground located about 7kms from the Alleppey city where there is no

facility to treat solid waste. Construction of the Tannirmukkam Bund has prevented

salt-water entry, thus creating a congenial environment for luxuriant growth of African

Algae. According to a report from ihe Pollution Control Board, the excreta produced

from one person per day contain 1000 to 4000 crore colifonn bacteria." World Health

Organization says that water shoulcl not contain more than 500 coliform bacteria in 10

liters of water. The frequent incidence of Japan fever, dungi fever and leptospirosis is

mainly because of the use of polluted water. About 100 to 200 tones ofwaste materials

are produced everyday from fish and meat market, hotels, kalyanamandapam, hospitals,

butcheries and houseboats." They are allowed free entry into canals, lakes and rivers

and roadsides making Allapuzha city ;i very dirty one. The LE Committee recommended

rnstalling screntific drainage system, punishrng house boat owners who dump wastes

directly into lakes, increasing the depth of the canals and make walls on the sides to

beautify it.

Colonization of Inland Waters by Floating Water Weeds.

Floating plants such as Salvinia (popularly known as African algae), Eichornia,

(the water hyacinth) Azolla and Pistia, all well known for the nuisance they create, have

colonized a large surface area of the ~nland water bodies of Kuttanad as well as ponds,

lakes and rivers of Kerala. Salvinia might have reached Kerala in 1955 and was first

noticed as a serious pest around 1904. Now Salvinia is seen all over Kerala.* Both

salvinia and water hyacinth cause much damage to the State in many ways.72 They lay

waste fertile field and encroach on paddy fields and reduce the crop by fighting for

available nutrition 'curse to crop'. Salvinia, which has spread over 4 lakh hectares of

inland waters of Kerala, clogs, canals and rivers and block navigation, irrigation and

even domestic washing. Weeds often damage engines in motorboats and block water

intake aperture of ships. The aquatic environment is altered by the thick layer of Salvinia

to produce optimum breeding grounds for some species of mosquitoes, which are

vectors of serious diseases such as encephalomyelitis, filariasis, rat fever and malaria.

The death of a woman and hospitalization of 20 others due to high fever, vomiting and

headache while undertaking the cleaning operation of these weeds from Muppayikkad

Canal of Nattakom Panchayat, Kottayam District had created much news in 2000

(Plate: The feathely roots ofwater hyacinth suck plenty ofwater and its moisture

content gets evaporated very fast through its rounded leathery leaves attached to spongy

stalks. Due to this cycle, the water evaporates faster from a water body infested by

* It spreads most extensively in the districtsofA1l:ppey. Kottayam, Emakulam. Trichur, Quilon and Trivandmm. In Kultanad alone, 75,000 acres o f paddy fields an( another 75,000 acres ofcanals, rivers, ponds and other water bodies arc under the grip o f this fast growing wecd.

143

l'latc: 1 Al i ican alsae covcred waters ol'Koddour rive1 (Ref. Malayala Manoranla, 2012197)

hyacinth and the Vembandu Lake and rivers are facing this acute problem. Thick

accumulation of these weeds reduces gaseous exchange between water and the

atlnosphere and curtails the penetrarion of light.74 Offand on, large islands of floating

vegetation interfere with the operation of dams constructed for hydroelectricity or

water supply. (eg: Kakki reservoir in Kerala). The organic acids and hydrogen sulfide

released during the decay of weeds can damage turbine equipments. The thick blankets

of weeds offer a dire threat to the establishment of commercial inland fishery. Experts

point out that the problem of water hyacinth has to be eliminated on top priority since

there would be long-term repercussions if the weeds were allowed to stay beyond a

three-month period. Kerala can control these weeds by a happy blend of different

methods - mechanical, chemical and b i o l ~ g i c a l . ~ ~ Methods are now available to turn

these weeds into wealth such as organic manure, for mulching in coconut and cocoa

gardens and as raw material for paper and cardboard industries. The possibility of

production of methane gas and power alcohol is under consideration. The Enzyme

cellulose, produced from water hyacinth (Eichornia), is a promising discovery. The

Kerala Bureau of Industrial Promotion (K-BIP), plans to set up a demonstration plant

at Akkulam, a suburb of Thiruvananthapuram city that will utilize 4,000 kilograms of

Water hyacinth every day for this

17) Report on Waste Management Problems in the Cities and Towns

Almost all the major cities and towns of Kerala are facing very serious environmental

problems because of the lack of scientific waste removal mechanisms. As a result,

many diseases thought to have been eradicated are coming back with renewed vigour.

In this context the LEC invited opinion of corporations and municipalities and general

public. In its 8'h report which contains 32 recommendations, the LEC invited suggestions

from related employees of the government regarding the waste disposal in 14 cities

and 3 corporations (Trivandrum, Cochin, and Calicut) and on the methods to be accepted

in waste disposal, because in almost all the cities sewage treatment is either lacking or

not functioning properly. In most c~ties the deposition of sewage is in the order of 300

to 500 tones of solid waste per day.77 Hence the EC has recommended immediate

installation of modern sewage treatment plants in all the cities, particularly in

Thiruvananthapurarn where there are about 4 crores litres of sewage produced every

day and the existing sewage plant is insufficient to handle them and hence a large portion

of them are deposited in the open 01 put into the drainage. Efforts should be taken by

municipalities to convert solid wastc: into fertilizers or for energy production, the LEC

re~ommended. '~ Particularly, in the absence of such treatment plant in Cochin

Corporation, mosquito menace is increasingly high. Purification of canals and streams

of Alleppey needs to be done on a wartime basis and at any cost. The Committee

recommended that the drainage of sewage from septic tank and polluted water from

other sources should be strictly prevented.

The Guruvayoor Township, which has attracted worldwide interest as a

pilgrimage centre, has also been Facing serious problems due to untreated waste

material^.'^ The Committee realized that the Guruvayoor pilgrimage centre where about

3 crores of people are coming every year has no scientific waste management facility.

The wastes of Guruvayoor Township are deposited in the nearby Chavakkadu Panchayath

causing untold hardship to the people. Guruvayoor needs about 3.5 MLD of pure water

but the water authority revealed that only 1.5 MLD water is available for distribution.

Moreover about 40% of pilgrims who visit Sabarimala also come to Guruvayoour

aggravating the situation. The Committee reports that about 40 tones of solid wastes

are produced everyday in Guruvayoor and during seasons it goes up to 100 tones per

day. The proposal of the Committee is to convert the wastes into bio fertilizer using

modern technology. The place also needs modern toilet facility to prevent

conlmunicable diseases. The increasing number of lodges and hotels and flats that are

coming up in the area are also creating a large amount of waste and polluted water. The

LE Committee also recommended imposing fine on hotels and lodges that throw waste

materials into the open. Incinerators were recommended for nearby hospital^.^^ The

nearby rivers and streams should be repaired, and approach roads and sidewalls be built.

A modern drainage and sewage treatment plant or common treatment facility is an

urgent need. The Committee sought the cooperation of Government, Municipality and

Dewasworn Board to create a congenial atmosphere for people reaching Guruvayoor.

Conimunication for Waste Management

Kerala is a small State in the Indian lJnion with the highest density of pop~lat ion.~ '

The State has only 1. lper cent of the total area of India but supports a population of

about 3.5 per cent of the total population of the country. The disparity between the

area and the population also reflects not only in the per capita natural resources

available but also in the limited land available for waste disposal. As the population

keeps increasing more people move to cities. Increased urbanization and

industrialization with its characteristic consumerist pattern of life style, without

due regard to environmental considerations, generates more wastes. Although waste

disposal is becoming a global problem, emissions by the developed countries are

five to six times higher than the developing countries.82 These wastes are

indiscriminately disposed of and as a consequence the land area used for waste disposal

is increasing and the air and water become more polluted. Environmental

communication for waste management should strive to plan our activities and minimize

our needs in order to generate less waste. Communication involves teaching people

a few tips on waste management e.g. always remember the 3 R's - Reduce, Reuse,

Recycle; segregate the domestic waste into degradable and non degradable, degradable

into -compost and non degradable t3 recycle; reuse every bit of space on the paper

(use both sides); avoid using plastic covers or bags; taking a cloth bag to the shop;

encourage manufacturers by buying products packed in paper or hard board and not in

plastics; buy oil/fuel in old bottles alter emptying and cleaning it of its contents and

educate and create awareness on waste management, composting and sericulture.*

Moreover, the effluent of one industry can be used as the raw material of another.

Ash from power plants can be used to make cement, while waste from trout farms

and pharmaceutical plants can be used as fertili~er. '~

In burying wastes, we rely cln the earth's recycling capacities to decompose

wastes. The problem is that solid wastes of today are quite different from those of the

* Waste could be generally defined as that which is. not required. But this definition is ~raduallvchanninn. Someof the waster are rach s&rces;fenergy. The lnam th~ng is that weshould know how to manage them toprodu&cnergy.~hc u asles generated in our day -to-day l ~ f c are classl'ied broadly into: Dumestic waste, Industrial waste. Husp~tal Waste. and Agricultural waste. waste generated could either be in the solid, liquid or gaseous state. Depending on the effect it produces on the environment and on the living organisms, including plants, waste matter can be classified as Toxic waste 1 Hazardous waste, Industrial waste, Non-toxic waste, Domestic waste, and Pathogenic waste containing disease producing virus & bacteria, e.g. Hospital waste.

past.x4 For example e-waste (electronic waste) enconlpasses a broad and growing range

of damaged electronic devices ranging from large household appliances such as

refrigerators, air conditioners, audio and video systems, computers etc, to small

electronic goods like mobile phones and palmtops. Since the e-wastes are built up

with hazardous compounds such as lead, mercury, plastics etc, they pose significant

health and environmental hazards in Kerala. Highly poisonous waste materials present

another problem. Insecticides, rodenticides and herbicides need special treatment, even

in minute quantities. Communicatic~n also demands the use of modem biotechnology

i.e., 'the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to manufacturing

and service industries' (Smith 1981:l) to improve waste management and waste

recyclingu.*

Growing Awareness on Organic Treatment of Waste through Vermicomposting

Organic farming is coming into vogue in some parts of the country, with

complex fertilizers becoming prohibitively expensive because of the withdrawal of

subsidies. At the same time there has been a growing awareness among farmers that

continued use of chemical fertilizers over the years will lead to low fertility status of

the ~oil.~"hese two factors have prompted a revival of interest in organic manures or

compost. In his own journal, Harijan, Gandhiji described approvingly and in great detail,

the methods developed by Albert Howard and his associates at Indore to convert a

mixture of cow dung, farm wastes, wood ash and urine into invaluable fertili~er.~'

Kumarappa stressed the need to use night soil as manure, asking for subsidies to be

given to individuals, as a means of overcoming caste prohibitions, for converting human

excreta and village waste into organic fertilizer. The traditional method of composting

adopted by Indian farmers is found to be a slow and tedious process involving

decomposition ranging from three to six months, depending on weather conditions.

The method of decomposition through mechanization, on the other hand, is an expensive

process, which very few farmers can afford. The re-cycling of organic waste using the

* It is no exaggeration to say that biotechnolog) has the potential to revolutionize man's relationship with the natural environment. Indeed, it has been claimed that the primaw obiectives ofbiotechnology are to im~rove the manaEement and utilization o f the vast volumes of waste srganic niateiials to be found throughout the world. The biomass resources that are available in nature, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions, are s o rich when linked to hiotecl~nological processes that they might evt,n precipitate a shift in the global balance of economic power.

148

medium of selective tropical species of earthworms, called vermicompost, is the most

economical and speedy process of composting. The technology involved is simple,

highly cost-effective and at the same time very easy for farmers to adopt. There is

greater need for propagating these techniques in the State as an environment-friendly

approach in treating wastes.

Solid Waste Management

An encouraging factor of waste management is the increasing realization that

wastes are not just wastes but wasted materials. Biomass based wastes are rich sources

of energy that could be profitably ,xed for running biomass based power plants.

Environmental communication should disseminate the knowledge that wasted biomass

is our wealth. It consists of miscellaneous matters such as wood chips, twigs, tree

husks, mustered husks, bagasse (sugar cane wastes) and other residue of vegetable

sources, all available in abundance locally.88 It is estimated that India produces in its

taluks, about 400 million tones per year of agricultural residue, which can theoretically

produce 53,000 mega watts (MW) of power through biomass based power plants.

This is 70 per cent of the total amount of power available in the country at present.

However, this agricultural residue is dispersed all over the country. This, together

with other biomass wastes ifutilized through decentralizedpower production systems;

the state could solve its power problems. In a state like Kerala, noted for its abundant

greenery, biomass certainly ought to play a key role in the fuel scenario. Even now

80% of Kerala homes use firewood as the main cooking fuel. The improved stove

(or Chulha) is certainly a partial solution as it is more fuel efficient and smokeless.

I t does help, but is hardly the final answer, for it falls short of the convenience and

elegance of the gas stove. So the final answer has to be a biomass based gas stove.89

This is where science and technology have to come to the help of the common man.

There are three possible lines of solution: the biogas plant, the biomass gasifier,

and the pyrolyser.* The biogas gasifier is not yet common in Kerala under

biomass gasification, solid agro residues are broken down into a gaseous fuel through

* "Biomass gasification i s one of the most efficient and economical methods of providing power to the villages" according to the Central Electricity Bill 2000, parsed in Lok Sabha on April 9,2003.

149

therrno chemical conversions. This gas is then utilized for power generation. In other

words a national waste is converted into the much needed modem energy. It may be

noted that as per government estimates, more than 80,000 villages in the country are

yet to be electrified as being too remote to be connected by the grid supply.90 At least

for many of these rural areas it is high time that we tried decentralized biomass based

power generation. Moreover, the process eliminates almost all the environmental

problems associated with biomass burning. If efficiently planned, a small plot of land

can generate adequate biomass for electrification of that area.

18) Water and Air Pollution

1) Mavoor Grasim industries

All the major rivers of the State are subjected to pollution due to indiscriminate

discharge of trade effluents from industries, untreated sewage from municipalities and

wastes form agricultural operations making them unsuitable for municipal, industrial,

dishing and recreational uses. A typical example is MIS Grasim Industries Ltd., (Gwalior

Rayons) which has been fbctioning at Mavoor in Kozhikode. Established in 1963 until

it was closed, it had two divisions viz. Pulp division and Staple Fibre divisi~n.~'The

Pulp division produced about 4800 tones of Rayon Grade pulp and 270 tones of paper

per month. In the Staple Fibre division about 2130 tonnes of Viscose Staple Fibre,

1355 tonnes of sodium sulphate, 2100 tonnes of sulphuric acid and 373 tones of Carbon

disulphide were produced per month The raw-materials used in the Pulp division were

mainly bamboo, eucalyptus and other wood amounting of 16,224 tonnes per month and

inorganic chemicals such as salt cake, caustic soda, lime shell, chlorine, sodium

chlorate, sulphuric acid, alum, sodiilm silicate etc. For both the units, the raw water

was drawn from the river Chaliyar th.lt is flowing nearby the factory. Daily waste water

generation was a total of about 40000 m3 of effluent from both the units together. The

LEC came to understand that because of 35 years of air and water pollution, the health

condition of the people in the area had deplorably decreased, the Chaliyar was highly

polluted, depleted ground water, and many workers who depended on Chaliyar river for

fishing, n~ollusks and sand were rendered jobless.92 In its report submitted on 22nd

April 1998, the Committee recommznded that the Company should not be allowed to

function if stringent action is not tz.ken to control air and water pollution. Several

agitations were conducted by volunta~y agencies and locals against the comp'any, which

tinally led to the closure of the company. It was a clear-cut case of people's victory

against a polluting factory. However, the situation is worse than this in other rivers

including Periyar where more than 240 factories deposit their effluents daily.

2) McDowell's Company in Cherthala

There were widespread complaints particularly from the Kerala Dheevara Sabha

and Public Incentive Forum about the air and water pollution from the McDowell's

Company which has been functionin$ in Cherthala for the last 14 years. The pollutants

released from the company make the water resources of the Alleppey district highly

infectious and dirty, killing fish and other water animals?'The company has been

ruthlessly releasing About 2,70,000 litres of wastewater every year without proper

treatment into the nearby areas and the Vembanadu Lake creating a variety of

environmental issues, as a consequence of manufacturing 8,55,000 litre of foreign

liquor per month. Obnoxious smell due to phosphate containing air was creating a very

difficult situation. Incidence of cancer, asthma, skin diseases, sudden death of domestic

animals were reported from the area. So the Committee recommended in its report on

1 OCh July 2003 under the chai~manship of Sri. George J. Mathew that the government

should insist on a monitoring syste~n to check whether waste water produced by the

company is released in to the Vembanadu lake is only after treatment and the polluted

gas should be burnt at a higher altitude to prevent bad Since the nearby wells

were also polluted, the company should take the responsibility to distribute drinking

water to the nearby areas and keep (effluent taps closed. The samples of wastewater

should be sent periodically to Pollution Control Board and Centre for Water Resources

Development and Management (CWRDM) for frequent examination.

3) Vehicular Pollution (smoke and sound) in the state

As a result of rapid urbanization and industrialization, the quality of air in almost

all the cities have dangerously declined. Increase in the number of motor vehicles has

contributed to the decline and rise of noise p o l l ~ t i o n . ~ ~ I n 1990 there were only 5.81

lakhs vehicles in the State, it increa:sed to 15 lakhs by 1998 and it is expected that by

201 0 the number of vehicles will be over 50 lakhs. Studies have now proved that motor

vehicles cause 60% atnlospheric pollution and the pollutants released from the exhaust

such as carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbon, nitrogen oxides, lead, sulphur oxides

etc. have rendered the air ~ntreatable.9~ Sound of horns also have become a major cause

of noise pollution. Diesel vehicles, as researchers say, are dangerous to health.* Studies

have already revealed that one person dies every hour in Delhi due to ambient air

choked with particles and that diesel exhaust is the major source of fine particle^.^'

Not only the metropolitan cities but even small cities are already under high

concentration of diesel related pollut:~nts like small particulate matter, oxides of nitrogen

and oxygen. All these cause diseases of different types such as headache, vomiting,

lung diseases, heart diseases and cancer. The major part of the lead content of the air

comes from petrol vehicles. Sound beyond 100-dB tend to cause deafness. The court

has ordered that motor vehicles of Euro 1, Euro 2, Euro 3 only be u ~ e d . 9 ~ In the light of

these, the Committee on Environment, in its report submitted on 19Ih July 1999 under

the Chairmanship of Babu Divakaran recommended that the existing rules and regulations

should be strictly implemented to reduce atmospheric pollution. A major reason for

vehicular pollution is due to carbon monoxide produced from the exhaust. The LE

Committee recommended that petrol without lead content could reduce amount of

carbon monoxide. They also recommend that the pollutants produced by four stroke

engines are only half to the pollutants produced by two stroke engines and 60% of the

vehicles and two wheelers are with two stroke engines.99 Hence two wheelers are a

major cause of environmental pollution and hence recommend that only vehicle with

four stroke engines should be permitted to register for use. The Committee is also of

the opinion that the pollution can be reduced to a large extent if CNG is used. Since

plenty of CNG can be made availal~le from the Cochin Oil Refinery the use of CNG

should be encouraged, reports the Committee. Vehicles, which are older than I5 years,

should not be allowed to run. In order to reduce traffic jam and the resultant atmospheric

pollution, more roads and flyoven; should be constructed in areas where pollution

* Anil Arrarwal called it 'the Enaine ofthe De>il'. Unlike Petrol, the sus~ended oaniculate matter (SPM) that diesel -. - . . vznlclc., UCIIII hdvc 3 dianlelcr le,,cr than I0 an Cronr. One mlcron 1s one m~llronth of a mlllimcter Hence 3 1 i s very c.3511) inhaled Once i t reacher the lung, 11 sta!s lhcre and kills lhc cells. Even a small amounl oflhesc panicles are carcinogenic and cause other illness also. Therefore there is no such thing as a safe limit for them. he suspended particulate matter emanating from a diesel englne is worse than that emitted from petrol engine.

intensity is very high. The Pollutiori Control Board and Motor Testing Centres and

Police Department should be more vigilant to implement the rules and regulations to

reduce air pollution and sound pollui:ion.

4) Urban Air Pollution

Urban air pollution has been growing since the Industrial Revolution. Rapid

industrialization, burgeoning cities, and greater dependence on fossil fuels have brought

in their wake-increased production of harmful pollutants, making life in many cities

more and more unpleasant and unhealthy.lW Among the most common and most virulent

of air pollutants are sulphur dioxide (SO),, suspended particulate matter (SPM), nitrogen

oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and lead. Air pollution has been exacerbated by

four particular developments such as growing cities; increasing traffic; rapid economic

development; and higher levels of energy consumption.t0t In almost all developing

countries, meanwhile, urban air pollution is worsening. Rapidly growing cities, more

traffic on roads, use of dirtier fuels, reliance on outdated industrial processes, growing

energy consumption, and the lack of industrial zoning and environmental regulations

are all contributing to reduced urbari air quality and deteriorating public health. In this

connection the Ministry of Environment and Forests initiates the Ecocity Programme

in the urban regions of the country. The term Ecocity corresponds to ecological thinking

while seeking economic prosperity for the region.'02 Eco city is thus a way to achieve

sustainable development.* In Kel.ala the concept of Eco City that integrates the

principles of environmental conservation and social accountability in the governance

of an urban region has been proposed as the Kottayam-Kumarakom (K&K) Ecocity

Programme. The programme comprises development of a Comprehensive Environmental

Management Plan (CEMP) for the Ecocity Programme Region (EPR ) to address the

issues in an environmentally sound and socially acceptable manner.

5) Illdoor Air Pollution

Air pollution is not restricted to outdoor air. Although relatively little is known

about the hazards of many substances found in indoor air, because people may spend as

* The benefits of the Ecocity programme include: a synergy between socio-economic development and environmental proteclion, conservation and enhancement of ,tnvironmental awareness amongst citizens leading to commitment and action, identification of comprehensive envionmental interventions that ensure sustainability of the programme consisting of study projects, plans, programnes and relevant policy reforms, better quality of life with improved access to urban amenities or infrastructure and institutional capacity building in urban environmental management.

much as 80-90 percent oftheir time indoors, the need to understand this environment

is obvious. According to an estimatt: by the World Health Organisation (WHO) about

3 million people in the world die every year as a consequence of exposure to suspended

particulate matter in the air, and that 85% ofthe deaths are due to indoor air pollution,

especially from acute respiratory infection (Schwela, 2002).103 The sources of indoor

pollution are different for developing and industrialized countries. In the former, the

main pollutant sources are human activities (such as cooking and smoking) and certain

types ofbuilding materials'04. In India, 80 percent of households depend on solid fuel

- wood, coal, charcoal, dung and crop residues for their energy needs. Key pollutants

in the latter include nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, radon (from building materials,

water and soil), formaldehyde (from insulation), asbestos, mercury, man-made mineral

fibres, volatile organic, allergens and tobacco smoke - as well as health-damaging

organisms such as bacteria. Most of these health effects arise in buildings made from

materials that give off radon, asbestos particles, formaldehyde and volatile organic

compounds. These pollutants are often recirculated indefinitely in houses and offices

with energy-efficient ventilation. Effective communication is inevitable to encourage

people to look for alternatives. Kerosene and LPG bum cleanly but they are costly and

non-renewable. Biogas is non-polluting renewable and chap and CO, neutral, but the

domestic biogas technology, based on cattle dung is not user friendly. The Rural

Appropriate Technology Institute, Pune has developed an innovative 400 litre domestic

fermenter, costing only US $ 30.1"5 It requires daily just 1 kg starchy feedstock (e.g.

damaged seed, spilt tubers, oilcake of non-edible oilseeds, leftover food, etc.) and it

produces only 1 to 5 litres effluent. Its dissemination in rural India would save trees,

reduce indoor air pollution, improve the health of rural housewives and children and

would also provide employment to persons engaged in producing feedstock from starchy

waste. They call it the Blue Flame Revolution.

6 ) Environmental Pollution by Particulate Matter

The Philips Carbon Blaclc Company working at Karimugal, Emakulam since

last 22 years has been creating much news about water and air pollution in the area. The

factory is located in a very thickly po~~ulated area, about 100 yards north of Karimugal

Junction on the western side of the Kirimugal-Alwaye bus route. The distance of the

factory from the main road is only about 75 feet. A preliminary report was submitted

on 4"' February 1985 by advocate V.!. Joseph, one of the members of the commission

appointed by the Hon. Munsif s Court, Emakulam to study the problem recorded that

when he reached nearer the factory, the pungent foul smell was felt intensely. The

people of the locality told him that human life has become impossible due to the foul

smell felt more intensely in the evening times and due to the continuous falling of

black soot while the factory is working. The cot, bedding, sheet floor, windows,

bathrooms are all spread with fine particles of blackcolour.* A large number ofpeople

within a distance of about 2 kilometers from the factory met the members of the

commission and complained ailments like asthma, cough, continuous cold, giddiness,

chest pain, vomiting, etc.'06 From the I'reliminary Report submitted by Adv. V.J. Joseph,

it was clear that no provision has been made for pollution control. What has been

provided in the process plant is only a mechanism to trap the major portion of the

carbon black produced. As carbon black is their primary product it is clear that the trap

is for the maximum recovery of the product rather than for any control of the particulate

matter. In the light of several such reports and complaints, the Legislative Committee

on Environment, under the Chairmanship of George J. Mathew MLA submitted the 3rd

report on the subject to the Government on July 3 1,2002 which recommended that

Company should not be permitted to pollute the water and air of the area any more.lo7

Strict instructions need to be given to the company to comply with the conditions of

the consent issued by the Pollution Control Board. If these conditions are not met,

they shall not be permitted to operate their plants. Modem dust collecting bags and

other arrangements should be installed to trap the major portion of the carbon black

produced in the factory. The Committee also recommended the appointment of an expert

team to enquiring the pollution problems in details and to propose appropriate remedial

measures.

* Even in houses they could find deposits of black. soot on the floor, walls and furniture. The inmates o f these houses said that their life has become really impossible due to the continuous dropping of black soot inside the rooms coupled with the foul smell. All over the outer walls of l~ouses and nearby buildings there was considerable deposit of black soot.

7) Suspended Particulate Matter and Diesel Pollution

India's smaller cities are in the grip of severe air pollution due to SPM arising

from Diesal vehicles and so is Kerala. High levels of respirable and tiny particles with

diameter less than 10 microns (PM 10) are serious public health concerns in almost

all cities. These can trigger lung cancer, respiratory and heart problems. A report

published by the Center for Environn~ental Studies, New Delhi states that Trivandrum

ranks 8'" among the worst cities in India (Fig. 5). Major sources are vehicles, which

have registered a tremendous increase.lo8 By the year 2005, every second person will

be an urban resident and every third person will live in a city of at least 100000 people.

Eight out of 10 people will live in a developing country. Against this background, the

GEMSIAir analysis suggests that - in terms of urban air quality - the future for the

majority of the world's urban residents is a cause for real concern. Research on global

man-made emissions of suspended particulate matter (SPM) is still incomplete, making

it difficult to establish trends.Iog Available data for the period 1982-84 show emissions

of about 27 million tonnes per yea::, but the global total is probably closer to 135

million tonnes. Particles enter the atmosphere from many natural and man-made

sources, particularly from diesel vehicles in small cities. They are also formed when

gases and vapours condense. Direct SPM emissions arise from many human activities,

including combustion, industry and agriculture. One of the difficulties in assessing the

health effects of SPM is that different monitoring methods and terminology are widely

used. In the United States, SPM is measured by weight (gravimetric, total suspended

particulates). Alternatively, many countries use the black smoke reflectance method

(darkness of stain obtained on a whi1.e filter paper through which air has been passed).

Air Quality Analysis of Cities

Interestingly there seems to be a correlation between economic progress and

pollution. The Centre for Science and Environment recently revealed that during the

period 1975-1995, the Indian economy grew by about 2.5 times, but the total quantity

of pollutants increased by eight times. Amidst our mad rush for industrialization and

development, all Indian cities, big and small are falling prey to pollution. The Central

Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has just released the air quality data for 1997 for 70

Noxious Aizrtrr(rlliSPh,.l profile for 29 cities l o r 2000

b w E 120

'; E . 90 nor

E ' 60 Q .v E c 30 .-

> > 2 .- r: t- Respirable s~rspendeci particulate matter levels in 29 cities

(gl 2000 Low level Moderate level High level Critical level

c i t~es and which does show that in all the 69 cities, except Shillong, including

Thiruvananthapuram and Cochin, air pollution was moderately or critically high.ltO

Diseases, which we thought have been eradicated, are all coming back with renewed

vigour and force. Malaria, cholera, typhoid, dengi fever, Japan fever all are returning.

Pollution has created a congenial atmosphere for some new viruses, H.I.V., Buffalo

fever, Ganjam, Rift Valley fever etc to multiply and grow, recently warned the Director

of the Pune based National Institute of Vi r~ logy . "~ In this connection, the Supreme

Court's (SC) order to convert public buses in Delhi from diesel to Compressed Natural

Gas (CNG) mode has had a snowballing effect throughout India."' Citing Delhi as an

example, civil society groups and concerned citizens are increasingly approaching their

respective high courts demanding the right to clean air. The latest in this civil upsurge

1s an affidavit filed in the High Court of Kerala. It seeks measures to prevent the

Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) from plying polluting buses. An

alternative suggested is that Kerala should use Compressed Natural Gas as fuel for the

vehicles to reduce pollution.*

Pesticide Pollution

Pesticides and fertilizers, used indiscriminately in Kerala to coax the land to

produce more, have backfired with lethal environmental impacts: excessive mortality,

reduced reproductive potential in organisms, changes in the diversity of species and

organisms, particularly in Kuttanad areas and the development of pesticide resistance

in target as well as non-target species. Through our crop fields, the poison has seeped

in to our food chains, vegetables, fish, grains, meat and even in the breast milk. Studies

have shown that less than 0.1 per cent of chemical pesticides in India reach the target

pest. The remaining is absorbed by humans, livestock and the natural biota. Assuming

0. I per cent as the effective usage rate for chemical pesticides, pesticide pollution in

India could be in the range of incredible 45,000- 50,000 tonnes per annum.li31t has

been reported that the Vembanad estuary annually receives residues of about 25000

tones of fertilizers and 500 tones of highly toxic pesticide residues from Kuttanad

region alone (Anon, 1989).' l 4 The presence of DDT in Pampa river (4000 ngll), lindane

* 'The petitioner is Sathyavan Kottarakkara from the Vidyabhasa Suraksha Samithi, , a forum for environmental awareness and safety.

158

in Thanneermukkam (6000 ng/l) and endosulphan in Vembanad lake (I 12 ngll) and

Manimala river (1 I 14 ng/l) are also of serious concern. Two decades after the publication

of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, more than half the world's countries do not have

effective legislation to govern the use of pesticide^.^'^ Many governments have little

idea even of the kinds of agricultural chemicals being imported and sprayed in their

countries. When the United Nations F ood and Agriculture Organization polled member

countries in the mid - 1970s on the amounts and types of pesticides being applied,

more than forty were unable to provide any of the information sought. Problems

associated with the aerial spraying of the pesticide endosulphan on cashew crops by

the Plantation Corporation in Kerala is discussed separately.

Aerial Spraying of Endosulfan Pesticide

The reported envirorllnental iind health hazards caused by the aerial spraying of

the pesticide endosulfan on cashew plantations by Plantation Corporation of Kerala

(PCK) in the Padre area of Kasergode district has been creating much environmental

concern among the people of Kerala since last three years. Many residents of the district

are suffering from ailments such as cerebral palsy and epi1ep~y.I'~ Laboratory tests

conducted by the Centre for Science and Environment, a Delhi based non-governmental

organization, confirmed the presence of endosulfan in the samples taken kom the village.

The Central Insecticide Board, which regulates aerial spraying across the country, alleges

that PCK undertook the spraying without its permission. According to the activists of

the Endosulfan Spray Protest Action Committee (ESPAC), the death of over 60 persons

who fall prey to the environmental tragedy till 2002 marks the seriousness of the

problem.'" Over 200 persons in the area are still suffering from various diseases such

as cancer, skin diseases, breathing problems and disorders of the central nervous system.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health identified the reproductive

system as a target organ of endosulfari poisoning. Moreover, the Hindustan Insecticides

Limited, the conlpany from which the Plantation Corporation of Kerala (PGK) buys

Endosulfan (Hildan) itself gives a precautionary message not to apply under

meteorological conditions or from spraying equipment which could be expected to

cause spray to drift into wetlands and l~aterbodies."~ Stating that the Bane jee Committee

appointed by the Central Insecticides Bureau in 199 1 and later the Dr. R.B. Singh

Committee in 1999 cautioned against the use of endosulfan near water bodies on the

ground that the pesticide is extremely toxic to aquatic organisms.'19 The ESPAC White

Paper says that the KAU scientists appear to be unaware of this warning while

recommending endosulfan in the State. The White Paper concludes by saying that

similar health problems have been found in more than 10 Panchayats and all these

panchayats have only one common factor - endosulfan. The Endosulfan Spray Protest

Action Committee (ESPAC) has rejected the report of the Kerala Agricultural University

as baseless, biased and unscientific. As a result of the agitation the aerie1 spraying of

the endosulfan pesticide has been temporarily banned in many parts of the Kasaragod

district of Kerala.'20 Even the National Human Rights Commission in response to the

complaints filed by the villagers (NHRC) has asked the Indian Council of Medical

Research (ICMR) to serve notices to the Union Government, the Chief Secretaly of

Kerala and the State's Ministries of Agriculture and Health. ICMR has also directed a

team of doctors to conduct an in-depth study on the matter. The SEEK (Society for

Environmental Education in Kerala) on the basis of scientific evidences has objected

to the report of the Committee headed by the noted environmental activist Dr. Achuthan

that endosulphan is not so dangerous and hence requested the Government not to lift

the ban on the use of endosulphan in the area.12'

Noise Pollution

Noise pollution is a serious threat to the quality of man's environment.

According to a study of National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi on traffic noise in

major cities of India, noise during the day in cities is intolerable, as high as 90 dB,

and it was seldom below 60 dB and if the present trend continues most people living

in major cities will be deaf by the year 2050'22.* Many people seem to claim that

noise is an inevitable part of modern civilization and man must endure it if he is to

enjoy the fruits of technological progress. Noise pollution has never been put on the

agenda of legislators and planner:; of the State and least of all the people in general.

The task of environmental communication is to disseminate the recognition of loud

* Noise. by definition, is over-loud or disturbing sound. Sound levels are measured in decibels (dB). It is a unit for cxp!.cssing the relative intensity o f sound on a scale from 0 to 130.and noise beyond 75 Db will be injurious to physical and mental health.

noise as a pollutant and injurious to health. The body absorbs the sound and often reacts

to it in terms of adverse physiologic;d and psychological responses. The techniques of

noise control are well advanced, but economic factors and the lack of trainedpersonnel

often prevent them from being competently applied.'21 Noise control should be a co-

operative venture between three agencies- the government, the society and the industry

including the employers and employees.'24 This concept of co-operation applies outside

as well as inside industry or institutions. Unfortunately, or fortunately, depending on

its effectiveness, good neighborliness is often the only method of mitigating effects

of noise in society. However, this does not excuse the lack of adequate planning of

urban environments. In addition to the creation of an extensive information system for

the public for awareness and education, political forces in the country should be

mobilized not only to strictly implement present laws and formulate new ones, but also

to see that local pressures are systematically mounted against the noise menace.

Environmental Problems of Tourism in Kerala

Kerala is trying to supplement the 'industry starved' status of the State by

tourism development because tourism is seen as one of the most important foreign

exchange earners and as an instrument for economic growth and deve l~pmen t . ' ~~ The

State also anticipates that it would be able to supplement the diminishing repatriations

from the Gulf through tourism development. Recently, the National Planning

Commission had remarked that tourism is the only dynamic activity in the State in

terms of private investment^.'^^ While it is generally believed that civil society has

accepted that tourism is important, its ecological, economic and social costs have been

worked out. Some critics say that tourism is a smokeless industry because the smoke

is invisible. Deforestation, pollution of air, water and land, as well as visual and imbalance

in the environment are direct results of tourism because tourist zones are ecologically

sensitive areas like rain forests wetlands, mountain slopes, coastal tracts and

san~tuaries.'~' The indigenous communities have always been immediate victims of

unplanned tourism development I z 8 Loss of their customs, values and traditions,

imposition of socio economic ordcr, global market economy, increase in drug traffic,

trade ofwomen prostitution, loss of morals and values, commercialization of culture,

are all associated with tourism. Today, the term Eco tourism is being used to suggest,

allnost subliminally, that the new 'avatars' will be free from the negative impacts of

earlier nature tourism.'29 Protection of our back water-canal-river system which is a

major tourist attraction from invasion by aquatic weeds and from pollution by industrial

effluents, motor fuel oil, and sewage, development of tourism in all potential areas in

harniony with the environmental iconditions and without affecting the life styles or

cultural heritage of the local people; restriction of commercial tourism in protected

areas, strategic centres and ecologically sensitive areas; and Environmental Impact

Assessment of tourism through scientific monitoring systems. Ecotourism is a relatively

new phenomenon.* Well-planned ecotourism has proved to be one of the most effective

tools for long-term conservation of biodiversity. The United Nations Environment

Programnie (UNEP) suggests three basic principles of ecotourism project. It conserves

biodiversity, promotes sustainable resource use and shares the benefit with local

communities. I3O

In Kerala, Kovalam area, situated about 16kms east of the capital city is well

known as an internationally famous beach paradise. It is a sheltered natural bay with

coconut palms around. As and when tourism increases, the environmental problems

also increase proportionately, due to various reasons like the construction of buildings

that are not suitable to the environment, encroachment of the beach, unscientific waste

disposal system, indiscriminate disposal ofplastics, problems associated with lack of

electricity and water, un-jeepable roads, increasing number of street dogs and cows as

well as increasing number of anti social elements. In the interest of maintaining a

balanced environment of Kovalani beach, the LE Committee, in its report submitted on

29Ih Dec. 1999 recommended that buildings built contrary to coastal regulations

imposed by the government in 19'33 should be removed by revenue department."' As a

long-term solution to protect the beauty and balanced environment of Kovalam Beach,

the Committee demands a scientific Master Plan for the area in cooperation with

Trivandrum Development Authority and Tourism Promotion Council. The unlawful

construction activities should be urgently stopped and future construction for the

* The International Eco-tourism Society defined the tern1 in 1991 as "responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains tlre well being of local people".

162

development of Kovalam should be made only on the basis of a master plan. Urgent

attention should be given for the sc~entific treatment of solid, liquid and plastic waste

from Kovalam and the waste pipe from the beach hostels should not be allowed to open

directly into the water. Instead the polluted water should be deposited in deep pits in

the soil. Stray dogs and cows in the area should be taken over by Panchayath authorities.

The massage centers should be allowed to function as per rules. A medical centre

should function in the beach areas at least during tourist seasons. As there are no

proper parking places traffic is a frequent problem in the area. The Committee noted

that the police departments should be more vigilant to deal with increasing anti- social

elements and drug dealers in the beach area. The LEC also recommended that in order

to control and plan the future deveiopment of Kovalam, a Coordination Committee

should be created to protect the beach area.132

Increasing Incidence of Natural Ilisasters

There are reports that after 1980 there are increasing incidences of earth quakes

and land slides in Kerala.I3'The frequent earthquakes that struck different parts of the

State on December 121h and June 11,2001 in Pala, Erattupetta at a richer scale of 3.5

created panic among the people. Earth quake produced cracks in buildings and downing

of the well water. This should be viewed against the background of the severe earthquake

that occurred in Gujarath on January 26" 2001 which led to the death of a lakh people.'"

The LEC in its report dated 291h December 1999 recommended that a micro zonation

map of the State should be immediately prepared to find out earthquake prone areas so

that the building construction and city development could be done accordingly. The

Centre for Earth Science Studies informed the government that there are five zones in

India based upon possibility of Earthquake and Kerala lies is in the 3d zone, which is a

relatively less earthquake prone area.13j Generally, destruction of buildings and other

havoc have occurred only with intensity of earthquake beyond five or six on the richer

scale. But the frequent earthquake rhat occurred in Kerala is a pointer to reconsider

the rezonation of earthquake map. The environmental Committee suggested that a

detailed expert study with the help of geologists should be made and building

construction in the state should be strictly on the basis of national building code

163

regulations that can withstand the occurrence of earthquake in the State.lJ6 In the last

two decades, the construction of flats in Kerala has been phenomenal and rethinking

should be made now. The Committee recommended that in the earthquake prone areas

of the state, flats beyond three stories may be constructed only by using reinforced

concrete and that the poor people should be helped in the construction of housees

using timber and cane or bamboo. A National Science and Technology Committee should

study the safety of the dams including Mullaperiyar dam in the wake of an earthquake,

the Committee suggested to the government. People should be educated about the

methods of safety at times of unexpected earthquakes with the help of resident

associations and voluntary agencies. The State should also form a disaster management

scheme as a precaution particularly in the areas where intensity of population is high.13'

Unfortunately the post-earthquake activities and management of earthquake are not

properly implemented138.*

Inadequate Natural Disaster Management

Natural disasters are geological or weather related events such as earth quakes,

hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, floods and forest fires with catastrophic effects on human

lives and environment. Although devastating, natural disasters always have an educative

value. For example, people now realize that earthquakes do not kill people, but man-

made structures do. Human activities changing the natural balance of earth, interfering

with the atmosphere, oceans, deforestation, mining, developmental projects and dams

are responsible. India loses a large number of people through natural disasters every

year. In the Tsunami disaster of December 26th 2004 about 1.5 lakh people have been

killed. This is why 'risk minimization' must become a part of any programme on natural

disaster management. The basic principle remains that resources should go where they

are most effective in reducing the vulnerability of the p00r.l'~ The strategy of disaster

management, based on risk assessment and identification of risks, should be shifted

from the existing method of relief ar~d restoration to prevention and mitigation. Success

depends not on what was known, but what should be done before, during and after its

* It is quite possible that the entire seacoast of the State would be under four to five feet o f water in the next 25 years. For a city like Kochi, which is at sea-level and is interspersed with expansive water bodies, this development will have earnantian imolications." Savs Dr. Rashmi ~ a v u r . - ~ o e c i a l ~ d v i s o r to the U.N. General ~ssemblv for the New ., - Millennium.

164

occurrence. While tomorrow's extreme natural phenomena cannot be prevented from

occurring, their consequences, unlike those in Orissa, can be less severe when more

effective measure of disaster preparedness are implemented right now.I4O The

macrozonation divides the nation into five zones. Areas where quakes record a magnitude

more than seven are placed in zone five and those with a minimum chance of quakes in

zone one. Kerala falls in zone three and hence technically Kerala is safe from

earthquakes. But the Orissa cyclone of 1999 and the Gujarath earthquake of January

26'" 2001 and the most recent Tsunami disaster of december 26th have created

widespread awareness about the necessity of more effective disaster management in

the sate. More than 50 million Indians are hit by natural disasters every year. The TV

and media coverage given to these natural disasters have really created greater awareness

for the protection of natural habitat particularly because most of these disasters are

not natural but man made.*

Mineral Water Poisoning

'Bottled mineral water' is emerging as a fast moving consumer product in

Kerala, now available in every nook and comer of the country, in cups, bottles and

bulky transparentjars. Ramanujam 1:2000) pointed out that the market of mineral water

is growing at a rate 60-70% per anrium at present.14' It is estimated that by the end of

2004, the mineral water market will be equivalent to that of soft drink market.142 But

the results of the study conducted by the Delhi based Centre for Environment and Science

on the quality of mineral water sold in India is quite alarming.I4' They found that even

some popular brands like Bisleri, Aquafina, Kinley, McDowell, and Bailley except the

imported Evian contain high dozes of pesticide residue such a Lindane or Y-HCH,

Malathion, Chlorpyrifos and DDT. Scientists and experts of the Department of Science

and Technology have soon confirmed the findings of the CSE about the high levels of

pesticides in bottled drinking water after analyzing seven different brands commonly

sold in areas that fall in the national capital region of Delhi. What is shocking is to see

* Are natural disasters truly natural? A theory that is becoming fashionable after the collapse ofbuildings in Gujarat is Ihat "earth quakes do not k i l l ~ e o ~ l e but man made structures do". Recentlv Sri. Koff i Annan in a messane given on lnc intsrnatt~nal Day for ~ i sa ; l c i ~educ r l on (l:"Oc!obcr)declared that u h;t used to bc called 'Natural'd;saitenare IIJ~ SO natural as they might appear Indeed the tommunlty ofprofess~onals ded~catrd to the reducuon ofdisasters has d ro l l~ed the word "Natural" altoaether. That communities message is clear: the main cause of rising loss is human act/"-ity But this only half truth.-~ven if building codes are strict6 adhered to and earth quake resislant technology i s in use destruction would still happen. He~lce i t may be said that . if not actually human made i t is 'human contributed'

that the contents of the pesticides were several folds higher than the stipulated levels,

even in the case of popular brands whether national like Bisleri (from Parle group) or

multinational like Kinley (from Coca Cola).'44 This is a matter of serious concern as it

has great implications on the health of the people. Manufacturers are simply extracting

cheap ground water from the plant site, bottle it and label it as 'pure' and 'clean' and

'safe' drinking water and selling obviously at a price more expensive than milk.*

'Chlorpyrifos, one of the deadliest chemicals, is known to be an agent that attacks a

child's neurological development i r ~ the womb. One sample showed chlorpyrifos levels

to be 400 times more than the European standard for permissible amounts of

pesticides.14' The blame has to be shared, not only by the corporate manufacturers but

by the regulatory authorities as well. The bureaucracy of monitoring Indian industry is

as contaminated as the bottled water we drink. Unfortunately our people and even the

Government have a cold attitude towards these startling facts. What does all these

mean? The current standards prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards for packed

drinking water and natural mineral covered under the relevant provisions of Food

Adulteration Act are obviously inadequate and not precise.""' In the interest of

consumers, the Government shoul(l immediately declare more standard procedures to

monitor the quality as well as fixing responsibility at different levels including

packaging.

Communication on the Quality of Mineral Water through the Reports of Legislative Environment Committee

In the context of several complaints regarding the quality of mineral water

available in the State, the members of the Kerala Legislative Committee on Environment

visited several units that prepare mineral water, took evidences from them and made

consultations with the authorities of Health dept, urban and rural development, Factories

and Boilers Directorate, and Pollu~ion Control Board. The Committee found out that

even some popular brands contain dangerous minerals and slats, pesticides and

microorganisms particularly increased amount of coliform bacteria.I4' The admissible

amounts of minerals in mineral wafer are only: nitrates 45 mg.per litter, calcium 75.mg

* CSE remarks, "if we aspire to live our life according to advertisements, a lot o f pregnant mothers are jeopardizing their unborn children's future with pesticide cockt;~ils."

per liter and pH from 6.5 to 8.5 but the coliform bacteria should be nil as per PCB

direction's i.e. it should be hundred per cent bacteria free.14Qut it was found that in

several brands many dangerous and diseasecausing bacteria such as salmonella, coliform

and E. coli were present beyond aclmissible limits. Ironically, the Committee found

that, many bottlers do not have their own bottling plants orunits. In many cases they get

their brands bottled in some one else's plants and market as their own products. The

Committee records that strict action should be taken if prohibited brands are found in

railway stations or bus stand or tourist Giving license to start a unit should

be with the explicit knowledge and approval of related authorities such as Health Dept,

Factories and Boilers and PCB. They must make sure that the company should have all

the necessary equipments and other factors for purification of water before they start.

If the brand name of any unit is rekited to a place then the water from that place only

should be used. Mineral water coming from other States should be allowed to be sold

only after confirming its quality by the relevant authorities and any unit which does not

have the approval of Bureau of Indian Standards should be immediately closed down.

The Committee also made it compul.so~y that the date of filling the bottle and the expiry

of the bottle should be clearly noted and the Pollution Control Board should see that

the water for drinking came from unpolluted streams or rivers or tube wells.

The Contamination of Soft Drinks: The Cococola- Plachimada issue

As the environment becomes more polluted, so the risk of food contamination

increases. Contaminants from human activities pass into the air, into soil and water,

and hence into fish, crops, and animals.lS0 Once contaminants enter the food chain they

can increase in concentration by up to 100-fold at each stage along it.* In this context,

contamination of soft drinks, mineral water and milk in Kerala recently created a hue

and cry, which directly and indirectly helped disseminate environmental communication

and awareness even among environmentally illiterate people. The factory of Hindustan

Coca-Cola Beverages Private Ltd , which has set up a monster bottling facility at

Plachimada (Palakkad dist.) amidst a tribal and dalit village in Kerala, is charged with

sucking ground water to the extent of 15,00,000 litres per day and depriving local

* I:ood or drink is described as 'contaminated' when any chemical or toxic - or toxin-secreting - organisms in it reaches a level, which is potentially harmful to h u m a ~ health. Symptoms range from temporary nausea and discomfort to permanent internal damage, or even death.

villagers of water for drinking and farming.'51 The maximum quantity of effluent

generation during production is 8,00.000 litres per day. The Company is also accused

of polluting the ground water and passing off their toxic sludge, containing higher than

normal levels of heavy metals such ;is cadmium, lead and chromium as fertilizers to

farmers. It has been well established that excess cadmium exposure produces adverse

health cffects mainly on ludneys, lungs and b~nes.'~~TribaI people have set up a permanent

demonstration at Plachimada since April 2002 and have said they will end it only when

coke leaves their village.15'

Death of the rivers of Kerala

Kerala, a narrow coastal strip, 650 lun in length and 60-65 km wide, is nourished by a

large network of fourtyfour living rivers. The total discharge of all the 44 rivers in

Kerala is only 7,79,000 cubic multimeter (Mm3), which is less than that of a single

river as Godavari in Andrapradesh which has a catchment area of 3 128 12 sq.krns, with

a discharge of 1,05,5000 Mm3and the Krishna has a discharge of 67675 Mm3.I5' Humans

have interfered with many rivers to such an extent that there are few large ones left in

which flow is unregulated. Our rivers die due to a variety of reasons such as lack of

rain, deforestation, and massive encroachment in the early 40's and settling as part of

the "grow more food" campaign. IS50ther reasons are: indiscriminate mining of sand

leading to sudden death, encroachment of the banks, construction of dams and barrages,

indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides, pollution caused by the discharge of

effluent from industries, civic bodies and domestic wastes, water extraction, salinity

intrusion, soil erosion, siltation, varrous Government sponsored projects like acacia,

eucalyptus and teak plantation and dam construction have hastened the destruction. (Fig.6)

The death of river Varattar, a feeder river of Pampa and the main water resource

of central Travancore is a typical example of how indiscriminating sand mining,

deforestation, pollution and encroact~ment can kill a river resulting into severe shortage

of drinking water and drought condition throughout the State.* It is first time in the

history of Kerala that a river disappears t0ta1ly.l~~ In the past Varattar had a glorious

* Varattar starts from Vanchipottil Kadavu just below Arattupuzha Kadavu of Chengannur village and ends at Mangala Kadavu passing through places like Edanadu, Koipranl and Othera and on its second stage starting from Eraviperoor village (Puthukulangara Kadavu) of Thiruvalla Thaluk of Pathanamthitta District, finally ends at Manimala River.

168

- ~ ~~ -. . . .-

Illkit brick ,- kilns have POLLUTION

eaten away industrial banks of wastes disposed

.\,..--.-~ SALT WATER

1- rivers and of into riven. INGRESS < :,, W , !.% wddv fields Fresh water C i n k ~ n m nf riu

BRICK KILNS

--.

. ~%. ~

.?- --. -...--=- -. . ..er -L, .il, beds cause saline water to enter up

DEFORESTATION to 20 to 25 km

, ~a~escale deforestation due "'to . . encroachments and settle- ..&is in the upper reaches, '&ding to weak flows

SANDMINING River beds being dug relentkssly to supply sand for construction leading to depletion of water tables, sinkage of river beds and drying up of wells around the river

Fig. 6 How to kill a river

past. The river was used even for water transportation, many fishermen lived on the

fish wealth of Varattar and high water content of Panchavadi and Chennathu region

supplied water for agriculture and nearby areas even during drought. As a result of the

geographical nature of the river, s,tones, soil and decaying biological matter got

deposited raising the flow of Varattar. Added to that, the unchecked and indiscriminate

mining of sand was the final deathblow. Gradually the water flow got reduced and only

during severe flood the water began to flow through Varattar. Encroachment for

agriculture and unauthorized occupation finally killed Varattar forever. This has resulted

in the lowering of ground water level in the nearby areas and stagnant water in some

areas created a congenial atmosphert: for pests and animals for spreading diseases. The

death of rivers is the most painful social tragedy of the State and therefore at any cost,

we must return the life back to our rivers. And this is possible. Concerted action is the

biggest social and political need of the State. Experiences have shown that such

restoration efforts have improved tht: most polluted Rhine, Thames, St. Lawrence and

Hud~on. '~ ' Clear waters are now runnlng through them. Many species of birds and fishes,

threatened with extinction have come back to all those rivers. Such restoration efforts

should include steps like increasing the capacity and efficiency of sewage disposal

works, checking the flow of industrial toxins into the river, construction of sullage

treatment plants for waste water disposal, taking legal action, imposing fines and

punishment wherever necessary. The Committee that studied the methods of revival of

the river involving members of Pollution Control Board, Soil Conservation and Revenue

Department and CWRDM, recommended that encroachers should be evicted and strict

measures should be taken to prevent sand mining.158 Steps should also be taken to

deepen its floor and a 60m wide bell mouth should be made in the beginning of Varattar.

Salinity inclusion in to the rivers is another major reason for the death of

rivers. The State of Kerala with an average width of 50 km has 4 1 west flowing rivers,

originating from the Western Ghats and flowing to the Lakshasweep Sea. These short,

fast flowing monsoon-fed rivers ofren encounter salinity intrusion into their lower

stretches during the summer months.'59 When the fresh water flow reduces, two major

problems are encountered in these water bodies: (i) salinity propagates more into the

interior of the river, (ii) the flushing of the system becomes less effective. Both aspects

have an impact on the irrigation, drinking and industrial water supply schemes situated

in the down stream stretches.* It has been observed that over exploitation of ground

water in certain coastal stretches has contributed to the entry of salinity into the coastal

aquifers from the sea. Though this tendency is mainly observed during the summer

months when recharge is practically nil, there is possibility for perpetuation of the

problem due to increase in withdrawal rate to the requirements of dense coastal

population. The present method for preventing salinity intrusion into intake points of

drinking water supply schemes is by the construction of temporary barrages, which

prevents the flow and creates ecological problems, especially concentration of

pollutants up stream of the obstruction. Areas upstream of Thanneermukam barrage in

the Vembanad and Pathalam barrage m Periyar are typical examples. (James 1 996).I6O It

will be ideal if flows are maintained in summer by natural or artificial means to reduce

this problem. If required, submerged barrages or barrages with gates can be adopted to

control salinity intrusion problem. Necessary provision for flushing out the pollutants

also may be incorporated right at the planning stage.

Sand mining ill the rivers of Kerala

The greatest single factor thal has contributed to the destruction of river ecology

in Kerala is the excessive sand mining from rivers. All the 44 rivers of Kerala are

facing a big crisis because of sand mining, pollution, deforestation and brick making.

Removal of sand has resulted in lowering or sinking of the river beds which encourages

the intrusion of saline water into fresh water, causing serious threats to drinking and

irrigation. The sand holds water and fills the nearby ponds and lakes by raising the

water level.'6' When the sand is removed from the river bed the hydraulic gradient

increases dangerously. It has affected the availability of water in the wells and canals

on the sides of the river. The riverine morphology gets changed and water equilibrium

upset causing serious threats to the biodiversity of the river and riverbanks. Particularly

the fish wealth gets depleted as it adversely affects their breeding process. Regarding

* F'roblemsofsalinity intrusion in Periyar, Meenachil, Kuttiyadi have been studied in detail (lames 1985) wh~ch in the case o f Beypore estuary propagates to a distance of 24Km. thereby creating problen~s to the water supply scheme to the Kozhikode Corporation area (lames and Sreedharan 1983).

171

the environmental degradation relating to such mining activities, Khoshoo (1 982) notes

that 'mining, the temporary use of the land with no attempts to reclaim and rehabilitation

has left behind unsightly scars due to a callous attitude towards its environmental

impacts'.'62 SO people are to be educated to conduct scientific study about the availability

of sand in all the rivers and mining should be undertaken on the basis of such study.

Sand mining has to be banned completely during the two monsoon seasons; mining ten

metres within river shore should be prevented; sand mining bill rules should be strictly

implemented, alternative materials instead of sand e.g., rock powder, deep-sea sand

etc. should be found out and the use of such sand should be encouraged and the

cooperation of local NGOs, individuals and people should be sought.

Decreasing Rainfall Pattern and Increasing Drought

One of the main reasons for the death of a river is the decreasing amount of rain.

According to an assessment made by the Central Water Commission, scarcity conditions

creep in when the per capita availability of water drops below 1,000cubic meters. The

total annual availability of renewable fresh water in India is placed at 1,869 billion

cubic meters, which ensured a total per capita availability of 2,213, and 2,000 cubic

meters in 199 1 and 1996 re~pectively.'~~ The growing population has reduced the

availability to 201 8 cubic meters in 2000 and could come dangerously close scarcity

conditions when it drops to 1,479 cubic meters in 201 8. The situation can be compared

to that of Vypar, one of the main rivers in Tamil Nadu. (Tuticorin).'" It originates from

the Western Ghats and flows through the Southern side of Kerala and reaches the Mannar

gulf. But the most painful thing is that it will hold water only during 2 months of the

years (September, October, which is the main raining season of Tamil Nadu). During

other months, the river is hll of sand beds and thorny bushes. Ten years ago the river

contained water upto 10 meters in height. Now, even during rainy season the water is

not more than one meter. Lack of rain is the main reason for the death of these rivers.

Twenty y e m ago, Vypar was full of water. Vypar is a warning to Kerala and other supposed

to be 'water rich regions' of India. Kerala is heading towards Tamil Nadu, because

since last two years rain has reduced in Kerala by nearly 27%. Kerala, which used to

get rain for six months, is now getting it for four months only.* Deforestation of

Western Ghats, global warming may be the reason^.'^'

Annual rainfall in different States of India shows that Gujarat, Rajasthan,

Andhrapradesh and Tamil Nadu get a lower rainfall than the national average 1.194 M.

While Kerala, Kamataka and Bihar are above the national average. However, the surface

run off and groundwater availability need not be related to rain fall pattern. For example,

as shown in Fig. 7 & 8, compared to the national average, Kerala receives 2.78 more

rainfall compared to Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. But Kerala has the lowest surface run

off and groundwater recharge in comparison to her neighboring states. She also has

lower fresh water availability than even the dry states like Rajasthan, Gujarat,

Maharashtra, Madhyapradesh and Bihar. What is the reason for this paradoxical situation

although Kerala has 44 rivers and 3000 mm of annual rainfall? The reason is that Kerala's

steep and undulating topography is not suited for rainwater retention in comparison

with Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan, thereby obviating the advantages of having high rainfall

to a great Deforestation and increasing population also contributes to dry

riverbeds and increasingly dry wells in the state. Secondly a river in Kerala is defined

as a drainage channel which is more than 15 Km in length. With this definition Kerala

has 44 rivers. This magic number of 44 will increase or decrease depending on the

arbitrary definition of 15 Kms length as qualifying length of a river. This means Kerala

does not have any major rivers (except Chaliyar, Bharathapuzha, Periyar and Pampa,

which may be designated, as medium rivers). The amount of water available for use in

India was estimated as 2100 billion cubic metres per year in the year 1990.16' About

86% of this is the surface run-off found in streams, rivers, lakes and ponds. In fact,

these are the major sources of water in our country.

Groundwater Quality Problems of Kerala

Ground water contamination is a socio-economic problem that has received

considerable attention in modem industrialized societies. In Kerala because of its far-

* Droughts look like becoming an annual future rn many states, more severe in Rajasthan, Gujarta,and Bihar. Even in Kerala, it is more severe and regular than monsoon showers, that this the legendary Parasurama reclaimed it forhuman habitation is a painful irony. It is ironical that in India both floods and droughts occur very regularly and alternately. According to the National Commission on Apricullure (1976). there are three types of drought: Meteorological drought caused by a marked decrease in rainfall, fTydrological drought caused by prolonged meteorological drought and its consequent effects on water source and Agricultural drought caused by insufficient rainfall to support crops.

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reaching impact on human health and aquatic life, a lot of information has been generated

on various aspects of quality of surface and ground water. The ground water quality

problems of Kerala are associated with mineralogical origin, human interference,

industrial effluents, agricultural activates, municipal solid waste burial grounds etc.168

Generally, the ground water problems in Kerala in coastal areas are due to the presence

of excess salinity, high fluoride, hardness, and coliforms, low pH, high iron content,

high TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) and excess chloride concentration. The ground water

problems due to high fluoride content are reported fiom Palakkad and Alapuzha districts

of Kerala. Ground water contamination due to industrial pollution has been reported

from places of Cochin, Palakkad some parts of Kollarn, Kozhikode and Kannur. An

abstract of the findings is given as Appendix A. The municipal and industrial landfills

operating in various parts of Kerala is causing great concern to the quality of ground

water. The analysis of the samples collected near a municipal solid waste site in

Kozhikode indicated that eighty per cent of the samples are bacteriologicaly

contaminated with coliform densities as high as 1 1'105.169 In general, ground water

contamination originates from soils or surface waters polluted by human activities.

Experience has shown, time and again, that no amount of legislation can help in changing

the ways of people at large in maintaining the water quality. Only intensive and extensive

educational campaigns, suited to the different components of society and tailored to

the needs of the message to be conveyed, would go a long way in ensuring the success

of projects such as the cleaning of the Ganga - or for that matter, cleaning of waters for

bettering the health of the nation.

Problems related to ground water extraction structures

India is estimated to have 3,700 mharn of groundwater, almost 10 times the

annual rainfall.170 Only 10% of the water is being made use of at present, but with lakhs

of tube wells and other structures being sunk every year to meet the growing water

shortage, the water table is declining rapidly. The common ground water extraction

structures widely used are tube wells, open wells, bore wells, springs, pondsltanks,

subsurface dukes /dams, and suranganls, (a traditional ground water harvesting structure

where horizontal wells constructed for extraction of ground water which are prevalent

in the Western Ghat area of Kerala and South Kanara).171 However, tube wells have now

175

become India's single largest source of irrigation in virtually all areas. This is the

consequence of a policy that seeks to blindly replicate the 'success' of Punjab, Haryana

and other alluvial tracts in expanding tube well irrigation even in areas where the rate of

!ground water recharge is very low.'72 In such hard rock areas, water takes a long time to

accumulate below the ground. Kerala since early nineteen eighties have been resorting

to tube well construction to take underground water even from 500 feet deep tube

wells. Water that took over 10,000 years, to accumulate in underground aquifers has

been mined dry like coal in the last 30 years with consequent environmental problems

such as drying up of nearby wells, intrusion of salt water due to lowering of underground

water level, and drying up of a large number of tube wells themselves. Over exploitation

of ground water resources can be tackled through a process of intensive education on

the adverse impacts and resorting to the merging practice of rain water harvesting.

Appropriate ground water laws should be framed to regulate indiscriminate exploitation

of the limited ground water availability in the state.

Communication for Water Management

The lessons of history are so obvious that it would be ridiculous not to learn

from them.'73 The sites of great civilizations such as those of Mesopotamia and the

Indus Valley are today barren deserts, in spite of the fact that perennial rivers flew

through them. Every child of history knows that a good or successful ruler is described

as one who dug tanks for the storage ofwater, and planted trees. At the macro level, it

is very necessary to dig tanks and canals, plant trees and collect rainwater. At themicro

level, each individual should avoid water wastage through simple measures like tightening

taps, maintaining delivery lines, using low HP pumps and motors and collecting and

storing rainwater. A national campaign for water literacy is required to spread the

message that water is a very precious natural resource, with a value system that makes

water everybody's business.'74 In this context, the role ofNGOs is to inspire people by

disseminating information about suc:cessful water harvesting programmes practised in

certain pockets of the country (such as Skhomajari village in Haryana, Pani-Panchayat

in Western Maharashtra etc). At these localities, the people have practised water

harvesting as a community effort and succeeded in overcoming the shortage of water.

According to R.N. Athavale (2003) these examples are marginal cases where water

scarcity and poverty was the norm. Such social mobilization is a prerequisite for

effective water management where the community is closely involved in the

construction of water harvesting structures. The idea of re-cycling should also be

considered since it is now realized that waste products are not things to be removed

and dumped as quickly, hygienically and economically as possible, but are part of our

scarce natural resources.'7s Successful management allows accounting for all

wastewaters, devising remunerative methods of its reuse, reducing it where possible

and ensuring that waste water is not wasted. To a certain extent, the quatity of waste is

in fact indicative of the efficiency of production.

Vanishing Mangrove Forests

Evergreen mangroves known as 'tidal forests' constitute a fascinating

ecosystem by the sea. For centuries, this ecosystem has been of great use and value to

mankind. It helps in preventing soil erosion, floods and other natural calamities, provides

food, fuel, fodder and a host of other useful products. Mangrove estuaries are the

breeding ground for many estuarine species and nursery ground for many marine

species.* Some fresh water fishes use the saline water of the estuaries for ~pawning."~

Marine fishes such as Hilsa ilisha and freshwater prawns, such as the giant freshwater

prawn Macrobrachiurn rosenbergii use the saline waters of the estuaries for spawning.

Many birds also find their habitat in mangrove forests. Researches conducted by Hanoi

Mangrove Research Organization and East Anglican Universities have revealed that

Mangrove forests are natural walls created by Nature to defend our sea coasts against

see erosion and cyclones.i77 New Scientirt Magazine quoting coastal geographers from

Cambridge University has reported that the violent effect of super cyclone caused in

Orissa could have been avoided had its mangrove forest not been destroyed to develop

shrimp farms.i78 It also added considering the unbridled human activity along the Indian

Coast that more Orissa's can be expected at greater frequency. Their ecological value

is only now globally recognized, but they are still losing ground when it comes to

making a decision on the use of coastal resources for industrial develop~nent.''~ In the

* A good number of species, such as scianid fishes, ribbon fishes, marine prawns, etc which spawn in the open sea use ibese estuaries as the nursery ground.

beginning of the lastcentury, Kerala had 700 sq. kilometers of Mangrove forests. Today

they are reduced to just 17 sq.kms. and restricted to isolated areas such as Veli and its

suburbs in Thiruvananthapuram, Ayiramthengu and Ashram in Quilon, pathiramanal in

Alleppy, Kumarakom in Malappurani and Mahi and Beppur coasts.'@' The reasons that

have contributed to its decline are encroachment due to high population density on the

costs, commercial prawn farming , oyster and fish farming, construction of salt fields

and dumping of wastes. There is no dearth of proposals and projects forthe protection

of mangroves and wet lands. The KSSP conducted a 'contact the people' programme in

the Kuyyali areas of Kannur district, which still boasts of having the largest mangrove

forest area in the state - 755 hectares of the total 1,671 ha in the State, to create

awareness among the local residents about the importance of conserving the mangrove-

rich wetlands in the area.lal (Fig: 9) The efforts for eco-restoration of mangroves are

outdone by the ongoing process of converting the wetlands for construction of hospitals,

hotels and houses. Conservation of wetlands consisting of lakes, river mouths, coastal

areas, Mangrove forests, rivers, river belts, ponds, paddy fields are to be utmost importance

for the sustainable recharging of underground water.Ig2 (Plate 2 & 3 ) Environmental

activists continue to raise their concern that the wet lands and sensitive mangrove

ecosystems will soon vanish if these fragile areas continue to be reclaimed unchecked in

the name of 'devel~prnent'.'~'

Reclamation-Paddy fields turning into Townships

The area under paddy cultivation in Kerala continues to be reduced as a result

of reclamation of land. As of now, Kerala is getting nearly 30 lakh tones ofrice, which

comprise 75% of its annual rice needs from outside.la4 In Palakkad district, known as

the 'granary of Kerala', hundreds of acres of paddy fields, both under cultivation and

barren in the Kanjikode- Walayar belt, have been converted for setting up industries.

Illegal conversion of fields is taking place more in Emakulam District. If the sanctions

given for conversion of paddy fields cover just 150 acres, the actual expanse filled

could be well over 4,000 acres. The Kerala Land Utilization Order, 1967, enacted to

prevent the abuse of paddy field, is honoured more in its breach.Ia5 The black sheep

among the real estate operators are on a rampage all over Kerala buying up paddy fields,

I MAMLURA n u m a 2 P-WX MUMILIS VAR. P C D U W U R 3 DILBERGIA CANDLNATC~IS 4 T+L-RA TENIJISOUA 5 CARALLU B R c W A T A 6 s n - ~ TRAVANCO(IIWY

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~issibution of major monprarc rpccier and ssoriatcs in Kenla (di~kl-wire). Parenlkris: Areal rprcld in kclarc*.

Fig. 9. Distribution o f mangrove species in Kerala Ref: The Natural Resources of Kerala, WWF Thimvananthapuram, Page. 156

Plate 2 6 3. The burrowers and protected shelter provided by the open roots make mangrove forests an ideal nursery ground for juvenile fishes

(Ref: Science Reporter, Page 16, November 1990)

filling it up, selling it fragnlented or constructing luxury villas and multistoried

apartmei~ts. Kuttanad, tlie rice bowl of the State, which contributes nearly 20% of the

total paddy production, is also not free from the menace with fields being filled up

increasingly. (Plate 4) What is the way out? An amendment of the Kerala Land Use

order should be made in such a way that paddy fields could only be used for other crops

and not for real estate or industrial purpose in the event of stopping paddy cultivation.

Two ecological concerns that can be identified are the influence the paddy cultivation

exercised on the recharge of the ground water regime, and the other its role as a

temporary 'container of floodwaters'. Paddy fields help in recharging the ground water

reserves by holding r a i i~wa te r . ' ~~ AS more and lnore fields are filled, the quantum of

rainwater pemeating dowi~ is reduced in proportion. Water is held on the fields, not as

much to meet the physiological requirements of the plant but to colitrol weeds.* The

second ecological concern is that of the contribution of 'niloms' in mitigating floods

Plate 4. A vanishing scene ... the rice bowls of Kerala are becoming empty. (ReJ Hindu 23/8/1999)

* In Lhe '~~i lonis ' when paddy is cultivated thc rail1 that falls in the tilled field is prevcnted from pcrcolation and, thereby, very little rechargc takcs place. On the other hand, i f thc nylorns are put to dry land crops which obviously does not reili~ire pudding and leveling, all Lhe water evcn from the last ~ ~ o ~ t h e a s t monsoon rain is allowed to secp down and help rechal.ge the ground watcr over a longer period of time.

by serving as water holding containers. But in 90% of the geographic area (all lands

other than the relatively flat coastal belt) the floodwater moves swiftly due to slope of

the land through the natural drains. An ecological approach enriched with an aesthetic

spirit is imperative for the protection, conservation and management of this fascinating

biotope of our state.

Multicoloured Rain

Reports about the recent occurrence of coloured rains - red, yellow, green,

and black rain- have come from Palakkad, Kottayam, Emakulam and Pathanamthitta

districts since 200 1. Subsequently, multicoloured rains have been reported from about

50 other places in Kerala. This has sent a panic wave to the social psyche of the state

people. Those who collected red rainwater in vessels and samples from Changanassery

in Kottayam district have been exanlined at the Centre for Earth Sciences. It is found to

have some particulate matter, which settles down on standing for some time.* The

reasons cited for the colour of the ramwater varies. Various chemicals have been found

in the rainwater, some of which are thought to be of volcanic or meteoric origin.I8'

There were reports of peculiar substances in the rain consisting of red iron ocher, line

carbonate and unspecified organic matter. Swamps of butterflies and fungi are also said

to cause the colour. Sulphur and chloride of cobalt are other chemicals often associated

with yellow and red rain. Analysis of red rain has come even in reputed magazine such

as Nature. But there had been no common explanation though red rain and its variants

have occurred in all continents. When everybody accepts that these are all clear

indications of certain geographical changes, the scientists are yet to explain the causative

factors properly so as to alleviate the panic among the public. The issue attains much

significance especially when some experts correlate the geographic changes with the

mild tremors that had rocked many parts of the State a few years ago. The findings of

the Centre for Earth Science Studies showing that the red rain is due to some fungus

(pollen grains) and not due to volcanic dust, has only added to the It is of

much significance that the official machinery should come out with certain convincing

factors that led to such unusual phenomena immediately. According to Dr. N.J.K. Nair,

* A search on the Internet for incidence of coloured rain shows that yellow, green, black and red rain are not very uncommon, though most o f the citations are from 19' or the early years of 21' century.

182

former Director of CESS, coloured rains are due to the presence of minute pollutants

(aerosols) present in the air and according to Dr. P.S. Harikumar, they are due to the ' 189 presence of spores of lichens in the alr.

Landslides in Kerala as a subject for communication

In addition to the frequent occurrence of earth quakes, in some hilly parts of

Kerala people have begun to experience the severity of a relatively new phenomena of

natural disaster, more commonly such as creep, debris flow, rock falls, landslides etc.

The Amboori landslide which resulted in the death of 36 persons and destroyed four

houses at Amboori in Neyyatinkara taluk in Nov. 200 1 has invited much concern and

discussion on land slides that frequently occur in Kerala.190 The calamity occurred

when a portion of a 700-metre-high hillside strewn with boulders got waterlogged in

heavy rain and came tumbling down, sweeping away houses that stood in its llan downhill

path. Such landslides have become quite common in Idukki districts especially during

rainy seasons due to the environmental degradation of the region, particularly

deforestation and soil erosion. People are to be educated to prevent the impact of such

landslides and conduct studies of land where land slides are possible and prepare a

landslide zonation ac~ordingly.'~' Land use should be made possible on the basis of

such directions and educate people not to build houses on mountain areas where land

slopping is more than 16 degree and 150 meters long mountain bottoms. People in the

area should also be educated for not diverting the natural flow of water. Reforestation

should be implemented in the areas where deforestation has already taken place. Also,

accommodation for the people of that area during heavy rains and evacuation of people

from the area of landslide to safer. places has to be arranged.

Mining and Environment

Kerala's lush countryside is under threat due to unrestrained sand and clay

mining, posing a serious environmental problem in Kerala. Any one going through the

vicinity of Thrissur, will find the picture-post-card greenery pockmarked by large patches

of stagnant water.192 Here, clumps ofweed jostle for space with garbage dumps. These

are abandoned clay mines, which until two decades ago were part of the region's prime

paddy land. But ever since the construction boom started in the early eighties, vast

tracts of rice fields have been converted into clay mines to feed Kerala's almost

insatiable demand for bricks and roof tiles. But the paddy fields of central Kerala aren't

the only ones to be disfigured by these clay pits. Vast tracts of land in the northern

districts of Malappuram, Kozhikode and Palakkad, as well as Emakulam and Kollam in

the south have also had their insides dug out. Some parts of Kollam such as Adichinallor

are worse off than Thrissur, so much so, that mining has been banned.19' Researchers

estimate that the sharp decline of paddy cultivation in Kerala (from 1 million hectares .

a decade ago to about 600,000 hectares today) can be directly attributed to clay mining;

the rest is now under rubber, coconut, vegetable and fruit cultivation, aquaculture, or

has been lost to real estate development. Although no comprehensive assessment of

the damage wrought has been made as yet, the people of Thrissur and other areas are

certainly paying a heavy price for the clay mining operations, for clay mining has played

havoc with the local irrigation systern. After a pit is abandoned, it turns into a receptacle

for rainwater, leaving the neighbounng lands with little or no water for irrigation. These

artificial ponds become breeding grounds for mosquitoes and dumping grounds for

waste. More importantly, the growth of clay mining is also responsible for the shrinking

forest cover in Kerala, thereby depleting the forests.*

Environmental concerns about Black Sand Mining and Deep Sea Mining

In view of Kerala's insatiable demand for sand, the Centre for Earth Science

Studies (CESS), Government of Kerala has recently proposed deep sea sand mining as

an alternative for river sand mining. The proposal was to extract sand from the steep

continental slopes of the sea. However environmentalists have come strongly against

the proposal raising concerns about the fragile ecology of the seabed.194 They feel that

the turbulence created by underwater mining in the tropical seas will affect the rich

biodiversity of the coastal waters. Traditional fishermen fear that deep-sea mining will

Aquaculture: The other optton before ihc goisrnmenr i r uslng the p~ts for aquaculture. The fisheries department i s cvcn offerinc! a Ks25,OOO subs~dy ner hectare to landowners to use the land loraauaculture later. The ~ovcrnmcnt's purpose 1s twofold lo en~oura~elocal~ to get Into more lucrative fish farming and to prevenl land fromgo8ng fallow. Howevcr, thc aquaculture opttun IS merely ltke stepping from the env~ronmental frying pan into the fire Shrtmp farminn has already s~awned a host o f associared environmental ~roblems such as increasina salinitv in the adioinina areas. 30, it lo0k;lik'e a long fight ahead for :activists who want'to save Kerala from slipping into an enviro&nenta? abyss

further deplete the fish stock. Geologists are concerned that removing sand from the

continental slope may ultimately lead to mass sliding of the upper reaches of the shelf

aggravating coastal er0sion.'9~ An equally controversial issue that invited strong

resistance from environmentalists and local fishermen is Black Sand mining on the

South West Coast of India. Mineral sand constitutes the most important natural resource

in Kerala with common minerals such as ilmonite, magnetite, rutile, monazite, zircon,

sallimanite, granite etc. The sources of these minerals are the crystalline rocks of

Western Ghats, which disintegrate due to weathering and get transported by the rivers

and streams, ultimately reaching the coastal en~ironment.l~~The champions of mining

argue that the mineral sand in the Kerala coast is like the oil reserves in the gulf

countries.L97 The manufacture of value-addedproducts through black sand will promote

development worth five hundred crore rupees, the supporters argue. This will enrich

foreign exchange input, strengthen economic fabric and will give direct employment

to nearly 1000 people. The resistance to black sand mining is mainly organized in the

name of labourers and environmentalists. According to them, lakhs of poor fishermen

will be deprived of their traditional work, just to safeguard the interests of a few

monopolies. Some areas proposed for mining will be just 50 meters away from the

seashore, which may lead to severe soil erosion of the sea in future. It is also feared

that Thrikkunnappuza-Arattuchira panchayats themselves will disappear in course of

time due to severe sea soil erosion. Refilling and resettlement following excavation

have never been done justifiably any where. Because of such adverse impacts the proposal

for black sand mining invites strong objections from environmentalists and other

concerned people. However, heated debates over these issues through the media have

created very effective communication awareness among the masses.

Sinking of wells and diminishing water level

This unusual phenomena has increasingly occurred since 2001 and it has created

wide spread environmental concern among the people of Kerala. According to the Centre

for Earth Science Studies, this phenomenon may be due to the geo technical properties

of the earth surfaces, seismicity, jaulting, dilatancy etc.I9'I Other phenomena such as

wave jumping (Thirayilakkam) in the surface level changes, breaking of buildings etc.

are related to this phenomena. A team appointed by Malayala Manorama, including

185

Emeritus Scientist Dr. Janardhanan G. Nagi of the National Geological Research Institute

Hyderabad and Prof. Arun Bappat of Seismology Dept. of Pune University have reported

that along with the above said hydro geological changes atmospheric loading is also

responsible for the downing of wells and related phenomena.r99 They see the phenomena

as a continuation of the earthquake that occurred in Kerala in the December and January

month of 2001. But there is not much cause of alarm according to them. Frequent

media coverage of the issue has created widespread environmental attention and

awareness on the possible causes ofthe issue.

Biopiracy by Multinational Agribusiness Companies

Stealing of bioresources is biopiracy. It started, in fact, in the 15h century,

when the Europeans mapped the continents and set sail as explorers in search of raw

materials and resources. In the modem times piracy of biological resources has reached

high proportions. Western pharmaceutical companies are essentially the culprits. The

Third World countries with rich biodiversity are the worst affected. India is one among

the 12 mega-diversity countries of the world. It harbours 8% of global plant genetic

resources with about 45,000 species of plants.'@' There are frequent reports of the

patenting of some Indian plant variety or the other by multinational agribusiness

companies. First it was the patent on Neem and its several uses, and then came haldi

(turmeric), followed by basmati, karela (bitter gourd), kalajira (blackumin seeds),

brinjal and several others.20r In addition to the Basmati rice, Neem, Turmeric etc the

list of plants pirated out from India is very long. Coptis teeta (treatment of malaria),

Nothatodytes foetida (treatment of cancer), Rauwalfia serpentina (treatment of blood

pressure), Berberis aristaka (eye medicine), Coleus forskohlic (for cardiovascular

diseases, abdominal colic and insornania etc.) Texas bacatta (as cancer medicine) are a

few to mention. Many medicinal plants, flowers, herbs, branches of rare trees have

been stolen from the forests of Kerala-Tamil Nadu border.202 It is estimated that about

200 rare plants are taken away from the Western Ghats alone. Drosera, an insectivores

plant is secretly pirated to Germany. The flowers of Areocolon, a type of grass and

branches of Rodentron are reported to be taken away from the Westem Ghats. The

Kerala government is putting together an anti-biopiracy plan to protect its resources

from the "onslaught of foreign firms". The Peechi-based Kerala Forest Research Institute

(KFFU), under the Western Ghats Biodiversity conservation programme, is building

bioresource inventories in seven districts. The institute is also developing a biodiversity

strategy and action plan for the entire state. The State Government is also on the verge

of finalizing a biodiversity conservation order to introduce rules and methods to protect

biodiversity and utilize them appropriately.

Drought and Rainwater Harvesting

The shortage of water even for drinking has become a hot issue in different

States including Kerala. But experts feel that rain, a major source of water, if harvested

properly, can solve the ongoing 'water war' among the States.* Rainwater harvesting

implies nothing but conservation of rainwater,''' For an average rainfall of 1000 mm,

approximately 40 lakh litres of rainwater get collected in a year in one acre of land

after evaporation. On the basis ot'this, Kerala, which has an annual rainfall of 3000

mm, the volume of rainwater that falls on a ground of one acre in a year is around 100

lakh litres. If such simple measures to "catch water where it falls" is taken by individuals,

most of the water management problems in our State can be solved. With the highly

growing demand for water; rainwater harvesting should become an integral part of every

home, society, panchayat, village, municipality and city in Kerala.204 An added benefit

of rainwater harvesting is the prevention of seawater in coastal regions. It builds inland

water tables, thus thwarting any attempt by the sea to push its salty water into coastal

regions and damage fresh water aquifers. Another benefit of rainwater harvesting is an

increase in soil moisture content making the soil fertile and conducive for agriculture.205

Due to the depletion of ground water table, many open wells, bore wells and hand pumps

become dry. Instead of discarding these water extraction structures, they can be

converted into favourable recharge structures. Roof water and run-off water can be

diverted through these water extraction structures after filling them with pebbles and

river sand. Environmentalists now call for greater awareness on rainwater harvesting

among the people in Kerala to make them cent per cent water-literate. Unfortunately

there is very little documentation of traditional water harvesting structures in Kerala.206

A pioneer in rain water harvesting, K.R. Gopinath, promoter, KRG Rainwater Harvesting Foundation, said that "catchine everv droo of rainwater where it falls and makina it wrcolate into the earth to reach aquifers will make Kerala self-sufficient and even make i t possible to support other states".

187

Discussion with the local elders and well-designed researches are urgently needed.

Some newspapers like Malayala Manorama has been propogating the concept through

their 'F'alathully' column.

Environmental Impacts of Dams

Awareness is spreading that large-scale development projects such as dams

and irrigation developments can, when carelessly planned, cause severe ecological

backlashes, damages that offset many of the benefits of the investment^.^^' In Kerala,

dams invited much public attention and precipitated environmental communication

after the aborted attempt to build a hydroelectric project with an installed capacity of

240 MW over Kunthipuzha in Silent Valley in 1980s. Kerala Sastra SahityaParishat

(KSSP), environmental activists and scientists from different background have been

vociferously expressing their concern about the adverse impacts of such large storage

dams which, together with other related issues have helped in creating widespread

environmental awareness in Kerala. There are 13 hydroelectric projects completed

and operating in Kerala. The main environmental impacts of dams are: impact due to

existence of dam and reservoir such as upstream change from river valley to reservoir,

change in down stream morphology of riverbed and banks, delta, estuary and coastline

due to altered sediment load, change in downstream water quality, temperature, nutrients,

turbidity, dissolved gases, heavy metals and minerals and reduction of biodiversity due

to blocking of the movement of' organisms and because of above changes.208

Superimposed upon the above impacts may be: impacts due to pattern of dam operations

such as change in down stream hydrology and morphology caused by altered flow

pattern, change in downstream water quality and reduction in riverine/riparian/floodplain

habitat diversity, especially because of elimination of floods. Deforestation and

displacement of natives are other inevitable results of dam construction. It is also well

established that large dams can t i g e r earthquakes, otherwise, calledReservoir - Induced

Seismicity.209 The most widely accepted explanation of how darns cause earthquakes is

related to the extra water pressure created in the micro cracks and fissures in the ground

under and near reservoir. The opposition to major projects has turned the attention of

the State to exploitation of micro (up to 100 KW), mini (101 to 1000 KW) and small

(1000 to 10,000 KW) Even though such schemes cannot be a replacement

for large and medium projects, it is prudent and advisable to take up and commission as

many of these projects in view of the lesser opposition to such schemes by

environmentalists.

Dams and the Human Consequences

Over the last six decades, the builders of dams have evicted from their homes

and land many tens of millions of people. It is difficult to give a reasonably accurate

estimate of the total number that has been evicted. Given their size, population densities

and number of dams, India and China have displaced and are displacing more people

than in any other nation. Researchers from the Indian Social Institute in New Delhi

estimate 'conservatively' that reservoirs and associated imgation projects in post-

Independent India have displaced more than 14 million people?" Not surprisingly,

almost all of them are poor and politically powerless, a large portion of them form

indigenous and other ethnic minorities. They are known as 'dam oustees' in India and

in a great majority of cases, they are economically, culturally and emotionally

devastated. In many cases the people have been flooded out with only minimal

compensation - often none at all - and many once self sufficient farming families have

thus been reduced to eking out a living as migrant laborers or slum dwellers. Millions

more have lost land and homes to the canals, irrigation schemes, roads, power lines and

industrial development which follow dams into ~alleys.2'~ Many more have not physically

been displaced from their homes but have lost their access to clean water, fish game,

grazing land, timber, he1 wood and wild fruits and vegetables in the dammed river and

valley. Others downstream have been deprived of the annual flood, which once irrigated

and fertilized their fields and recharged their wells. Millions too have suffered from

the diseases, which dams and large irrigation projects in the tropics almost inevitably

bring in their wake. These project affected people prove that dams ate no longer 'temples

of modem India' as Jawaharlal Nehru thought, instead they may be designated as

'temples of doom'.

Ecological Impacts of Monoculture

Monoculture, consisting of only one type or species of vegetation is the most

noticeable feature of the agricultural system of Kerala. On the other hand, in a natural

ccosysten~ there are different species of plants and animals, which depend on one

another. Monoculture invites several ecological problems. Many plant pests have

very specific requirements for their food and so they attack only one variety of plants;

(e.g. wheat). Traditional agriculture mixes varieties of plants and thus each field will

have some resistant and some vulnerable or susceptible plants, thus supplementing the

local needs with seeds, grains, roots, rhizome, leaves and fruits of different plants.'13

If the crops are attacked, only some of them will be affected. In modem agriculture

this type of mixed cropping is not being practised. Sometimes the entire district

cultivates the same variety say for example, rubber or pepper or coca and now even

with Vanilla, thus making all the crops in the district vulnerable to pests. In her book

'Monoculture of Mind' Vandana Shiva says that diversity disappears first from

perception and consequently from the The critical theme is that uniformity

and diversity are not just patterns of land use; they are ways of thinking and ways of

living. According to her, a later study of Green Revolution in agriculture showed that it

was primarily a recipe for the introduction of monoculture and destruction of diversity.

Monoculture took over tree planting with 'social forestry'.215 The experts decided that

indigenous knowledge was worthless and 'unscientific' and pro2eeded to destroy the

diversity of indigenous species by replacing them with eucalyptus, acacia, oil palm,

and other fast growing species. Local species were replaced by imported seeds and

expertise and together with this came the imports of loans and debts and the export of

wood, soils and people.

Saving biodiversity against homogeneity and uniformity of monoculture

Every individual can make a small though significant effort in the race to save

our planet and conserve biodiversity. One step ahead to save animal biodiversity is

curbing the greed for products made out of animal parts like skin, fur, ivory, bones,

nails, etc., to discourage wildlife traders and poachers and spare the remaining animals.

For example, adopting vegetariamsm would require fewer animals for slaughtering

and more plants grown for food. Plant trees wherever possible, as they are beneficial in

supporting diversity, cleaning the atmosphere, improving the soil and in so many more

ways. To protect small and microscopic organisms there should be effective

communication to avoid using insecticides, pesticides and inorganic fertilizers and to

use natural plant based substitutes wherever possible. Biodiversity is an alternative to

monoculture, homogeneity and uniformity and hence every effort should be made to

make children aware of their surroundings and the need for biodiver~ityconservation.~~~

Traditional agricultural practices should be followed and organic farming should be

encouraged. Biodiversity education should inculcate the knowledge that exotic and

hybrid varieties of plants and chemicals used as insecticides, pesticides, herbicides,

weedicides and rodenticides only exhaust the land and kill small animals and

microorganisms as against natural farming practices, which are in accordance with

Nature. Conservationists have to educate the layman and decision makers that species

once lost or ecosystem once decayed can never be created, that conservation of species

is the only hope for human survival and that long-term benefits of conservation for

human welfare have to take precedence over short-term benefits.

Problems related to the disappearance of small animals.

A detrimental effect of monoculture, to which Kerala has fallen a victim, is

that many small animals such as amphibians, insects, worms, centipedes, scorpions,

millipedes, flies, moths and other arthropods are fast disappearing. The role of small

animals and plants including microorganisms in the preservation of biodiversity and

maintaining the ecological balance is to be propagated through proper communication.

Many of them are indicators of Nature giving early warnings about a variety of changes

that might take place in the environment starting with local changes in soil, water and

air due to over use of chemical fertilizers and pe~ticides.~'' It has been shown that

amphibians can indicate widespread environmental changes that result from global

warming and UV-B radiation. The important role that some insects play in Nature is

exemplified by the fact that the value of honeybee in the pollination of crops is 15-20

times more than that of the honeybee wax it produces.218 Some small organisms like

mud wasps, grasshoppers, and birds are very valuable to man because they kill the insect

pests feeding on the crops, thus protecting the crops. Many of them also function as

weed killers, soil builders and sciivengers. Hence the disappearance of small animals

as a consequence of monoculture, rapid urbanization and mechanized and chemical

agriculture, should no longer be a neglected subject in ecological communication in

Kerala. Particularly important in awareness creation is that major part of life exists in

the form of microscopic organisms.219 The soil we depend on.for our folk is acommunity

of microorganisms who do not constantly recreate soil but feed trees of the forest,

filter water and fix nitrogen from air. Both in terms of biomass and the individual numbers

microscopic organisms outnumber life forms in the visible world. Four out of five

animals on this planet are actually microscopic nematodes and this invisible world that

disappears due to human impact needs better protection.

Fast-disappearing sacred groves in Kerala.

Sacred Groves, the unique Islands of biodiversity is fast disappearing in Kerala.

In fact, Sacred Groves represent an ancient Indian way of in situ conservation tradition,

protected by local people out of reverence and respect, fear and sentiment.220 The right

interpretation of 'sacred' would be that which is held in great esteem and awe and hence

sacred for the people and naturally their protection were considered an obligation on

the part of the people.221 They are the home of the local flora and fauna, a veritable

gene pool and a mini biosphere reserve. Within these groves are locked ancient secrets

of herbs and traditional medicine, primitive practices of sorcery and magic that are

intertwined with the life and culture of people in Kerala. Many of the trees supposed

to have been extinct are found in some sacred groves. And most of them are medicinal

plants.* In addition to functioning as a cradle of biodiversity, sacred groves are

responsible for water cycling, nutrient cycling and water conservation areas.z2* The

upper soil of sacred groves containing decaying leaves and crores of microorganisms

are responsible for slowing the flow of water and absorbing the water into the

underground. People are prevented from entering into kavu and taking even a dried

branch or leaf of tree and if one does so, it is believed that he will have the curse of

Almighty. On a rough estimate, Kerala has about 1500 sacred Groves, the area ranging

from one cent as in some nagaru kauvs to more than 20 hectares in Iringole K a v ~ . ~ ~ '

* Conservation, both at the macro or the micrrs levels, is essential for our survival. The take over of forests by the various State Governments has not been very successful, as it has alienated the people who have conserved them for years. On the other hand, when local communities have preserved their natural resources by settinga systemofrules and taboos, i t has very effectively preserved the same resources. The sacred grove is one such example

Kunnathurpadikavu, Payyannur (I 8.21 ha) and Theyyottukavu , Kannur dist. (16.187

ha) are two other large Kavus in Kerala. A complete inventory of the sacred groves of

Kerala is not available. Once a common feature in Kerala, the remaining sacred groves

are now being conserved by communities.224 Disappearance of the 'tharavadu system',

human interference through grazing, poaching and other antisocial activities and changing

socio economic scenario are the major threats to the sacred groves of Kerala.* The

Poet Vailoppaly SreedharaMenon has a very famous poem titled 'SarppaWcad written

in 1952 in which he has questioned man's unwise interference in converting kavus into

agricultural lands and developmental purposes in the name of industry and progress.225

The preservation of fast disappearing sacred groves of Kerala is as important as presewing

the forests for protecting biodiversity and securing the underground water table. In this

era of dwindling forest cover, creation of public awareness about the importance of this

unique network of ecological systems and the necessity of their preservation through

mass media is an inescapable task ofenvironmental communication in Kerala.

Species invasion - an emerging environmental problem of the current century.

Species invasion as an inevitable consequence of globalization is an emerging

environmental problem of 2 1" century. Coastal and inland waters of Kerala are being

increasingly infested with foreign species that proliferate because they lack predators

that keep them in check at home. In the absence of natural enemies, these exotic species

can multiply and cause extinction of native species, bring many diseases and disrupt

the natural cycle. Often the newcomers are discharged in the ballast water of ships.

Among the invasive species that have already caused ecological problems: are Ichornia

that arrived from Brazil in 1902, and Salvinia that reached Kerala from South Africa in

1955.lZ6 Eucalyptuses from Australia and Lantana from South America have

extensively colonized in Kerala. The latest arrivals are Uppatorium oderatum

(Cammunist paccha) which was not present in Kerala until about 25 years ago, and

Parthenium, a weed that causes severe allergy in many people, are rapidly spreading in

Kerala. Among the ornamental flowers, the latest arrival is Santidecia ethiopica,

* Althouah thereare many types ofsacred arovcs in Kerala, the Bhagavati kavu, the Sawoakavu and the Satham Kavu. - . . - . . arc the must prominent Ayyappan kavu - the sacred groves dcdicate.1 to Lord Ayyappa were earlier the most conlmon in Kerals Sacred t!,ro\e, are ma~nly dedlcsled to snake nods - Sdrpa kavu in Nonll Kurala or to the - - Goddess Bhagavathi - Ammar. kavu or Bhagavathi kavu in the south.

otherwise known as 'kala lilly' from Africawhich belong to the same family ofAriaciae

to which other species like Anthuriam, Kaledium and Filodendron also belongs to.'"

Foreign flowers have become status :symbols of the globalization infected post-modem

Kerala culture. Among domesticated animals indigenous species are almost completely

replaced by foreign species or their hybridized varieties.

Hotspots of Corporate Excesses i n Kerala

A typical example of corporate excesses in India is Dow Chemicals, which has

taken over Union Carbide, the company responsible for the Bhopal gas leak, despite

being warned of outstanding crirninal charges against Carbide. The Plantation

Corporation of Kerala, Grasim Industries, Kozhikode and Eloor Industrial Estate in

Cochi have in no way played a much lesser role.228 As already seen, the aerial spraying

of the highly dangerous pesticide endosulfan on cashew crops by the Plantation

Corporation of Kerala has led to an abnormally high rate of deformities, cancers and

diseases related to the central nervous system. Endosulfan, an organochlorine pesticide,

is banned or restricted in many countries. The Grasim Industries, Kozhikode is another

example. For nearly 30 years, forests in the Western Ghats were cut down to feed a

rayon factory operated by the Birla Group's Grasim Industries. Effluents polluted the

Chaliyar River in Kerala, devastating local fisheries, even while air pollution made life

unlivable in surrounding villages. Despite intense opposition, the management

successfully played the workers against the community. Now the company is shut

down leaving jobless workers, a devastated ecosystem and a broken, unhealthy

community in its wake. There is much hue and cry against the Coca Cola factory,

Plachimada, Kerala. It is now charged with sucking ground water and depriving local

villagers of water to drink or The company also stands accused of polluting the

groundwater, and of passing offtheir toxic sludge (high cadmium and other metals) as

fertilizer to farmers. The Eloor Industrial Estate of Kerala is a typical local example to

demonstrate the devastating effects of pollution. Increased rates of cancer, bronchitis,

asthma, congenital and chroinosornal aberration, stomach ulcers and poisoning are

recorded amongst the residents of Eloor Industrial Estate, caused by the release of

toxic effluents into the Periyar river by over 247 chemical factories, including a DDT

factory that operate within the vicinity of residential areas in El00r.~'~ A riverside island

in Kerala, Eloor has 40,000 residents of whom 10,000 are factory workers. Despite

numerous protests, the government has yet to ensure medical rehabilitation of victims

and zero discharge of toxic effluents. Although to a lesser extent, almost all the cities

of Kerala are experiencing similar environmental problems due to corporate or local

excesses.

Increasing Environmental Refugees in Kerala

In several parts of the world there is an emergent phenomenon o f 'environmental

exodus". It is made up of people who are increasingly coming to be known as

environmental refugees. They are people who can no longer gain a secure livelihood in

their homelands because of drought, soil erosion, desertification, deforestation,

industrialization and other environmental problems.231 In their desperation, they feel

they have no alternative but to seek sanctuary elsewhere, however hazardous the attempt.

Not all of them have fled their countries; many are "internally displaced." But all have

abandoned their homelands on a semi-permanent if not permanent basis, having little

hope of a foreseeable return.* In addition, large numbers of peasant farmers have felt

obliged in recent decades to abandon traditional farmlands and migrate into tropical

forests, impelled by land degradation, water shortages, population pressures, poverty

and landlessne~s.~'~ Their numbers are variously estimated to be between 200 million

and 500 million. Not all of them, in fact probably only a moderate proportion

(undeterminable), should count as environmental refugees in the strict sense since

they are not all driven by destitution. Eloor, a riverside island in Kerala which is the

State's largest industrial belt where 247 chemical factories operate within the vicinity

of this residential area has become a standing monument of growing number of

environmental refugees in Kerala. A health assessment done by Green Peace

* According to recent estimates (Kane, 1995; United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 1993; United Nations Population Fund, 1993; U.S. Committee for Refugees, 1994), there were 22 million refugees o f recognized sort worldwide in 1994. The phrase "of recognized sorf'means that they conformed to the ofiicial designation ofpersons fleeing frompolitical, ethnic or religious persecution, and they had crossed international borders. In addition there were roughly 35 million unrecognized refuges, o f whom perhaps five million had crossed international borders and 30 million were displaced within their own countries. So the overall total o f refugees in 1994, whether officially recognized or not, was some 57 million. A cisproportionate share of them was made up of women and children (Chant, 1992; Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 1993)

International with support from other agencies reveal that the residents of Eloor have

2.85 times higher risks of suffering from cancer, three times higher possibility of

contracting mental and behavioral problems, 3.8 times more chances of having children

with birth defects and death incidences due to bronchitis and asthma in Eloor areaare

2.2 to 3.4 times more.211 These illnesses are caused by the relentless release of toxic

effluents into the Periyar river by the chemical Local people who have been

exposing instances of toxic pollution caused by these industries are now moving out as

environmental refugees to safer places. The number of environmental refbges in Kerala

will continue to increase due to the broad scale environmental degradation, severe

population pressures, absolute poverty pollution and landlessness.* All these are

important subjects for effective environmental communication in Kerala.

* There have been several preliminary efforts to pin down the essential characteristics of environmental refugees. Essam El-Hinnawi of the United Nations Environment Programme (1985) bas offered an inclusive description: "Those people who have been forced to leave their traditional habitat, temporarily or mrmanentlv. because of a . . . . marked environmental disruption that has jeopardized their existence andlor seriously affected the quallty of their life." Jodi Jacobson ofthe World watch Institute (1988) has defined them as: 1)Those people temporarily displaced due to local environmental disruption; 2) thosl: who migrate because environmental degradation has undermined their livelihood or poses unacceptable risks to health; and 3) those who resettle because land degradation has resulted in desertification or because of other permanent changes in habitat.

196

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Ibid. p.x-xii.

Parag Diwan, Communicatl'on Management, New Delhi, Deep & Deep Publications, 1997, p. 1.

Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad, Three and a half decades experience, (Malayalam: Moonnu Pathittandu Kalathe Anubhavangal) Kochi, by KSSP, 2000, pp.30-41.

A. Sreedhara Menon, K. Balachandran Thampi, N.M. Nayar, and C.S. Nayar, Land and People in the Natural Resources of Kerala, WWF, Thiruvananthapuram, 1997, p. 1.

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C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Environmental Concerns ofIndia: An introduction, Chennai, Madras, 1996, p.61.

Susan D. Lanier Graham, The Nature Directory: A guide to Environmental Organisation, New York, Walker and Company, 1991, p.1.

Notes to the 1" meeting ofLegislative Environmental Committee (2001 -2003) offer to 1 1 th Legislative Assembly, Trivandrum 1992, p.2.

Extract ofRule 261 D (I to VIII) of the rules of procedure and conduct of business in the Kerala Legislative Assembly.

1992-1994: l S t Report about fresh water lakes in the sate, submitted to the Govt. on 2/2/1993.

Ibid. p.7,lO.

1993-1994: 2nd Report on the environmental problems created by a Private sector industry named Kerala Clays and Ceramic Product LTD, submitted to ~ o v t . on 3rd J U I ~ I 994, p. 1.

Ibid. p. 13.

K.K.Ramachandran and D.Padmala1, Environments1 Impact Assessment (EIA) of Mineral Basest 1tzdustri~:s in The Natural Resources of Kerala, WWF, Thiruvananthapuram, 1997, p.44.

WWF-INDIA quarterly, 25th Anniversary IssueIJuly - Dec. 1994, published by WWF India, pp. 33-34.

Article on 'Government silent on threat to rain forests' by Roy Mathew, The Hindu, 26* July 2001).

J. Yanney Ewusie, Elements cf Tropical Ecology with Reference to the African, Asian, Paczjic and New Worid Tropics, USA, Heinemann Educational Books Inc., 1980, p.152.

Chandrasekharan C., Forest as a resource-perspectives in The Natural Resources ofKerala, WWF, Thiruvananthapuram, 1997, pp. 422-423.

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3rd Report on the environmental problems created by the deforestation of Jeerakappara - Achankovil area submitted on 2-8-94 p. I.

Ibid. pp. 33,34.

Introductory notes to the Kerala Legislative Assembly Committee on Environment, (2001- 2003), Eleventh Legislative Assembly, Thiruvananthapuram, 2003, p. 9.

7th Report of LEC on the destruction of forest in Nelliampathi and the resultant Environmental Problems, submitted on 2gth J U I ~ 1997, p. 9.

l Z f h Report, The Report ofthe ..., Op.cit., p. 18.

lSt interim report on Environmental pollution at Sabadmala and nearby places during the pilgrimage season, submitted on October 1 7th 2001 with the purpose of improving the environmental conditions of the areas. P 3-4 It contains 26 recommendations including 22 general proposals to be implemented urgently.

Znd report on Environmental pollution at Sabarimala and nearby places during the pilgrimage season, submitted on 8& July 2002 with the purpose of improving the environmental conditions of the areas. pp.3-7.

Ibid. pp. 10-1 5.

Introductory notes, This is also ..., Op. cit., p. 4.

6th Report of Kerala Legislative environmental Committee on Rudravanam Project submitted on gth ~ u ~ u s t 1995 p.8-28.

Ibid. p.30.

4fh Report of the Legislative Environment Committee on the environmental problems caused by the cl.ematoriums in major cities of Kerala submitted on 1 ! -8-1 994, p. 5 .

6th Report, Air pollution ..., (Ip. cit., p. 5.

Ibid. pp. 5-6.

4th Report, The main ..., Op. cit., p. 16-20.

P.S.Harikumar, Drinking water quality problems of Kerala and remedial measures in Fresh Water Resources of Kerala, STEC, Govt. of Kerala, 2004, p. 66.

jth Report of the LEC on the environmental problems related to the scarcity of drinking water in Alleppy town and Chertalla Taluksubmittedon 1-2-1995, p.2.

Ibid. p. 10.

1995-1996 - 9lh Report of Kerala Legislative Assembly on the environmental issues related to the distribution of drinking water submitted on 1 9 ~ ~ March 1996, pp.2-33.

Ibid. p. 34.

71h Report of the LEC on the environmental pollution created by the crusher units in Kerala, pp. 3-4.

Ibid. p.14-16.

M.I. Andrews and K.P.Joy, ficology, Evolution, Ethology and Zoogeography, Changanachery, St. Mary s Press& Book Depot, 2003, p. 219.

81h Report on the environmental problems created by Southern Refineries at Kuzhinjal vilayil in Parassah. Submitted on 18-3-1996 p. 1-4.

Ibid. p.20.

1 oth Report on the peculiar environment of Chertalla area particularly related to the disease elephantiasis in Chertalla Taluk, submitted on 19-3- 1996.

Ibid. p.11-13.

Report of Leptspirosis Institute of Kerala, Project Background Paper, Manarcadu, 200 1.

Ibid. p.2,

K.N.Ramani, Water borne diseases of Kerala in Fresh water Resources of Kerala, STEC, Thivananthapuram, 2004.

5lh Report on the typhoid infection at Mattancherry region of Ernakulum District, submitted on 23rd December 1999, under the Chairmanship of Sri. Babu Divakaran containing 12 recommendations. p.3-4.

Central Pollution Control Board, Pollution Control Acts, Rules and Notifications -Pollution Control Law Series, Chapter: Bio Medical Waste (Management and Handling I<ules), Delhi, CPCB, 2001, p. 647.

Govt of Kera1a:Vision Document on Biomedical Waste Management , Thiruvananthapuram, 2003, p. 6.

Tree India Environment Journal, Vo. 1517, November-December 2000.

First, second and third Report of the Legislative Environment Committee on the environmental problems of Calicut Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram, 1996-98.

Second Report of the LE Committee submitted on 2nd April 1997 under the chairmanship of A.V.Thamarakshan and eight other MLA s on the Environmental issues of Trichur Medical College and other private hospitals.

Third special Report of LEC on the Environmental Problems of Alleppy Medical College, submitted on lSt July 1997 under the Chairmanship of A.V.Tharnarakshan and eight other MLA s. p.49.

Ibid. p.49.

Sreedhara Menon. A, Already our ..., Op.cit., p. 1 19.

Malayala Manorama, report on 'Vanishing bird populalation in Vembanad Lake', 2nd nov.2002.

Forth Report on the implementation of coastal region control laws, submitted on 7th July 1997 under the Chairmanship of A.V. Tharnarakshan M.L.A., pp. 12-13.

Ibid. p. 13.

Sri. S. Rangarajan, The Hindu Survey of the Environment, Chennai, Kasturi & Sons Ltd., 1999, p. 175.

Indian Express, 1 1 th November, 1997.

Kerala State Pollution Control Board notification /TAP/115/97 dated 6th Sept 2003 (Kerala Gazette Vol. 48 dt. 12th Sept.2003).

Fifth Report on LEC on the environmental problems due to plastic waste, submitted on 22nd July 19!>7, p. 5.

Ibid. p. 6 .

Sixth report on the environmental pollution problems on Alleppey - Kuttanadu Region, submitted on July 2gth 1997, pp. 5-7.

Indian Express, loth March 2000, p. 3.

Kamalakshan Kokkal, Environmental Problems of Kerala. (Malayalam, Keralathile Paristhithi Prashnangal), Thiruvanathapuram, STEC, 2002, pp. 3 1-32.

P.J. Joy, Ecology and Control of Salvinia - The molesting weed of Kerala, Mannuthy, Kerala Agricultural University, 1978, pp. 13-25.

The Hindu , 9th March, 2000.

Report of the Kerala State Legislative Assembly Committee on Environment on the environmental problems of Alleppey - Kuttanad region, submitted to Government on 28.07.1997, pp. 9-1 1.

Malayala Manorama Editorial dt. 2.12.1998 and 2.3.1999 entitled 'Waragainst the algae and integrated approach to weed control'.

T.V. Jayan, 'Weeding out a menace- Kerala plans to use water hyacinth to manufacture an important irtdustial enzyme' article in Down to Earth, dated July 15,2004,G. 38.

gfh Report of LEC on the waste management problems in cities and Municipalities of the state, submitted on 9th Dec. 1997 under the Chairmanship of A.V.Thamarakshan and eight other MLAs.

Ibid. p.34.

9th Report of LEC on waste Management in Guruvayoor Township, submitted on 22nd. Dec. 1997 . under the Chairmanship of A.V. Thamarakshan and 8 other MLA s. There are 15 recommendations in it. A great deal of awareness was created as a result of all these reports on various environmental issues in Kerala and remedial actions were taken in some areas. pp. 1-5.

Ibid. p. 4.

K. Balachandran Thampi, N.M. Nayar, C.S.Nair, The Natural Resources of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, WWF, Kerala Office, 1997, p. 127.

C.P.R.E.E.C., Environment~zl Concerns ofIndia -An introduction, Chennai, C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, 1996, p.61.

Unesco-UNEP International Environmental Education Programme- Environmental Educational Series 4, Educational Module on Environmental Problems in cities, UNESCO Division of Science, Technical and Vocational Education. 1983 p. 136.

Eco News, published by CPREEC, Chennai, Vol. 10. No I. April-June 2004, p. 22.

J. Yanney Ewusie, Communication also ..., Op.cit., p. 3

T. R. Saranathan, Encology Monthly Magazine Devoted To Environment, Ecology & Energy Conservation, Bombay, Lavanya Prints Pvt. Ltd., Vol. 8, No.9 Febraury 1994. p.2 1.

Article on the report of Achuthan Committee in Soochimukhi Magazine. January 2002, pp. 32 - 42.

Down to Earth, No. 15, p.54.

R.V.G.Menon, Alternative Resources of energy- the problems and Prospects, The Natural Resources ofKerala, WWF, Thiruvananthapm, Kerala ,1997, p ,556.

Down to Earth - May 12,2003 p. 42.

loth Report on the environmental issues particularly water and air pollution created by Mavoor Gasim industries, submitted on 22nd April 1998, under the Chairmanship of A.V.Thamarakshan containing 10 recommendations, p. 18.

Ibid. p. 13.

5th Report on environmentally related issues created by McDowell's company in Cherthala, submitted on July loth, 2003 with the purpose of improving the environmental conditions of the areas. It contains 16 recommendations, including 10 general proposals to be implemented urgently, p.2.

Ibid. p. 1 1.

Report of the Kerala State Legislative Assembly Committee on Environment, submitted to Government on 19th July, 1999, Thiruvananthapuram, p. 1.

Ibid. pp. 1-2.

Tree India Environment Journal (February - 2003 December 2003), Vol. 161 27 February, p. 1 1.

Report of the Kerala State Legislative Environment Committee, 1999, The court ..., Op.cit., pp- 2-3.

14'j Report on Vehicular Pollution (smoke and sound) in the state, submitted on lgth July 1999, p. 4.

C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Environmental Concerns ofIndia, Chennai, 1996, p. 10.

UNEP- Earthscan, Global Environment Outlook-3 , Earthscan Publications Ltd, London- Sterling (USA), 2002, pp. 210-21 1.

Eco City, Kottayarn - Kumarakom, Comprehensive Environmental Management Plan for Kottayam-Kumarakom Ecocity Programme, Public Disclosure ofDraft

Comprehensive Environmental Management Plan, January 14 to 18, 2003, Ecosmart India Limited, p. 5.

Schwela. D. WHO Agenda on Indoor Air Pollution. Presentation at Regional Workshop on Household Energy, Indoor Air Pollution and Health, New Delhi, 2002.

UNEP, Urban Air Pollution, Op.cit p. 12.

Bioenergy News, Vol. 8, No.2, April 2003.

3rd Report on Environmental Pollution of Philips Carbon Black Company, Karimukal, Emakulam submitted on July 3 1,2002, pp. 26-27.

Ibid. pp. 4-5

Down to Earth, 3 1st August :!003,

UNEP, Urban Air Pollution, Kenya, United Nations Environment Programme, 1991, p.20.

Down to Earth, 15th Januray, 2000, p. 4.

India Today, Report on Environment and Health, Oct. 21, No 5,1996.

Down to Earth, May 31,2001.

Role of Biopesticides in Envirorunental Safety, Science and Culture, May- June, 2000.

R. Ajayakumar Varma, Er~vironmental constraints of small island water resource system in Fresh Water Resources of Kerala, STEC, Thiruvananthapuram, 2004, p. 120.

Erik P. Eckholm, Down to Earth : Environment and Human Needs, foreword by Barbara Ward, New Delhi, Affiliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd, 1991, p.109.

Down to Earth, December 31,2003, p. 7.

The Hindu Nov. 9,2001.

The Hindu, July 22,2001.

The Hindu, Special Correspondent, 'KAU Report on Endosulphan Biased' November 9,2000.

Tree India Environment Journal, Vol. 16/15 February 2002.

Article on the report of Achuthan Committee in SoochimuWliMagazine, January 2002 p. 32 - 42.

122. Rashtni Mayur, 'Noise: a Silent Killer', Science Express, May I. 1990, p.1

UNEP, Urban., The technics ..., Op.cit., p.4.

Michael Rodda, Noise and ,Society, London, Oliver and Boyd Ltd, 1967, pp. 94-95.

AN Letter, Equations Vol. '7, No. 1 November 2000 Bangalore, Equitable Tourism Options (EQUATIONS) p. I.

Ibid. p.12.

Shubhendu Kaushik, 'An Ideas and Lnventions paper Towards A Tourism Strategy', Bangalore, EQUATIONS, July 8-12,1993.

M.I. Andrews, The indigenous ..., Op.cit., pp. 233-234.

K.G. Mohanlal, Ecotourism, (Article in The Natural Resources of Kerala, WWF), Thiruvananthapurarn, 1997, pp. 565-566.

TreeIndia Environment Journal, Vol. 18/38, January 2004.

Report of the Legislative Environment Committee submitted to Govt. of Kerala on 29fh Dec, 1999 , pp 5-7.

Ibid. p. 1 1.

Malayala Manorama, Dec. 13,2000 & Jan.8,2001

The Hindu, 28th January, 200 1.

1 7Ih Report based on the siudy on the increasing incidence of earthquake in different parts of the state on 12Ih Dec 2000 and 7th January 2001 particular1 in Pala, Erattupetta area of Kottayarn district, submitted to the Govt. on 2gt g Feb 2001, pp.2-8

Ibid. p. 1.

Ibid. p.5.

News Letter - Vasudha, Vol. 3, April 2001, No.2.

Sri. S. Rangarajan, The Hindu Survey of the Environment, Chennai, Kasturi & Sons Ltd., 2001, p.11.

The Hindu, November 29"' 2001.

Ramanujam, R. 2000, 'Mineral Water and Potable Water Quality and Health Safety', in Souvenir - Advanced National Seminar on Mineral Water and C- ~naurner - . Righis, World Consumer Rights Day 2000, Launching Millennium

Policy, Centre of Indian Consumer Protection and Research, Thiruvananthapuram.

142 The Hindu, January 22,2004.

143. Down to Earth, Vol. 12, NO. 6, August 15,2003, pp. 30-3 1.

144. Down to Earth Feb. 15 2003, p.28.

145. Down to Earth, Vol. 12,Op.cit., p.32.

146. George Chackacheny, 'Socio-economic aspects of drinking water supply in Kerala' in the book Fresh water Resources of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, STEC, 2004, pp 97-1 1 1.

147. lath ~ q o r t of LEC, prepared on the production and quality control ofmineral water in the state, submitted on lSt arch 2001, under the Chairmanship of Sri. Anathalavattom Anandan. There are 2 1 recommendations. p.2.

148. Ibid. p.2.

149. Ibid. pp.21-22.

150. UNEPJGEMS Environment Library No.5, The Contamination offood, Nairobi, United Nations Environment Programme, 1992, p.6.

15 1. Ecologist Asia, Vol. 1 1. No 4 p. 32,34.

152. Study Report, Presence of Heavy metals in sludge generated in the factory of Hindustan Cococola Beverages Pvt Limited, Palakkad, Kerala State Pollution Control Board, Sept.2003, pp.10-14.

153. A. Santhosh Mathew (Ed), /l case study by Aby Mathew on 'Sofi Drinks and Hard Water' in Rio, Johannesburg and Beyond, Lead India, Orient Longman, New Delhi, 2002, p. 52-55.

154. STEC, Water Scenario ofKerala, Published by STEC, Govt. of Kerala, January, 1998. p.2.

155. Patrict McGully, Silenced Rivers, New Delhi, Orient Longman, 1998, pp. 40- 71)

156. 4"' ~ e p o r t of LEC on Death of Varattar river and related environmental problems, submitted on June26th ,2003 with the purpose of improving the environmental conditions of the area, pp. 1-3.

1 57. Centre for Environmental Education (CEE), Conserving our Water Resources, Ahamadabad, CEE, 1974, p. 60.

1 58. 4"' Report of LEC, 2003, Op.cit., p. 5.

E.J. James, 'Salinity Intrusion into Rivers and its impacts on Drinking Water Schemes' - Case Studies from South West India, Proc., 3rd National Water Congress, New Delhi, 1996.

E.J. James, Vembanad-Kole Wetland System in Relation to Drainage Basin Management- A case study, prepared for Asian Wetland Bureau, Kuala Lumpur, 1996.

M.I. Andrews & K. P. Joy, The sand ..., Op.cit., p. 2 16.

Khoshoo, T.N., Ramanathan, N.L. and Mehta, R. (Eds), Environmental Management oJMining Operations, Department of Environment, Government of India, New Delhi, 1982, p. V.

K. D. Namboothiripad, paper 'Surface Water Resources', TheNatural Resources ofKeraala, Thiruvananthapuram, WWF, Kerala State Office, pp. 52-53.

Malayala Manorama, August 13,2003

K. D. Namboothiripad, Op.C:it., p. 55.

State Committee on Science Technology and Environment, Government of Kerala, Water Scenario of Kerala , 1998, p. 2.

CPREEC, Environmental Concerns oflndia - A n Introduction, Madras, C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, 1996, p. 2 1.

STEC, The ground water quality.. ., Op.cit., p. 66.

CPREEC, Environmental Concerns oflndia, India is ..., Op.cit., p. 21.

M. Nazimuddin, Ground water extraction structures in Freshwater Resources of Kerala, State Council for Science, Technology and & Environment, Thiruvananthapurarn, 2004, p.77.

The Hindu, May 28th> 2002 'Tube well - water policy blues' by Mihir Shah.

C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Water Resources Management, Chennai,C.P.R.E.E.C, p.8.

M.K.Prasad: 'Conservation of Water Resources- People s Initiatives', Kerala State Council for Science Technology & Environment, Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, 2004, pp. 34-39.

C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Water Resources ..., 0p.cit p.36

Science Reporter, Nov. 1990 p. 13

1 77. Prasadam, a monthly magazine published by John C. Jacob Trichur, Feb.97, p. 25.

178. CEERA News, Centre for Environmental Education, Research and Advocacy, National Law School of the Indian University, 2001, p. 2.

179. The Hindu, Sunday, June 1 1,2000, p.VII1.

180. Kumudranjn Nasikar, Ecoloa and Biodiversity of Indian Mangroves: Part I , Delhi, Daya Publishing House;1999, pp. 163-166.

18 1 . The Hindu, 'Concern over depletion of mangroves', June 27,2001

1 82. Kandal Samrakshana Samithy, Bulletin dated 1.10.96.

183. The Hindu, 171h June, 1999.

184. The Hindu. August 23,1999.

185. Indian Express, 061h July, 1996.

186. Indian Express dt. loth August 1997 an article by K.N. Shyarnasundran Nair, a member of the state Planing Board.

187. The Hindu, 291h July, 2001.

188. Malayala Manorama, 5" August, 2000.

189. P.S. Harikumar, 'Multi Coloured Rains and the Environment in Kerala' of CWRDM, Calicut. Published in the magazine Environmental Problems of Kerala by STEC, Trivandrum. Page 98-99.

190. The Hindu, 1 1 Ih November, 200 1

19 1. News Letter - Vasudha, Vol. 3, July 2001, No.3, prepared by the Task Group for Local Level Planning and Development Programmes. Published by the Director, Centre for Earth Science Studies, Akkulam.

1 92. Green Brigade, India Green File: A Selection of Clippings on the Environment September 1 to 30, 1995, No.93, p. 10.

193. M.I.Andrews&K.P. Joy, Op.cit., p.215-216.

194. Ibid. p. 217.

195. Ibid. p. 218.

196. Tree India Environment Journal, Vol 17/33, August 2003, p.3.

197. R. Ramachandran Pillai, Article on 'Mining in Troubled Sands', The Hindu, June 2 1,2003.

198. News Letter - Vasudha, Vol. 3 , Op. cit., p. 2.

Malayala Manorama, July 20,2001

Zevan A.C. & J.M.T. DeWert, Dictionary ofCultivated Plans and theirRegions Diversity, Waginger, Netherland, p. 259.

Frontline 22nd Oct. 1999 p 87 on 'Safeguards against Biopiracy' by Biplab Dasgupta.

Malayala Manorama, 3 1.10.1999.

V.P. Raj, 'Rainwater Harvesting: A panacea for water woes', in Watershed News Digest, produced by Western Ghat Cell, Planning and Economic Affairs Department, Govt. of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, 2004, p. 1 18.

George Abe, Rain water harvesting techniques in Fresh water Resources of Kerala , STEC, Government ofKerala, 2004, pp. 136-138.

The Hindu, Special Correspondent on 'Rain Water Harvesting: Answer to Water Woes', February 1,2003.

Shree Padre, Rainwater Harvesting, Thrissur, Altermedia, 2002, p. 2-3.

Erik P. Eckholm, Awareness is spreading .... Op.cit., p.9

Patrick Macully, Silenced Rivers - The Ecology and Politics of Dams, New Delhi, Orient Longman, 1998 P. 4

Sri. S. Rangarajan, The Hindu ..2001 Reservoir - Induced ... Op.cit., p.75.

K. Balachandran Thampi, N.M. Nayar, C.S. Nair, The Natural Resources of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, World Wide Fund for Nature-India, Kerala State Office. p.76.

Patrick Macully, Researchers from the ..., Op.cit., p. 14

Zbid. p. 15.

Randhawa, M.S., A History ofAgriculture in Zndia, New Delhi, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, 1989, pp. 98-99.

Vandana Shiva, Monoculture of the Mind, Penang, Malaysia, Third World Networks, 1993, p. 5.

Zbid pp. 29-30.

C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Biodiversity, Chennai, The C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation, 1998. p.60.

Biodiversity oflndia, ISCB (Indian Society for Conservation Biology) News Letter, January 1996 - 1998.

C.P.R, The Need for Biodiversity - Role of Small Animals, Booklet, Chennai, CPR Environmental Education Centre, p. 10.

ENN News Story hupllwww.enn.comJnews 2004-07-077S2435 1.asp

M. Arnirthalingam, Sacred Groves o f ~amilnadu -A Survey, Chennai, C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, 1998, p.5.

Sarojini Menon. V., Sacred Groves, in Natural Resources of Kerala. WWF Kerala Office, Thiruvananthapuram, 1997, p. 159.

E. Unnikrishnan, Utharakeralathile Vishudha Vanangal (Mal.), Pariyaram, Kannoor, Sumskruthi Publications, 1997, p. 254.

Sarojini Menon, On a rough estimate ..., Op.cit., p. 161.

Sri. S. Rangarajan, The Hindu, 200 1 , Once a common ..., Op.cit., p. 177.

Viloppally Sreedhara Menon, Sarppakad, Kottayam, National Book stall, 1975.

P.J.Joy, Ojten the newcomers ..., Op.cit.,

Malayala Manorama, 61hAugust, 2004, p. 1 1.

The Ecologist Asia, Article on Hotspots of Corporate Excesses, Vol. 1 1 No.4 Oct-Dec.2003, Mumbai, pp.32-33.

Ibid. p. 33

Down to Earth, Oct. 15,2003.

Norman Meyers with Jennifer Kenl. EnvironmentalExodus :An Emergent Cnsk In The GlobalArena, Climate Institute Washington DC June 1995. p. 14.

Ibid. p.16.

Down to Earth, A health assessment ..., Op.cit., p. 15.

The Ecologist Asia,Vol. 1 1 .No. 4 Oct-Dec.2003, p.45.