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COMMUNICATING in a CRISIS:

RISKCOMMUNICATION

GUIDELINESfor

PUBLIC OFFICIALS

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Communicatingin a Crisis:

Risk CommunicationGuidelines for PublicOfficials

2002

U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services

Public Health ServiceRockville, MD

NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINECATALOGING IN PUBLICATION

Communicating in a Crisis: Risk CommunicationGuidelines for Public Officials.

Washington, D.C.: Center for Mental HealthServices, Substance Abuse and Mental HealthServices Administration, 2002.

Includes bibliographical references.

1. Crisis Intervention – methods.2. Communication.3. Public Relations.4. Administrative Personnel.

I. Center for Mental Health Services (U.S.)

02NLM: WM 401 C734 2002

Suggested citation:U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.Communicating in a Crisis: Risk CommunicationGuidelines for Public Officials. Washington, D.C.:Department of Health and Human Services,2002.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis document was prepared by the U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services, Substance Abuse and MentalHealth Services Administration, Center for Mental HealthServices, and Widmeyer Communications of Washington,D.C. Work by Widmeyer Communications was performedunder Contract No. 02M009086 and 02 M00908601D.Robert DeMartino, M.D., served as the government projectofficer.

PUBLIC DOMAIN NOTICEAll material appearing in this document is in the public do-main and may be reproduced or copied without permissionfrom the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.However, this publication may not be reproduced or dis-tributed for a fee without specific, written authorization ofthe U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Cita-tion of the source is appreciated.

OBTAINING ADDITIONAL COPIES OF PUBLICATIONCopies may be obtained, free of charge, from the SubstanceAbuse and Mental Health Services Administration’s Men-tal Health Services Clearinghouse. Please contact the Cen-ter for Mental Health Services’ Knowledge ExchangeNetwork at 1-800-789-2647, reference document numberSMA 02-3641.

ELECTRONIC ACCESS TO PUBLICATIONThis publication can be accessed electronically through theInternet connection listed below.

http://www.mentalhealth.org

ORIGINATING OFFICESubstance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration5600 Fishers Lane, Room 12-105Rockville, MD 20857

July 2002

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COMMUNICATING IN A CRISIS:RISK COMMUNICATION GUIDELINESFOR PUBLIC OFFICIALS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. PREFACE .............................................. 1

II. INTRODUCTION .................................. 31. Communications Before, During,

and After a Crisis Situation .................. 32. First Do No Harm ............................... 4

III. COMMUNICATIONFUNDAMENTALS ................................. 91. Developing Goals and Key Messages .... 92. Staying on Message .......................... 113. Delivering Accurate and Timely

Information ....................................... 13

IV. COMMUNICATING COMPLEX,SCIENTIFIC, AND TECHNICALINFORMATION ................................... 151. Acknowledging Uncertainty ................ 172. Understanding Public Perceptions

of Risk .............................................. 193. Factors Influencing Risk Perception ...... 21

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V. MYTHS, PRINCIPLES, ANDPITFALLS ............................................. 231. Risk Communication Myths and

Actions ............................................. 232. Earning Trust and Building

Credibility ........................................ 253. Building Support ................................ 274. Avoiding Pitfalls ................................ 285. Managing Hostile Situations ............... 33

VI. UNDERSTANDING AND WORKINGWITH THE MEDIA ............................... 351. The Media Perspective – Facts ............ 352. Space and Time ................................ 373. Working With Reporters and

Avoiding Problems ............................. 404. Using the Interview to its Fullest

Advantage........................................ 425. Rules of the Road............................... 446. Planning and Preparation ................... 447. Before, During, and After an

Interview: Do’s and Don’ts .................. 47

VII. CORRECTING ERRORS ANDRUMOR CONTROL ............................. 53

VIII. ASSESSING PERSONAL STRENGTHSAND WEAKNESSES ............................ 57

Table of Contents

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IX. PRESENTING INFORMATION ATPUBLIC MEETINGS .............................. 611. Before the Meeting ............................ 612. The Opening Presentation .................. 623. Presentation Aids and Guidelines ........ 654. Presentation Reminders ...................... 665. Answering Questions ......................... 686. Sample Questions.............................. 69

X. RECOGNIZING OPPORTUNITIESTO SPEAK OUT ................................... 75

XI. SUGGESTED READINGS ANDRESOURCES ........................................ 77

XII. REFERENCES ....................................... 81

Table of Contents

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The tragedies of September 11, 2001 and theemerging threat of bioterrorism have reempha-

sized the need for public officials to communicateeffectively with the public and the media to delivermessages that inform without frightening andeducate without provoking alarm.

The purpose of this primer is to provide a resourcefor public officials on the basic tenets of effectivecommunications generally and on working with thenews media specifically. The primer is not encyclo-pedic in nature, but rather an easy-to-use pocketguide on the basic skills and techniques needed forclear, effective communications, information dissemi-nation, and message delivery.

Its content focuses on providing public officials witha brief orientation and perspective on the mediaand how they think and work, and on the public asthe end-recipient of information; concise presenta-tions of techniques for responding to and cooperat-ing with the media in conveying information anddelivering messages, before, during, and after apublic health crisis; a practical guide to the tools ofthe trade of media relations and public communica-tions; and strategies and tactics for addressing theprobable opportunities and the possible challengesthat are likely to arise as a consequence of suchcommunications initiatives.

Although this primer identifies principles relevant toand consistent with effective risk communication

PREFACEI.

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practices, it is neither the definitive nor the finalword on the subject. Differing circumstances mayraise unique questions that must be dealt with inunique ways. And while this primer cannot provideyou with all the answers, it can prepare you to makethe decisions that will lead you to effective answers.

Charles G. Curie, M.A., A.C.S.W.Administrator, Substance Abuse andMental Health Services Administration

Preface

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1. COMMUNICATIONS BEFORE,DURING, AND AFTER A CRISISSITUATION

Sound and thoughtful risk communication can assistpublic officials in preventing ineffective, fear-driven,and potentially damaging public responses to

serious crisessuch asunusualdiseaseoutbreaksand bio-terrorism.Moreover,appropriaterisk communi-

cation procedures foster the trust and confidencethat are vital in a crisis situation (Covello et al.,2001; Maxwell, 1999). There are steps publicofficials can take in advance of any incident tobetter prepare communities, risk managers, govern-ment spokespersons, public health officials, thenews media, physicians, and hospital personnel torespond to the challenges of managing such crises(O’Toole, 2001). Plan for communicating to thepublic and the news media by asking yourself thefollowing questions:

What information is crucial to convey in initialmessages in order to prompt appropriate publicresponses after a crisis situation?

INTRODUCTIONII.

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Introduction

What are the messages to be delivered prior to,during, and after an incident?

What are the obstacles to effective communica-tions and how can they be minimized?

RISK COMMUNICATION: An interactive process ofexchange of information and opinion amongindividuals, groups, and institutions; ofteninvolves multiple messages about the nature ofrisk or expressing concerns, opinions, or reac-tions to risk messages or to legal and institutionalarrangements for risk management.

What are the opportunities for effective communi-cations and how can they be maximized?

What questions can we anticipate from thepublic in these risk situations?

What are the news media’s responsibilities andhow can you help reporters meet them?

2. FIRST DO NO HARM

The cardinal rule of risk communication is the sameas that for emergency medicine: first do no harm. Athreatening or actual crisis often poses a volatileequation of public action and reaction.

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This destabilized information environment makes itvery important that you give thought to what it is youare about to say before making any public comment—be it a 30-second statement to a news person or a 30-minute news conference to a roomful of media repre-sentatives. In preparing for this speaking opportunity:

Assess the environment into which you areintroducing information. Gain a sense of thepublic’s general attitude toward the situation andtailor your presentation accordingly. Are theyworried and in need of reassurance? Are theysanguine and in need of a warning? Are theyangry and in need of calming?

Introduction

Review your remarks to gauge the probableimpact that your words will have on the situationand adjust them as necessary; e.g., are youusing words, like “crisis,” “life-threatening,” or“extremely” and can other, less dramatic wordsbe substituted?

Understand your audience. If it is a reporter,appreciate the demands and constraints underwhich reporters work and recognize the risks thoseconstraints pose to you as a communicator.

Crisis + heightened public emotions + limitedaccess to facts + rumor, gossip, speculation,assumption, and inference = an unstable infor-mation environment.

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Don’t speak unless you are comfortable doing so.Most communications mistakes are made bythose who are not prepared to speak but feelcompelled to do so anyway. If confronted with ademand for a quick answer, have the confidence tosay, “I would like to answer that question later.”

Don’t assume you’re not in need of help, and don’tbe shy about asking for it. Always take advan-tage of whatever professional communications

Introduction

The middle of a looming crisis is not the occa-sion to say “No comment.” “No comment”should almost never be used by a public speaker,particularly in a risk communications situation.The phrase suggests a lack of candor, conveys asense of secrecy and connotes that you knowsomething that you are either not willing or notallowed to share with the public, creatingskepticism and mistrust.

Photo by FEMA

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support is available to you. If you have access toa public affairs office, use it. You can also hire alocal public relations consultant or ask a corpo-rate public relations executive to volunteer to helpyou meet your challenges.

Watch, read, and listen to the news; analyzehow it is presented; critique the communicationsskills of others; learn from their successes as wellas from their mistakes.

Introduction

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III.

1. DEVELOPING GOALS AND KEYMESSAGES

People often fail to effectively communicate due to alack of clear communications goals and key mes-sages to support them. Setting such goals and identify-

ing supportmessages aredecisions thatshould bemade prior tothe issuing ofany publiccomment andare especiallyimportant in acrisis.

A communi-cations goalof “educatingthe public onthe complexi-ties of bio-

terrorism and preparing them for any eventuality” isnot realistic; informing the public of the problemand specific dangers, providing guidance onappropriate responses, and easing concerns areachievable goals. Messages in support of these

COMMUNICATIONSFUNDAMENTALS

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goals must also be direct and effectively speak to theaudience.

Communications Fundamentals

RISK MESSAGE: A written, verbal, or visualstatement containing information about risk; mayor may not include advice about risk reductionbehavior; a formal risk message is a structuredwritten, audio, or visual packaged developedwith the express purpose of presenting informa-tion about risk.

A discussion of statistical probabilities and how theytranslate into a “relatively minimal-risk scenario forthe average citizen” might be fine for scientists, butfor the general public such a discussion will onlyconfuse the issue and fail to meet the goals ofinforming and easing concerns. If the risk is low,say, “the risk to the public is low.”

Goal #1: Ease public concern

Messages

• The risk is low.

• The illness is treatable.

• It is not easily contracted.

• Symptoms are easily recognized.

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Goal #2: Give guidance on how torespond

Messages

• Take these precautions.

• If possibly exposed, contact physician.

• If symptomatic, contact physician.

• Note possible symptoms in others.

2. STAYING ON MESSAGE

Once goals and messages have been established,the challenge becomes one of delivery and ensuringthat messages are heard and goals are met. Themethod for accomplishing this is what has come tobe known as being “on message” and is, essentially,a form of artful repetition.

If the goal is to ease concern and the message insupport of that goal is, “the risk to the public is low,”that message should be clearly stated at the outsetand returned to as often as possible:

“I want to begin by first saying that the risk tothe public is very low . . . .”

“As I said a moment ago, the risk to the public islow . . . .”


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“That’s an important question, but before Ianswer it I want to again stress that the factremains that the risk to the public is low.”

“Before I close I want to remind everyone thatthe risk is low.”

Raise your points often enough that your audi-ence leaves with a clear understanding of themessage you wanted them to hear.


Take opportunities to begin or end statementswith a reiteration of your message.

Don’t be so repetitious with a single message thatyou appear to be trying to convince people ofsomething that isn’t true.

Don’t repeat your messages word-for-word everytime you answer a question.

Photo by FEMA

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Another aspect of staying on message is to exercisesome control over the conversation you are having,be it an interview, press conference, or questions froman audience. Don’t allow the conversation to be leddown paths that are not pertinent to your goals ormessage—no matter how persistent the questionermight be in pursuing a line of inquiry.

3. DELIVERING ACCURATE AND TIMELYINFORMATION

In a risk communications situation there is a constanttension between providing accurate information andproviding information quickly. Both demands posedangers.

To wait for all information to be complete andverified before releasing it to the public can createan information vacuum that will almost certainly befilled with rumor and speculation. To release informa-tion that has not been double-checked and whichturns out to be inaccurate, however, runs the risk ofmisleading the public and undermining your credibil-ity as a spokesperson.


• Goals and messages should be simple,straightforward, and realistic.

• Information should be delivered with brevity,clarity, and effectiveness.

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The best way to address this challenge is to establishregular briefings with the media (in person or viaconference call) at which time all information can bedelivered, explained, and updated. If information isan estimation, it can be presented as such and itspreliminary nature stressed to the media. This ap-proach, combined with the fact that the informationwill be updated in the near term, keeps informationin its proper context and prevents it from becomingetched in stone before it is fully and finally verified.It also keeps the media attentive to the changingnature of the issue with which they are dealing andattuned to the need for maintaining contact with youin order to keep their stories accurate and up to date.

If you hold regular briefings, do so at a time thatmeets the deadline needs of the media.

Be prepared to explain the meaning behindevolving information; e.g., “Concerning theincrease in this number, that is a reflection of ourhaving increased the number of people tested, itis not a reflection of an increase in what we havealways recognized as the population-wideaverage.”

If you suspect that the next information updatewill drastically change a story, give reporters asense that such may be the case.

Always provide statistics and key information tothe media in written form.

Always know how information was gathered andconclusions reached.


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COMMUNICATINGCOMPLEX,SCIENTIFIC, ANDTECHNICALINFORMATION

Scientific information will be more useful to theaudience and greater communication success

will be achieved if the information provided isrelevant and easily understood (Frewer, 1999; andBean, 1988). To help audiences understand theissues, create well-targeted messages. Also be sureto use clear, non-technical language to discuss risksand other specific information indicating the nature,form, severity, or magnitude of the risk.

Ways to better communicate complex scientific ortechnical information:

Use consistent names and other terms throughouta crisis situation (e.g., switching from parts permillion to parts per billion can result in alarmbecause the higher numbers may be noticed, butnot the unit of measure).

Avoid acronyms and jargon (e.g., excess lifetimecancer risk) and provide careful definitions inadvance.

IV.

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Carefully consider what types of visuals the newsmedia may want, be sure all information isexplained fully, and use these visuals to clarifyand support key communications points.

Answer not only the question, “How much?”, butalso the question “Will it hurt me?” to ensure theinformation is relevant.

Use familiar frames of reference to explain howmuch, how big or how small and try to create amental picture of such measures as “parts perbillion” or “tons per day.”

Communicating Complex, Scientific, and Technical Information

Numeric analogies—e.g., the U.S. producesenough garbage in a day to fill 100 football fields14 feet deep—are much more meaningful toaverage listeners than talking about 250,000 tonsof garbage per day. However, examples shouldnot be trite or condescending or overly dramatic.Take the time to develop meaningful examples andcalculations.

Indicate the level of certainty of your information, forexample, “We are 95% certain, but we are conducting

RISK COMMUNICATOR/MESSAGE SOURCE: Theindividual or office sending a risk message orinteracting with other individuals, groups, ororganizations in a risk communication process;may also be the risk manager, risk messagepreparer, risk analyst or other expert.

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more studies to improve the accuracy.” Recognizethat the public and reporters generally do notappreciate uncertainty expressed in numeric termsand that this may require more detailed explanation.

1. ACKNOWLEDGING UNCERTAINTY

Recognizing and admitting uncertainty is simply thereality of most risk communication situations (Ploughet al., 1988; and Chess, 1989). Unfortunately,scientific uncertainty is a complicating point insatisfying the public’s demand for reliable andmeaningful information for many hazards and risks.Public health officials frequently face the dilemma ofhaving to acknowledge and explain uncertainty to apublic that thinks scientific findings are precise,repeatable, and reliable. Moreover, the public oftenassociates correlation and association as being the

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same as causality. As a result, officials often face theadditional task of trying to explain the data’slimitations and uncertainties.

If information is not known or not available, thebest thing to do is to honestly admit it.

Saying “I don’t know” is an acceptable responseand can actually build credibility.

Audiences need to be provided as much informa-tion as possible to help them understand thatuncertainty is part of the process and that theanswers available now may not be the finalanswers.

If an audience demands 100% certainty, they aremore than likely questioning the underlyingvalues and process, not the science. Try toidentify the real concerns behind the demand forcertainty and address them.


An audience question such as, “If you’re notcertain, how can we know we’re being pro-tected?” is not a question about data, it’s aboutpersonal and family safety. That is the issue to beaddressed.

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2. UNDERSTANDING PUBLICPERCEPTIONS OF RISK

Because the risk communication process is so deeplyembedded in broader social issues, communicatorsare faced with many barriers (Bennett, et al., 1999).A key barrier is the term “risk” itself, how it’s mea-sured, described, and ultimately perceived. Inter-ested parties perceive risk differently, and people donot believe that all risks are of the same type, size,or importance.

The perceptions of risk for the technical and layaudience are often dissimilar (Samet, 1998). Forexample, the public health official or scientist uses aone-in-a-million comparison to convey a specific risk

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RISKS PERCEIVED TO . . .

be voluntary

be under anindividual’s control

have clear benefits

be distributed fairly

be natural

be statistical

be generated by atrusted source

be familiar

affect adults

risks perceived asbeing imposed

risks perceived tobe controlled byothers

risks perceived tohave little or nobenefit

risks perceived tobe unfairlydistributed

risks perceived tobe manmade

risks perceived tobe catastrophic

risks perceived tobe generated by anuntrusted source

risks perceived tobe exotic

risks perceived toaffect children

ARE MORE ACCEPTEDTHAN . . .


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measurement. Health experts understand this tomean that, given one million persons, there is oneperson who is at risk. To the non-technical person,however, the one person may be someone theyknow. The public will often personalize risk with thesame conviction that most scientists depersonalize it.

Ultimately, the public will decide how much risk isacceptable and their decision will be based onpersonal factors. One goal for the public healthofficial should be to educate the public on the levelof risk and competing risks. Trying to sell the publicon acceptable risk may be difficult because peoplewould prefer to live without any health and environ-mental concerns. However, by listening to andaddressing concerns, the target audience will bebetter able to understand and, possibly accept, therisk.

3. FACTORS INFLUENCING RISKPERCEPTION (FISCHHOFF, ET AL.,1981)

Perceptions of the magnitude of risk are influencedby factors other than numerical data (see table onprevious page). Understanding these factors willhelp you gauge the degree of risk with which yourmessage may be perceived, and assist you as youcraft your communications strategy.


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V.

Disseminating information without regard for thecomplexities and uncertainties of risk is not

effective risk communication. Well-managed commu-nications efforts will help ensure that your messagesare well formulated, effectively transmitted, andresult in the intended public response. Consider howthe process works and some general principles forimproving effectiveness.

1. RISK COMMUNICATION MYTHSAND ACTIONS (CHESS, ET AL., 1989)

Myths often interfere with the development of aneffective risk communication program. Considerthese myths and actions you can take to dispel andovercome them.

MYTH: RISK COMMUNICATION IS MORE LIKELYTO ALARM THAN CALM PEOPLE.

Action: Not if done properly. Educate and inform,don’t simply alert and alarm. Give people thechance to express their concerns, ask questionsand receive accurate answers.

MYTHS,PRINCIPLES, ANDPITFALLS

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MYTH: COMMUNICATION IS LESS IMPORTANTTHAN EDUCATION. IF PEOPLE KNEW THE TRUERISKS, THEY WOULD ACCEPT THEM.Action: Education is achieved though effectivecommunication. Pay as much attention to yourprocess for dealing with people as you do toexplaining the content of the information.

MYTH: MANY ISSUES THAT ARISE IN TIMES OFCRISIS ARE TOO DIFFICULT FOR THE PUBLIC TOUNDERSTAND.

Action: No, they aren’t. Part of your job is to helpthe public understand these issues no matter howcomplex they may be. The public may not maketechnical decisions, but their opinions deserveconsideration by those who are making thosedecisions.

MYTH: RISK COMMUNICATION IS NOT MY JOB.Action: Yes, it is. As a public servant, you have aresponsibility to the public. Integrate communica-tion with the public into your job and help othersdo the same.

MYTH: IF WE LISTEN TO THE PUBLIC, WE MAYDIVERT LIMITED RESOURCES TO CONCERNS THATARE NOT A GREAT THREAT TO PUBLIC HEALTH.Action: Listening to and communicating with thepublic does not mean that you must set agendasand priorities based solely on prevailing public

Myths, Principles, and Pitfalls

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concerns. Part of your job is to manage issues andexpectations. The public’s concerns cannot beignored, but neither can they necessarily dictatepolicy. The better informed people are, the morelikely it will be that the public’s and your opinionson priorities are aligned.

2. EARNING TRUST AND BUILDINGCREDIBILITY

Your ability to establish constructive communicationwill be determined, in large part, by whether youraudiences perceive you to be trustworthy andbelievable. Consider how they form their judgmentsand perceptions. Key factors in assessing trust andcredibility are: empathy and caring; competenceand expertise; honesty and openness; and dedicationand commitment. (Covello, 1992; Covello, 1993).


Photo by FEMA

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Five Rules for Building Trust and Credibility:(Covello and Allen, 1988)

1. Accept and involve the public as a partner.Work with and for the public to inform, dispelmisinformation and, to every degree possible,allay fears and concerns.

2. Appreciate the public’s specific concerns.Statistics and probabilities don’t necessarilyanswer all questions. Be sensitive to people’sfears and worries on a human level. Yourposition does not preclude your acknowledg-ing the sadness of an illness, injury, or death.Do not overstate or dwell on tragedy, but doempathize with the public and provideanswers that respect their humanity.

3. Be honest and open. Once lost, trust andcredibility are almost impossible to regain.Never mislead the public by lying or failing toprovide information that is important to theirunderstanding of issues.

4. Work with other credible sources. Conflictsand disagreements among organizations andcredible spokespersons create confusion andbreed distrust. Coordinate your informationand communications efforts with those ofother legitimate parties.


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3. BUILDING SUPPORT

Unless you are assured that the subject to be dis-cussed will be tightly confined to your area ofexpertise, it is usually not best to serve as the solespokesperson on an issue. Crisis situations havemultiple facets and raise a range of questions.

Having people on hand who can answer thosequestions facilitates and speeds the communicationsprocess and better ensures that informational voidsdon’t develop. Identify those colleagues and otherofficials and experts who can speak to the issuesthat are most likely to be raised and rely on theirhelp when it’s needed. (It is likely that most of theindividuals on your risk communications team willalso be those on whom you rely for spokespersonsupport.)

Caution! Make sure goals and messages areunderstood and coordinated among participants.

5. Meet the needs of the media. Never refuse towork with the media. The media’s role is toinform the public, which will be done with orwithout your assistance. Work with the mediato ensure that the information they are provid-ing the public is as accurate and enlighteningas possible.


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Conflicting information, particularly when it comesfrom equally trusted sources, creates confusion anderodes confidence. Know what other spokespersonsintend to say and support their messages.

If something that you don’t agree with is said, or ifwrong information is presented, do not publiclycontradict the statement or disagree with the spokes-person. Resolve the matter in private and present thenew information to the public as a simple correctionor clarification of a previous statement and not asone opinion having prevailed over another.

PROBLEM: At a news conference, the citymanager has just cited a statistic thatunderstates the extent of a problem.

SOLUTION: Immediately after the newsconference raise the issue with the citymanager in private. Then allow the citymanager to provide the new information tothe press along with an explanation ofhow the mistake was made.

4. AVOIDING PITFALLS

ABSTRACTIONS – Use examples, stories, and analo-gies to make your point.

Don’t assume there is a common understandingbetween you and your audience (even when youare using stories and analogies to make yourpoint).


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ATTACKS – Respond to issues, not to people. Striveto end debates, not further them.

Don’t respond to an attack with an attack of yourown.

ATTITUDE/NON-VERBAL MESSAGES – Remain calm,attentive and polite. Adopt a relaxed, neutralphysical stance.

Don’t let your feelings interfere with your ability tocommunicate positively. Never convey disgust,frustration, indifference, or smugness. Never loseyour temper. Don’t allow your body language,your position in the room, or your dress to affectyour message.

BLAME – Accept your share of responsibility for aproblem.

Don’t try to shift blame or responsibility to othersand don’t magnify the fault to be found in othersin order to deflect criticism or minimize yourculpability.

COSTS – Focus on the benefits to be derived, not onthe costs entailed. If costs are an issue, voice respectfor the need for responsible stewardship of publicfunds.

Don’t discuss issues in terms of their dollar value,or complain about a lack of funds.


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GUARANTEES – It is better to offer a likelihood,emphasizing progress and on-going efforts.

Don’t make comments like, “There are no guaran-tees in life.”

HUMOR – Avoid it. If used, direct it at yourself.

Don’t use it in relation to safety, or health, or indescribing risk.

JARGON – Define all technical terms and acronyms.

Don’t use language that may not be understoodby even a portion of your audience.

LENGTH OF PRESENTATIONS – Plan, practice anddeliver a cogent 15-minute presentation.

Don’t believe that what you are saying is inher-ently more interesting than other topics andtherefore warrants more time. By the same token,don’t end your remarks after 15 minutes if thereare important audience questions in need ofanswering.

NEGATIVE ALLEGATIONS – Refute allegations suc-cinctly.

Don’t repeat allegations or refer to them in waysthat give them credibility.


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NEGATIVE WORDS AND PHRASES – Rather, usepositive or neutral terms.

Don’t cite national problems, or make highly-charged analogies, e.g., “This is not Love Canal.”

“OFF THE RECORD” – Always assume everythingyou say and do is part of the public record.

Don’t make side comments or “confidential”remarks. (The rule is: Never say anything that youare not willing to see printed on the front page ofa newspaper.)

PERSONAL IDENTITY – Speak for the organization.Use the pronoun “we.”

Don’t give the impression that you, alone, are theauthority on the issues being raised or the soledecision-maker. Never disagree with the organi-zation you are representing, e.g., “Personally, Idon’t agree,” or “Speaking for myself . . .,” or “Ifit were me . . . .”

PROMISES – It is better to state your willingness totry. Promise only what you can deliver.

Don’t make promises you can’t keep and nevermake a promise on behalf of someone else.


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RELIANCE ON WORDS ALONE – Use visuals andhand-outs to emphasize key points.

Don’t rely entirely on the spoken word to explainyour point.

SPECULATION – Stick to the facts of what has, is,and will be done.

Don’t speculate on what could be done, or onwhat might happen, or on possible outcomesother than the intended one(s), or about worstcase scenarios.

STATISTICS – Use them to illuminate larger points andto emphasize trends and achievements.

Don’t make them the focus of your remarks, oroveruse them.


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TECHNICAL DETAILS AND DATA – Focus on empathy,efforts and results.

Don’t try to fully inform and educate audiences onthe minutia of issues.

5. MANAGING HOSTILE SITUTATIONS

Issues of health and safety can arouse strong emo-tions, including anger and hostility and dealingineffectively with hostility can erode trust andcredibility. Remember, though, public hostility isusually directed at you as a representative of anorganization, not you as an individual, so don’t takeit personally.

DIFFUSING ANGER AND HOSTILITY

Acknowledge the existence of hostility. The worstthing you can do is pretend it’s not there.

Practice self-management. Send the message thatyou are in control.

Control your apprehension. Anxiety undercutsconfidence, concentration, and momentum.

Be prepared. Practice your presentation andanticipated questions and answers.

Listen. Recognize people’s frustrations—communi-cate empathy and caring.


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Assume a listening posture. Use eye contact.

Answer questions thoughtfully. Turn negatives intopositives and bridge back to your messages.

The media are a primary means for communicatingwith the public. Forming positive relationships withjournalists is crucial to your communicationssuccess.


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VI.

1. THE MEDIA PERSPECTIVE – FACTS

As a matter of ethics, journalists will not allow“news” to be defined for them. The advantage ofthis is clear: neither government, nor business, noranyone can control the news for their own pur-poses. The disadvantage, however, is that there areno absolutes in what constitutes news and issuesthat are important to some, or many, may never beaddressed by the media because they fail to meetwhat is, essentially, an indefinable standard forattention.

Journalists strive to answer six key questions in theirstories: who, when, where, what, how, and why. Allthe information they gather somehow informs,explains, or elaborates on those six issues and oftenraises doubts or breeds confusion when the facts ofa news story are juxtaposed, e.g., “Governmentsources said there was no immediate danger,however, local hospitals have instituted emergencymeasures.”

The facts of a story also become somewhat relativewhen, in upholding the principle of fairness, journal-ists balance one set of facts with other facts or

UNDERSTANDINGAND WORKINGWITH THE MEDIA

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opinions, e.g., “Government sources said there wasno immediate danger, but one expert disagreed.”Although presented in an effort to further illuminatethe subject and present the reader with perspectivesthat help provide a truer picture of the whole story, itposes a relativism that can lead to public confusionand mistrust.

All of these imponderables of reporting and newscoverage make communicating with and through thenews media an imprecise endeavor. What you saymay not be what is determined to be news. How yousay it may lead to confused and confusing reportsand misinterpretations. Whatever you say is likely tobe balanced against opinions that are different thanyours.

Understanding and Working With the Media

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GUIDANCE ON DEALING WITH FACTS ANDINFORMATION

Be sure of your facts.

Be able to cite sources and key statistics, makingsure they add meaningful support to your mes-sage (this could be three key statistics or thirty,but be careful not to overwhelm your messagewith statistics).

Have information available in fact sheets andother concise informational documents specifi-cally prepared for the media’s use.

Familiarize yourself with information and opin-ions that are contrary to your points and posi-tions and be able to answer the questions theyraise.

2. SPACE AND TIME

Space and time place critical demands and limita-tions on a journalist’s work. First is the need just tofill space and time. A newspaper has never failed topublish or a newscast failed to air because therewas no news on a given day. The news businessdemands that every day there be enough news to filla certain number of pages or minutes, and thatdemand is always met no matter the relative impor-tance of the news to be covered on a “slow news


38

day.” This demand makes for a great deal ofreporting on issues and individuals that may seemtrivial.

This is often the case with stories that dominate thenews over a period of time. The need for continuingcoverage of a major story usually leads to coverageof aspects of the story that are less important but stillmay be of interest to the public; e.g., profiles ofindividuals involved in the story, different reactionsto the story, etc. The more you can provide themedia with substantive information that allows forsubstantive reporting, the less the chance thatreporting will stray into less important areas.

Parallel to the media’s challenge of having to fillspace, television and radio news face the problemof having too little time for available news. Competi-tion for time with advertisers and the standardbroadcast features of sports and weather means thatthe very longest stories will only be a few minutes induration and the shortest as brief as 20 seconds.While newspapers don’t suffer such extreme limita-tions, they, too, find space a finite resource and willfrequently cut stories to fit the size of the day’s “newshole” (the space left to fill in a newspaper afteradvertising and standard news and entertainmentfeatures are laid out).

Effective communication comes not in fighting theselimitations, but in adapting to them. If the time that isgiven you is limited—as it most certainly will be withtelevision or radio—make sure that your primary


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message gets delivered within the time allotted. Ifyou are given more time to expound and expand onyour message—as you might be in a newspaperinterview—use it, but do not abuse it by over-explaining your points or straying into areas ofcomment that do not add to a better understandingof the topic.

GUIDANCE ON WORKING WITHIN SPACEAND TIME CONSTRAINTS

Know your communications goals and supportingmessages (see Communications Fundamentals).

Arrange them in a hierarchy of importance anddevelop brief (20-30 second) statements thatexplain each one.

Practice delivering your statements in front of amirror.

Closely observe how others are quoted by themedia, particularly in radio and television“sound bites.” Refine your statements so that yourmessages can be delivered via such brief quotes.


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3. WORKING WITH REPORTERS ANDAVOIDING PROBLEMS

What many people see as journalists’ antagonisticattitudes toward public officials is often simply partof the basic conflict that exists between someonewho has information and someone who wants it. Areporter’s job is to gain as much pertinent informa-tion as possible to answer the six key questionsentailed in every news story. It’s a job that demandsskepticism and requires that few statements be takenat face value. Be patient, open, and honest infielding questions, no matter how hostile they mayseem. If you run into a conflict with the media, keepit in perspective and don’t take it personally.

Be sensitive to the full context of reporters’ questions.Are they confused by the information you’re givingthem, or have they gotten it wrong? Do they seem


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overly skeptical, frustrated, or even angry? If so, donot shrug it off. Journalists’ emotions affect theirreporting. It’s your responsibility to remain patientand work with them to overcome those negatives. (Ithelps to remember that most reporters are generalistswho are constantly learning as they go.)

Reporters are not your enemies, but neither arethey your friends. They owe you nothing and youshould not expect any more from them thanfairness and courtesy.

Under no circumstances allow professionaldisagreements to turn into personal arguments.

Don’t hold grudges.

The adage is: Never say anything today that you don’twant to see on the front page of The New York Timestomorrow. If you say to a reporter, “Well, between youand me, the guy is an idiot,” you should expect to seeit in a story . . . and you won’t look good. If you callthe reporter to complain, you should expect to see yourcomplaint in a follow-up story . . . and you still won’tlook good. If you get angry and stop talking to thereporter, you can expect to see that, too, reflected ina story . . . and you’ll look even worse.

GUIDANCE FOR INTERVIEW SITUATIONS

Consider yourself the reporter’s guest.

Be courteous and patient when answering (andre-answering) questions.


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Adopt the attitude of assisting the reporter indoing his or her job.

If you tell a reporter you’ll get back to him or her,do it!

Never be too casual in your conversation.Remember, whatever you say could end up in anews story (even if you think it’s off the record). Ifyou make an ill-considered comment, and it endsup in the newspaper, it is not the reporter’s fault.It’s yours.

4. USING THE INTERVIEW TO ITSFULLEST ADVANTAGE

LISTEN to the question being asked, THINK aboutyour answer, and always try to deliver and re-deliver your message(s).

Discuss what you know, not what you think.

Do not express personal opinions. If you violatethis dictate, make certain that you are very clearin distinguishing opinions from official positionsand policies.

Don’t speculate or try to respond to questions towhich you don’t know the answer.

Don’t show off. This is not the time to display animpressive vocabulary or present the full extent of


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your intellect and knowledge. Talk as you mightto your neighbor.

Do not worry about looking stupid. If you areconfused by a question, say so. If you saysomething that’s wrong, or misstate a fact, don’tdefend it, admit your error.

Don’t engage in off-the-record discussions.

As a matter of normal conversation, we alwaysspeculate, hypothesize, and offer opinions. But aninterview is not a normal conversation. Be careful ofwhat you say. And don’t start thinking that justbecause a reporter happens to be asking youquestions, your opinions are worth more than themessages you’re supposed to be delivering.


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5. RULES OF THE ROAD

Do not lie to a reporter or lead a reporter toincorrect conclusions. If there is information thatyou cannot share, say so.

Never embarrass a reporter.

Do not argue with a reporter.

Never take it personally.

The adage is: Never argue with someone who buysink by the barrel and paper by the ton. Reporters getpaid to report the news as they find and interpret it.They will always have the last word on a subject,always . . . always.

6. PLANNING AND PREPARATION

Much of the success of effective risk communicationsis predicated on the amount of work that goes intoplanning and preparing for a crisis event. Whatinformation needs to be in place, who makesdecisions, who gives orders, and who follows them?What are the procedures for carrying out responseinitiatives? A crisis is not the time to begin thinkingabout these questions. In fact, it’s the worst time todo so.

Risk communication efforts should receive the samepreparation as any other possible emergency. Lists


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of contacts with addresses and phone numbersshould be drawn up (and updated regularly) andfact sheets and background materials should beprepared. The tools and information needed tocommunicate fully and effectively when a crisiserupts have to be readily accessible. And, mostimportantly, an agreed-to protocol for action must bein place.

GUIDANCE FOR PLANNING ANDPREPARATION

Form a risk communications team.

Designate a team leader and assign responsibili-ties to team members.

Develop a risk communications protocol.

– Who decides when a crisis exists, what areeach team member’s responsibilities?

– Who speaks to the media/public on whatsubjects and at whose direction?

Develop and maintain lists.

– Primary contacts/experts for key offices andissue areas.

– Secondary contacts/experts for key offices andissue areas.

– Media lists. (A media list is a list of print,broadcast, and electronic media that will allowyour communications team to identify everypossible national, regional, and local outlet


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and analyze its potential value for reachingyour target audiences.)

Consider logistics.

– Where would a press briefing be held? Is iteasily accessible? Is the room large enough?Will it accommodate media needs for soundquality and sufficient power? Will speakersneed chairs, tables, or podiums?

Identify information needs and develop appropri-ate fact sheets and background materials.

Hundreds of questions—some good, some trivial,some odd—emerge when a news story is breaking.The more questions that can be anticipated andansweredahead of timein a fact sheetthe better. Thisis especiallytrue forinformationregarding highvisibility publichealth issuessuch as mightoccur in a bioterrorist event. Readily availableinformation on these issues will help keep misinfor-mation to a minimum.


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7. BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER ANINTERVIEW: DO’S AND DON’TS(Donovan and Covello, 1989)

BEFORE

Do

✦ Ask who will be conducting the interview.

✦ Ask which subjects they want to cover.

✦ Caution the interviewer on the limits of yourknowledge.

✦ Inquire about the format and duration.

✦ Ask who else will be interviewed.

✦ Suggest other interviewees.

✦ Prepare and practice.

Don’t

✦ allow yourself to be interviewed on a topicoutside of your expertise.

✦ tell the news organization which reporter youprefer. (You don’t run the newspaper and youdon’t get to dictate who gets assigned whatstories.)


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✦ request that specific questions be asked.

✦ declare certain subjects out of bounds fordiscussion. (By declaring that you won’t discusscertain things you only invite interest in thosethings and appear to have something to hide,which makes the subject even more interesting.)

✦ ask that your remarks not be edited or that yoube allowed to review an article before it ispublished. (It is an insult to the ability andintegrity of the reporter and the editor; again,you don’t run the newspaper.)

✦ try to dictate who should and should not beinterviewed.

✦ be overconfident or become overly familiar orcomfortable with your interviewer.

DURING

Do

✦ Be honest and accurate.

✦ Deliver and re-deliver your key message(s).

✦ State your conclusions first, then providesupporting data.

✦ Be forthcoming to the extent you decide before-hand.

✦ Offer to get information you don’t have.


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✦ Stress the facts.

✦ Give a reason if you can’t discuss a subject.

✦ Correct mistakes by stating you would like anopportunity to clarify.

✦ Assume that microphones and recordingequipment are turned on.

Don’t

✦ lie or try to cloud the truth.

✦ improvise or dwell on negative allegations.

✦ raise issues you don’t want to see in the story.

✦ answerquestions offthe top of yourhead.

✦ speculate,guess, assumeor hypoth-esize.

✦ speak forothers.

✦ say “nocomment.”

✦ be led intoother areas of discussion.


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✦ demand that an answer you have given not beused. If you say it, you have to live with it. Youcan ask that it not be used and explain why youwould prefer that it not be used, but you can’tdemand anything . . . and if the reporterchooses to use it, there’s little you can do.

AFTER

Do

✦ Remember you are still on the record.

✦ Be helpful. Volunteer to get information. Beavailable.

✦ Respect deadlines and deliver whatever addi-tional information you said you would deliver.

✦ Follow-up to see if any additional questionshave emerged.

✦ Watch for and read the resulting report.

✦ Ignore minor reporting errors that don’t effectthe point of the story.

✦ Call the reporter to politely point out if there areinaccuracies that do effect the point of the story.

Don’t

✦ assume an interview is over or that recordingequipment is turned off.


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✦ refuse to talk further.

✦ ask, “How did I do?”

✦ ask to review the story before publication orbroadcast.

✦ complain to the reporter’s boss first.

AND IN A CRISIS . . .

Do

✦ Plan now.

✦ Respond quickly—the first 24 hours are critical.

✦ Respond straightforwardly.

✦ Be accurate.


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✦ Strive to reassure as well as alert and informyour audience.

Don’t

✦ assume “it will never happen here.”

✦ allow your issues to be defined by someoneelse.

✦ think that refusing to discuss a story will allaypublic concerns or prevent people from seek-ing, and finding, information—accurate ornot—elsewhere.


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VII.

If substantive inaccuracies (i.e., inaccuracies thathave the potential to further a crisis or problem)

occur, you should move very quickly to correct them.Remember—the longer misinformation remainsviable in the information environment, the moredifficult it becomes to correct.

HOW TO RESPOND TO SUBSTANTIVEINACCURACIES AND RUMORS:

Move quickly to correct them.

CORRECTINGERRORS ANDRUMOR CONTROL

Keep the level of your response appropriate tothe level of the problem.

– Overreacting to an isolated mistake will onlyattract attention to the very problem you are

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trying to correct. (A single yet important errorof fact in a newspaper article would probablybe best dealt with by a polite call to thereporter who made the error.)

– Underreacting to widely reported informationthat is not correct will only allow for a com-pounding of the error. (In this case a publicstatement or even a news conference might bemost in order.)

If a damaging rumor is confined to a smallaudience, correct it within that group, don’tcreate a major public event.

If a damaging rumor is widely known andspreading—making it difficult for you to reachyour communications goals—you should moveaggressively and very publicly to correct it.

When squelching a rumor, try to anticipate howthe rumor might evolve in response to your effortsand be as thorough as you can in closing offpossible avenues of future, similar rumors.

For example, if the rumor is that, “The police areplanning to evacuate the downtown area,” yourresponse should be clear and unequivocal: “Thereare NO plans to evacuate any section of the city,”so that the details of the rumor can’t change intosomething like—“The National Guard is planning toevacuate the city.”

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Be careful, too, that your comments don’t leave thewrong impression and are not open to interpreta-tion. In the above example, for instance, care shouldbe taken to ensure that the statement does notgenerate the headline, “Officials Concede CityLacks Evacuation Plan.” Such a headline could beavoided by adding a statement that further dispelsthe rumor by clarifying the evacuation issue. Forexample, “There are no plans to evacuate anysection of the city. We have a long-standing emer-gency preparedness plan in place, and if it were tobe activated, the public would be given noticeimmediately by the Mayor.”

Correcting Errors and Rumor Control

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VIII. ASSESSINGPERSONALSTRENGTHS ANDWEAKNESSES

Individual styles and talents affect communicationsperformance; and while thought and preparation

will improve thepresentation skillsof everyone, theywill not correct alldeficiencies.Assess yourstrengths andweaknesses.

If you tend toan academicpresentationstyle, work topresent information in more human terms.

– If you would be more prone to say: “As you’llsee by the data, the incidence of occurrenceof this particular event is, statistically speaking,relatively low and tends to remain isolatedparticularly when compared to similar eventsnoted in the appendix of the document pro-vided you.”

– Try saying something along the lines of: “Thedata show that these kinds of events are rare.

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They usually affect few groups of people, anddon’t recur.”

If you have a rhetorical style, work to includesubstantive supporting data in your presentation.

– If you would be more prone to say: “Ourchallenge is to address these issues on ahuman scale that recognizes and strives topreserve an individual’s health and quality oflife.”

– Try saying something along the lines of: “Wewant to deal with the quality of life issuesinvolved here. Based on the research, thatmeans getting people checked, identifyingthose affected, which will be approximatelyone in a million people, and getting themtreatment. The statistics show that if we can dothat, we’ll keep xx percent of people well, andeffectively treat xx percent of those few who dobecome ill.”

This is not an attempt to achieve a personal make-over. Don’t try to become a great orator or aprofessorial lecturer. Simply think about how youpresent information, or ask someone you know wellhow they think you present information, and see ifyou can identify ways to improve your style. Butdon’t become so self-conscious of how you presentinformation that it interferes with delivering yourmessages.

If you are uncomfortable in a large group ornews conference setting, try to arrange for

Assessing Personal Strengths and Weaknesses

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smaller interview sessions (although take care toprovide the same information to each reporter).

If you are uncomfortable with one-on-one inter-views, include a colleague or staff member in theinterview whose strengths will make up for yourweaknesses.

Assessing Personal Strengths and Weaknesses

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IX.

What you do and how you do it will affect youraudiences’ perceptions of you, your organi-

zation, and the information you are providing.Prepare and present effectively.

1. BEFORE THE MEETING

KNOW YOURAUDIENCE(S)

Who are they,where are theyfrom?

What are theirinterests andconcerns?

What are theirlikely percep-tions andbiases?

Will they bereceptive orresistant or even hostile?

PRESENTINGINFORMATION ATPUBLIC MEETINGS

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If you don’t know the answers to these questions,find out.

PREPARE YOUR PRESENTATION

Develop a strong introduction.

Develop a maximum of three key messages.

Assemble your supporting data.

Prepare audiovisual aids.

Prepare for answering questions.

Practice.

2. THE OPENING PRESENTATION

A strong opening presentation sets a tone for themeeting and is crucial in attempting to establish trustand build credibility. Its elements include the following:

A. INTRODUCTION

A statement of personal concern

A statement of organizational commitment andintent

A statement of purpose and a plan for themeeting

Presenting Information at Public Meetings

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B. KEY MESSAGES

A maximum of three take-home points

Information to support the key messages

C. CONCLUSION

A summarizing statement

INTRODUCTION

Remember that perceived empathy is a vital factor inestablishing trust and building credibility and it is

assessed by youraudience in thefirst 30 seconds.Include the fol-lowing in yourintroduction:

Statement ofpersonal concern,e.g., “I can see

by the number of people here tonight that you are asconcerned about this issue as I am.”

Statement of organizational intent, e.g., “I amcommitted to protecting the health and safety of thepublic. The Mayor and his staff have been involvedwith this community for a long time and want towork with the community on this issue.”


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Statement of purpose and plan for the meeting. (Donot use the same statement at each meeting.) Forexample, “Tonight, we would like to share with youthe findings of the report for approximately 15minutes, then we would like to open the floor fordiscussion, questions, and concerns. We will beavailable after the meeting to answer any additionalquestions you might have.”

KEY MESSAGES AND SUPPORTING DATA

The key messages are points you want your public tohave in mind after the meeting. They should addresscentral issues, and be short and concise, e.g., “Wehave performed extensive tests over the past weekwhich have failed to find any evidence that Xremains in the building. It is now safe to returnthere.”

To develop your key messages:

✦ BRAINSTORM. Think freely and jot down allpieces of information you wish to communicate.

✦ SELECT KEY MESSAGES. Identify the most impor-tant ideas. Repeat the process until your list isdown to three items.

✦ IDENTIFY SUPPORTING DATA. Review your brain-storming ideas and background materials forinformation that provides support to your keymessages.


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CONCLUSION

Restate verbatim your key messages.

Add a future action statement: What is your organi-zation going to do about this problem in the shortterm? Long term?

3. PRESENTATION AIDS ANDGUIDELINES

Audiovisual aids can make your messages easier tounderstand. People are more likely to remember apoint if they have a visual association with thewords. More guidance in preparing quality presen-tations can be found in the book “Loud and Clear:How to Prepare and Deliver Effective Business andTechnical Presentations” (Morrisey, et al., 1997).Some aids to consider: charts, illustrations, dia-grams, glossaries, maps, posters, photographs,video/motion pictures, Microsoft PowerPoint (orequivalent) presentations, lists, fact sheets.

Effective visual aids:

Are able to stand alone.

Illustrate a key concept.

Support only one major idea.


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Use pictures or graphics rather than wordswhenever possible.

Conform to six words per line maximum, tenlines per visual maximum.

Feature short phrases or key words.

Highlight important points with color or contrast.

Represent facts accurately.

Are carefully made—neat, clear, and uncluttered.

Have impact.

4. PRESENTATION REMINDERS

If you use presentation aids be careful not to overdoit. When planning, practicing, and conducting apresentation, consider:

ATTIRE/GROOMING – Dress as your audience wouldexpect you to at your place of work or perhapsslightly less formally.

DISTRACTIONS – Avoid repetitive gestures such asconstant throat-clearing, checking your watch,jingling keys or change, and pacing. Take a breathand relax.

ENUNCIATION/PRONUNCIATION – Speak distinctlyand correctly. Be careful with unfamiliar words. Spell


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and define terms as appropriate, but don’t bepedantic.

FACIAL EXPRESSIONS/EYE CONTACT – Eye contact ismost crucial. Your mouth, eyes, forehead, andeyebrows also communicate. Try not to fidget,glance around or lick your lips.

GESTURES – Gestures can enhance or detract fromyour communication. Be aware of yours and makesure they are appropriate, but don’t be so worriedabout not using your hands that you make a poorpresentation.

PACE/RHYTHM/PITCH – Vary your tempo. Speakslowly to emphasize key messages, pause foremphasis, vary your voice pattern and length ofphrases. Avoid repeating such words as “ok,” “like,”“not,” “uh,” and “you know.”

POSTURE – Posture communicates attitude. Try tohave a straight stance with legs slightly apart. Don’tslouch, but don’t be rigid.

VOLUME – The intensity of your voice reflects yourconfidence, competence, and openness. Watch youraudience for feedback. Adjust to your surroundings.Don’t make your audience strain to hear you butdon’t shout at them either.


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5. ANSWERING QUESTIONS

As with presentations, your responses to individuals’questions and concerns will affect your success.Prepare and practice. Consider how to answerquestions in general and how to respond to specificinquiries.

Be prepared.If you know your subject and your audience, mostquestions can be anticipated.

Track Your Key Messages.Use your responses as opportunities to reemphasizeyour key messages.

Keep Your Answers Short and Focused.Your answer should be less than 2 minutes long.

Practice Self-Management. Listen.Be confident and factual. Control your emotions.

Speak and Act with Integrity.Tell the truth. If you don’t know, say so. Follow up aspromised. If you are unsure of a question, repeat orparaphrase it to be certain of the meaning.


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6. SAMPLE QUESTIONS

The following questions illustrate what you mayencounter, along with suggested key messages andtips for responding to them. For a discussion ofdifferent types of tough questions, consult “Encoun-tering the Media: Media Strategies & Techniques”(McLoughlin, 1998).

Q. As a representative of the county, canyou explain why the county does nothave a program to distribute medicinesduring this crisis?

Key Message: We do have a policy to distributerecommended treatments in concert with Stateand Federal authorities. In fact, we . . . .


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State in a positive manner that you do not agreewith the questioner’s statement. Do not try toignore it. Be polite, but firm.

Do not repeat the negative words. Refute withoutrepeating allegations. Take the opportunity torestate your position or message.

Q. You’ve told us about the city’s positionon citizens not taking antibiotics at thistime. But, are you taking antibiotics?

Key Message: No, I am not taking antibiotics atthis time. I’m also concerned about the serious-ness of this situation—not only as an agencyrepresentative, but also as a fellow citizen. Weremain in close contact with medical and publichealth experts regarding the use of antibiotics.

Be prepared for personal questions. If you donot agree with the agency’s position, you shouldnot act as a spokesperson.

Q. You have stated some conditions underwhich you would impose quarantine inthe town. Does the Federal Governmentagree with those plans?

Key Message: We follow Federal guidelines andremain in close contact with Federal authoritieson all questions related to quarantine.


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Refer questions to the appropriate person ororganization. Speak only to what you know andon behalf of the organization you represent.

Q. Do you know the exact figure on howmuch money is being spent on thisproblem?

Key Message: I don’t know the exact figure. But ifyou will give me your name and number, I willget that information for you by . . . .

Say you don’t know. Offer to get the informationby a specified time. Don’t lie or make up ananswer. If you promise to get the information,follow up.

Q. We’ve heard that your agency and Stateregulators have made a deal to provideantibiotics to government staff and theirfamily before other citizens. How canyou justify this policy?

Key Message: We have a plan for providingtreatment to all citizens equally and fairly, basedon need. Our goal is to fully protect the safetyand health of the community and to do so incompliance with all applicable Federal andState laws and regulations.

Don’t justify or refute a non-existent plan orpolicy. Respond with a straightforward statement


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that accurately reflects policy and conveys youroffice’s commitment to meet the needs of every-one in the community.

Q. What are your qualifications to respondto this emergency?

Key Message: I have several years’ experience inmanaging emergency programs, and I have ateam of professionals working with me to ensurethat all aspects of the program are carried outwith quality.

Don’t respond with hostility or emotion. Removeemotional words.

Q. It must be extraordinarily difficult tomanage all of the problems that havearisen since the outbreak of the epi-demic.

Key Message: My training and experienceprepare me to deal with public health and safetyproblems and I am here to do the best job I canfor the community.

Don’t buy into the sympathetic approach. Youmay ruin your credibility by agreeing. In one-on-one interviews don’t allow yourself to be lulledinto casual conversations that might revealinformation that you would prefer be keptconfidential.


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Q. In reference to the possible contamina-tion of City Reservoir, why haven’t youmade a greater effort to ensure thesafety of the drinking water?

Key Message: Efforts are being made and we areensuring the safety of the drinking water.

Be polite but firm. Return to your message.Repeat your statements. Be careful not to repeatnegative phrases such as, “contamination of CityReservoir.”

Q. What is the worst-case scenario?

Key Message: I would not want to speculate. Weare working hard to ensure the health and safetyof this community. The plans we are making takeinto account the number of people that may beinvolved, the supply of antibiotics . . . .

Don’t speculate. Do everything you can to avoidspeculation. If you must, be very, very clear thatwhat you are saying is merely speculation.

Q. We have heard a rumor that the bacte-ria involved are genetically engineered.

Key Message: This is the first time I’ve heard thisrumor. The information I have seen does notindicate that there has been genetic engineeringof the organism that has been identified.


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Put a stop to the rumor, let the public know whatyou know.

Q. What would you recommend that yourboss do to address the concerns of thepublic on these problems?

Key Message: I believe my boss is doing every-thing he/she can to effectively deal with theseissues.

Don’t give this kind of advice when talking to thepublic or media.


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X.

The discussion of issues surrounding a news eventis not confined to official sources or to a single

forum. News, comment, analysis, and opinion frominnumerable voices enter the information environ-ment by way of newspapers (as news, editorials,opinion articles, letters to the editor), television andradio (as news, in special reports, and through talkshows), and dozens of other sources such asspeeches, newsletters, and web sites.

The appearance of information that is related toyour issues of concern is an opportunity for you tolend your voice to that particular discussion. Look forways to insert yourself into the debate surrounding

RECOGNIZINGOPPORTUNITIESTO SPEAK OUT

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your issues and don’t be shy about availing yourselfof those opportunities. A newspaper article mightgive you the chance to author an opinion article ora letter to the editor that would further address theissue. Speaking before a local civic group is anothermeans of delivering your message. And appearingon local talk radio programs is an excellent way toextend the reach and impact of your messages.

WHAT YOU CAN DO:

Submit letters to the editors of local newspapers.

Contact your local newspaper to find out how tosubmit an opinion article.

Call in to local talk radio programs when perti-nent topics are being discussed.

Contact local talk-radio producers to solicit aninvitation to appear on their programs.

Contact local civic groups to solicit speakingopportunities.

If you give a speech, contact local news outletsand ask them to cover your presentation.

Contact local television news producers toexplore ways they can cover your issues.

Recognizing Opportunities to Speak Out

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NEWS MEDIA

• Allan S, Adam B, and Carter C (editors).Environmental Risks and the Media. London andNew York (NY): Routledge, December 1999,ISBN 0415214467; 278 pages.

• Government and Other Agency Roles in RiskCommunication by Amler RW, Tinker T. Nationalrisk communication training program for Statehealth agency personnel. Atlanta (GA): Agencyfor Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (US);1993. Report No.: ATSDR/HS-93/22. 200 p.Available from: NTIS, Springfield, VA; PB93-192953.

• Peters GA and Peters BJ. Warnings, Instructionsand Technical Communication. Tucson (AZ):Lawyers and Judges Publishing Company.February 1999; ISBN 0913875619; 450 pages.

• Reporting on Risk: A Journalist’s Handbook onEnvironmental Risk Assessment. Foundation forAmerican Communications and the NationalSea Grant College Program. http://www.facsnet.org/report_tools/guides_primers/risk/

SUGGESTEDREADINGS ANDRESOURCES

XI.

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• Salvador M and Sias PM (editors). The PublicVoice in a Democracy at Risk. Highlands Ranch(CO): Praeger Publishers. January 1998; ISBN0275960137, 216 pages.

• Singer E and Endreny PM. Reporting on Risk:How the Mass Media Portray Accidents, Dis-eases, Disasters, and Other Hazards. New York(NY): Russell Sage Foundation. May 1993;ISBN: 0871548011, 244 pages.

• Willis WJ, Okunade AA, and Willis J. Reportingon Risks: The Practice and Ethics of Health andSafety Communication. Highlands Ranch (CO):Praeger Publishers. July 1997; ISBN:0275952967, 240 pages.

BOOKS, REPORTS, AND JOURNAL ARTICLES

• Chess C, Salomone KL, Hance BJ. Improving riskcommunication in government: research priori-ties. Risk Anal 1995 Apr;15(2):127-35.

• Chess C, Salomone KL, Sandman PM. Riskcommunication activities of State health agen-cies. Am J Public Health 1991 Apr;81(4):489-91.

• Covello VT, McCallum DB, Pavlova MT, (editors).Effective risk communication: the role andresponsibility of government and non-governmentorganizations. New York (NY): Plenum; 1989.366 pages.ISBN 0-306-43075-4.

Suggested Readings and Resources

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• Fisher A, Chen YC. Customer perceptions ofagency risk communication. Risk Anal 1996Apr;16(2):177-84.

• Fisher A, Chitose A, Gipson PS. One agency’suse of risk assessment and risk communication.Risk Anal 1994 Apr;14(2):207-12.

• Hance BJ. Improving dialogue with communities:a risk communication manual for government.Trenton (NJ): New Jersey Department of Environ-mental Protection; 1988.

• Interagency Task Force on Environmental Cancerand Heart and Lung Disease. Workshop on theRole of Government in Risk communication andPublic Education. Contemporary Issues in RiskAnalysis, Vol. 4, January 21-23, 1987, Washing-ton, D.C.

• Santos SL, McCallum DB. Communicating to thepublic: using risk comparisons. Hum Ecol RiskAssess 1997 Dec;3(6):1197-214.

• SIS: Specialized Information Services [homepageon the Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Libraryof Medicine (US). Available from: http://www.sis.nlm.nih.gov/index.cfm

• Sly T. The perception and communication of risk:a guide for the local health agency. Can J PublicHealth 2000 Mar-Apr;91(2):153-6.


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• Tinker TL. Recommendations to improve riskcommunication: lessons learned from the U.S.Public Health Service. J Health Commun 1996Apr-Jun;1(2):197-217.

• Tinker TL, Collins CM, King HS, Hoover MD.Assessing risk communication effectiveness:perspectives of agency practitioners. J HazardMater 2000 Apr 3;73(2):117-27.

WEB SITES

• Center for Environmental Communication (CEC).Cook College, New Jersey Agricultural Experi-ment Station and the Edward J. Bloustein Schoolof Planning and Public Policy.http://aesop.rutgers.edu/~cec/home.html

• Institute for Risk Analysis and Risk Communica-tion (IRARC), http://depts.washington.edu/irarc/

• The Risk Communication Network, World HealthOrganization Europe (WHO Europe), Centre forEnvironmental and Risk Management. http://www.uea.ac.uk/menu/acad_depts/env/all/resgroup/cerm/rcninfo.htm

• Risk Communications and Services Center(Canadian). http://www.rcandsc.com/

• Society for Risk Analysis. http://www.sra.org/


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Bean, M.C. (1988). Speaking of risk. Civil Engi-neering (February): 59-61.

Bennett, P., Calman, K. (eds) (1999). Risk Communi-cation and Public Health. New York: OxfordPress.

Chess, C. (1989) Encouraging effective risk commu-nication in government: suggestions for agencymanagement. In: Covello VT, McCallum DB andPavlova MT (Eds.). Effective Risk Communication.New York: Plenum Press.

Chess, C., Hance, B.J., Sandman P.M. (1988).Improving Dialogue with Communities: A ShortGuide to Government Risk Communication. NewJersey Department of Environmental Protection.

Covello, V. (1992). Risk Communication, Trust, andCredibility. Health and Environmental Digest, 6(1):1-4 (April).

Covello, V. (1993). Risk Communication, Trust, andCredibility. Journal of Occupational Medicine 35:18-19 (January).

Covello, V., Allen F. (1988). Seven Cardinal Rules ofRisk Communication. U.S. Environmental Protec-tion Agency, Office of Policy Analysis, Washing-ton, D.C.

REFERENCESXII.

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Covello, V, MCCallum, D, Pavlova, M. (1989).Effective Risk Communication: The Role andResponsibility of Government and NongovernmentOrganizations. New York: Plenum Press.

Covello, V., Peters, R.G., Wojtecki, J.G., & Hyde,R.C. (2001). Risk communication, the West Nilevirus epidemic, and bioterrorism: Responding tothe communication challenges posed by theintentional or unintentional release of a pathogenin an urban setting. Journal of Urban Health:Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine,78, 382-91.

Donovan, E., Covello, V. (1989). Risk Communica-tion Student Manual. Chemical Manufacturers’Association, Washington, D.C.

Fischhoff, B., Lichtenstein, S., Slovic, P., Keeney, D.(1981). Acceptable Risk. Cambridge, Massachu-setts: Cambridge University Press.

Frewer, L.J. Public risk perceptions and risk communi-cation. In: Bennett, P. & Calman, K. (Eds.) (1999).Risk Communication and Public Health. London:Oxford University Press.

Lum, M., Tinker T. (1994). A primer on health riskcommunication principles and practices. U.S.Department of Health and Human Services,Environmental Health Policy Committee, Washing-ton, D.C.

References

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References

Maxwell, R. (1999). The British government’shandling of risk: Some reflections on the BSE/CJDcrisis. In Bennett, P & Calman, K. (Eds.) (1999),Risk Communication and Public Health, (pp. 95-107). London: Oxford University Press.

McLoughlin, B. (1998) Encountering the Media:Media Strategies & Techniques (Communicate withPower 2000 Series) Washington, D.C.:MultiMedia Publishing.

Morrisey, G.L., Sechrest, T.L., Warman, W.B.(1997). Loud and Clear: How to Prepare andDeliver Effective Business and Technical Presenta-tions (Fourth Edition). Cambridge, Massachusetts:Perseus Publishing.

O’Toole, T. (2001). Emerging Illness andBioterrorism: Implications for public health. Journalof Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Acad-emy of Medicine, 78, 396-402.

Plough, A., Krimsky, S. (1988) EnvironmentalHazards: Communicating Risks as a SocialProcess. Westport, Connecticut: Auburn House.

Samet, J.M., Burke, T.A. (1998). Epidemiology andrisk assessment. In: Brownson RC, Petitti DB (Eds.):Applied Epidemiology: Theory to Practice. NewYork: Oxford.

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Avoiding Communications Mistakes:

Top Ten Tips for the Savvy Communicator

1. First do no harm. Your words have consequences—be sure they’re the right ones.

2. Don’t babble. Know what you want to say. Say it . . . then say it again.

3. If you don’t know what you’re talking about, stop talking.

4. Focus more on informing people than impressing them. Use everyday language.

5. Never say anything you are not willing to see printed on tomorrow’s front page.

6. Never lie. You won’t get away with it.

7. Don’t make promises you can’t keep.

8. Don’t use “No Comment.” You’ll look like you have something to hide.

9. Don’t get angry. When you argue with the media, you always lose . . . and lose publicly.

10. Don’t speculate, guess, or assume. When you don’t know something, say so.

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