communication and language - artificial...
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Communication and Language
Chapter 22
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Outline
♦ Communication
♦ Grammar
♦ Syntactic analysis
♦ Problems
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Communication
“Classical” view (pre-1953):language consists of sentences that are true/false (cf. logic)
“Modern” view (post-1953):language is a form of action
Wittgenstein (1953) Philosophical Investigations
Austin (1962) How to Do Things with Words
Searle (1969) Speech Acts
Why?
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Communication
“Classical” view (pre-1953):language consists of sentences that are true/false (cf. logic)
“Modern” view (post-1953):language is a form of action
Wittgenstein (1953) Philosophical Investigations
Austin (1962) How to Do Things with Words
Searle (1969) Speech Acts
Why?
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Communication
“Classical” view (pre-1953):language consists of sentences that are true/false (cf. logic)
“Modern” view (post-1953):language is a form of action
Wittgenstein (1953) Philosophical Investigations
Austin (1962) How to Do Things with Words
Searle (1969) Speech Acts
Why?
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Communication
“Classical” view (pre-1953):language consists of sentences that are true/false (cf. logic)
“Modern” view (post-1953):language is a form of action
Wittgenstein (1953) Philosophical Investigations
Austin (1962) How to Do Things with Words
Searle (1969) Speech Acts
Why?
To change the actions of other agents
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Speech acts
SITUATION
Speaker Utterance Hearer
Speech acts achieve the speaker’s goals:Inform “There’s a pit in front of you”Query “Can you see the gold?”Command “Pick it up”Promise “I’ll share the gold with you”Acknowledge “OK”
Speech act planning requires knowledge of– Situation– Semantic and syntactic conventions– Hearer’s goals, knowledge base, and rationality
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Stages in communication (informing)
Intention S wants to inform H that P
Generation S selects words W to express P in context C
Synthesis S utters words W
Perception H perceives W ′ in context C ′
Analysis H infers possible meanings P1, . . . Pn
Disambiguation H infers intended meaning Pi
Incorporation H incorporates Pi into KB
How could this go wrong?
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Stages in communication (informing)
Intention S wants to inform H that P
Generation S selects words W to express P in context C
Synthesis S utters words W
Perception H perceives W ′ in context C ′
Analysis H infers possible meanings P1, . . . Pn
Disambiguation H infers intended meaning Pi
Incorporation H incorporates Pi into KB
How could this go wrong?– Insincerity (S doesn’t believe P )– Speech wreck ignition failure– Ambiguous utterance– Differing understanding of current context (C 6= C ′)
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Grammar
Vervet monkeys, antelopes etc. use isolated symbols for sentences⇒ restricted set of communicable propositions, no generative capacity
(Chomsky (1957): Syntactic Structures)
Grammar specifies the compositional structure of complex messagese.g., speech (linear), text (linear), music (two-dimensional)
A formal language is a set of strings of terminal symbols
Each string in the language can be analyzed/generated by the grammar
The grammar is a set of rewrite rules, e.g.,
S → NP VP
Article → the | a | an | . . .
Here S is the sentence symbol, NP and VP are nonterminals
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Grammar types
Regular: nonterminal → terminal[nonterminal ]
S → aS
S → Λ
Context-free: nonterminal → anything
S → aSb
Context-sensitive: more nonterminals on right-hand side
ASB → AAaBB
Recursively enumerable: no constraints
Related to Post systems and Kleene systems of rewrite rules
Natural languages probably context-free, parsable in real time!
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Wumpus lexicon
Noun → stench | breeze | glitter | nothing
| wumpus | pit | pits | gold | east | . . .
Verb → is | see | smell | shoot | feel | stinks
| go | grab | carry | kill | turn | . . .
Adjective → right | left | east | south | back | smelly | . . .
Adverb → here | there | nearby | ahead
| right | left | east | south | back | . . .
Pronoun → me | you | I | it | . . .
Name → John | Mary | Boston | UCB | PAJC | . . .
Article → the | a | an | . . .
Preposition → to | in | on | near | . . .
Conjunction → and | or | but | . . .
Digit → 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9
Divided into closed and open classes
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Wumpus lexicon
Noun → stench | breeze | glitter | nothing
| wumpus | pit | pits | gold | east | . . .
Verb → is | see | smell | shoot | feel | stinks
| go | grab | carry | kill | turn | . . .
Adjective → right | left | east | south | back | smelly | . . .
Adverb → here | there | nearby | ahead
| right | left | east | south | back | . . .
Pronoun → me | you | I | it | S/HE | Y ′ALL . . .
Name → John | Mary | Boston | UCB | PAJC | . . .
Article → the | a | an | . . .
Preposition → to | in | on | near | . . .
Conjunction → and | or | but | . . .
Digit → 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9
Divided into closed and open classes
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Wumpus grammar
S → NP VP I + feel a breeze| S Conjunction S I feel a breeze + and + I smell a wumpus
NP → Pronoun I| Noun pits| Article Noun the + wumpus| Digit Digit 3 4| NP PP the wumpus + to the east| NP RelClause the wumpus + that is smelly
VP → Verb stinks| VP NP feel + a breeze| VP Adjective is + smelly| VP PP turn + to the east| VP Adverb go + ahead
PP → Preposition NP to + the eastRelClause → that VP that + is smelly
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Grammaticality judgements
Formal language L1 may differ from natural language L2
L1 L2
false positives
false negatives
Adjusting L1 to agree with L2 is a learning problem!
* the gold grab the wumpus* I smell the wumpus the gold
I give the wumpus the gold* I donate the wumpus the gold
Intersubjective agreement somewhat reliable, independent of semantics!Real grammars 10–500 pages, insufficient even for “proper” English
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Parse trees
Exhibit the grammatical structure of a sentence
I shoot the wumpus
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Parse trees
Exhibit the grammatical structure of a sentence
I shoot the wumpus
Pronoun Verb Article Noun
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Parse trees
Exhibit the grammatical structure of a sentence
I shoot the wumpus
Pronoun Verb Article Noun
NP VP NP
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Parse trees
Exhibit the grammatical structure of a sentence
I shoot the wumpus
Pronoun Verb Article Noun
NP VP NP
VP
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Parse trees
Exhibit the grammatical structure of a sentence
I shoot the wumpus
Pronoun Verb Article Noun
NP VP NP
VP
S
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Syntax in NLP
Most view syntactic structure as an essential step towards meaning;“Mary hit John” 6= “John hit Mary”
“And since I was not informed—as a matter of fact, since I did not knowthat there were excess funds until we, ourselves, in that checkup after thewhole thing blew up, and that was, if you’ll remember, that was the incidentin which the attorney general came to me and told me that he had seen amemo that indicated that there were no more funds.”
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Syntax in NLP
Most view syntactic structure as an essential step towards meaning;“Mary hit John” 6= “John hit Mary”
“And since I was not informed—as a matter of fact, since I did not knowthat there were excess funds until we, ourselves, in that checkup after thewhole thing blew up, and that was, if you’ll remember, that was the incidentin which the attorney general came to me and told me that he had seen amemo that indicated that there were no more funds.”
“Wouldn’t the sentence ’I want to put a hyphen between the words Fishand And and And and Chips in my Fish-And-Chips sign’ have been clearerif quotation marks had been placed before Fish, and between Fish and and,and and and And, and And and and, and and and And, and And and and,and and and Chips, as well as after Chips?”
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Context-free parsing
Bottom-up parsing works by replacing any substring that matchesRHS of a rule with the rule’s LHS
Efficient algorithms (e.g., chart parsing, Section 22.3) O(n3) for context-free,run at several thousand words/sec for real grammars
Context-free parsing ≡ Boolean matrix multiplication (Lee, 2002)⇒ unlikely to find faster practical algorithms
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Logical grammars
BNF notation for grammars too restrictive:– difficult to add “side conditions” (number agreement, etc.)– difficult to connect syntax to semantics
Idea: express grammar rules as logic
X → YZ becomes Y (s1) ∧ Z(s2) ⇒ X(Append(s1, s2))X → word becomes X([“word”])X → Y | Z becomes Y (s) ⇒ X(s) Z(s) ⇒ X(s)
Here, X(s) means that string s can be interpreted as an X
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Logical grammars contd.
Now it’s easy to augment the rules
NP (s1) ∧ EatsBreakfast(Ref(s1)) ∧ V P (s2)
⇒ NP (Append(s1, [“who”], s2))
NP (s1) ∧ Number(s1, n) ∧ V P (s2) ∧ Number(s2, n)
⇒ S(Append(s1, s2))
Parsing is reduced to logical inference:Ask(KB, S([“I” “am” “a” “wumpus”]))
(Can add extra arguments to return the parse structure, semantics)
Generation simply requires a query with uninstantiated variables:Ask(KB, S(x))
If we add arguments to nonterminals to construct sentence semantics, NLPgeneration can be done from a given logical sentence:
Ask(KB, S(x,At(Robot, [1, 1]))
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Real language
Real human languages provide many problems for NLP:
♦ ambiguity
♦ anaphora
♦ indexicality
♦ vagueness
♦ discourse structure
♦ metonymy
♦ metaphor
♦ noncompositionality
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Ambiguity
Squad helps dog bite victim
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Ambiguity
Squad helps dog bite victimHelicopter powered by human flies
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Ambiguity
Squad helps dog bite victimHelicopter powered by human fliesAmerican pushes bottle up Germans
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Ambiguity
Squad helps dog bite victimHelicopter powered by human fliesAmerican pushes bottle up GermansI ate spaghetti with meatballs
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Ambiguity
Squad helps dog bite victimHelicopter powered by human fliesAmerican pushes bottle up GermansI ate spaghetti with meatballs
salad
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Ambiguity
Squad helps dog bite victimHelicopter powered by human fliesAmerican pushes bottle up GermansI ate spaghetti with meatballs
saladabandon
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Ambiguity
Squad helps dog bite victimHelicopter powered by human fliesAmerican pushes bottle up GermansI ate spaghetti with meatballs
saladabandona fork
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Ambiguity
Squad helps dog bite victimHelicopter powered by human fliesAmerican pushes bottle up GermansI ate spaghetti with meatballs
saladabandona forka friend
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Ambiguity
Squad helps dog bite victimHelicopter powered by human fliesAmerican pushes bottle up GermansI ate spaghetti with meatballs
saladabandona forka friend
Ambiguity can be lexical (polysemy), syntactic, semantic, referential
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Anaphora
Using pronouns to refer back to entities already introduced in the text
After Mary proposed to John, they found a preacher and got married.
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Anaphora
Using pronouns to refer back to entities already introduced in the text
After Mary proposed to John, they found a preacher and got married.
For the honeymoon, they went to Hawaii
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Anaphora
Using pronouns to refer back to entities already introduced in the text
After Mary proposed to John, they found a preacher and got married.
For the honeymoon, they went to Hawaii
Mary saw a ring through the window and asked John for it
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Anaphora
Using pronouns to refer back to entities already introduced in the text
After Mary proposed to John, they found a preacher and got married.
For the honeymoon, they went to Hawaii
Mary saw a ring through the window and asked John for it
Mary threw a rock at the window and broke it
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Indexicality
Indexical sentences refer to utterance situation (place, time, S/H, etc.)
I am over here
Why did you do that?
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Metonymy
Using one noun phrase to stand for another
I’ve read Shakespeare
Chrysler announced record profits
The ham sandwich on Table 4 wants another beer
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Metaphor
“Non-literal” usage of words and phrases, often systematic:
I’ve tried killing the process but it won’t die. Its parent keeps it alive.
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Noncompositionality
basketball shoes
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Noncompositionality
basketball shoesbaby shoes
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Noncompositionality
basketball shoesbaby shoesalligator shoes
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Noncompositionality
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Noncompositionality
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Noncompositionality
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Noncompositionality
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Noncompositionality
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Noncompositionality
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Noncompositionality
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Noncompositionality
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Noncompositionality
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Noncompositionality
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Noncompositionality
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Noncompositionality
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