commpreneur: an original methodology … learning of new digital business models, coupled with...
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COMMPRENEUR: AN ORIGINAL METHODOLOGY FOR RAISING THE
ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTION AMONG JOURNALISM STUDENTS
Abstract: The present article proposes, describes in detail and empirically validates a
methodology for raising the entrepreneurial intention among journalism students. The
research is based on pre-post surveys on four different groups of 20-25 students (89 in
total) from a Spanish public university and measures the change in the students’
intentions after a period of three months of class. The findings contribute to the theories
of education and have wider implications for the practice of teaching entrepreneurship
among communication students.
1. Introduction
During the last two decades, the promotion, study and understanding of
entrepreneurial behaviour has been a recurring point of discussion for both academics
and legislators from different industrialised and non-industrialised areas globally
(Zahra, Wright & Abdelwagad, 2014). This relatively recent increase has been largely
due to its positive impact on economic activity (Wennekers & Thurik, 1999), since, in
general terms; countries with higher number of entrepreneurs tend to suffer lower levels
of unemployment (Reynolds, 1987; Zahra, 1999; Audretsch, 2002) and higher
generation of capital (Delmar, Davidsson & Gartner, 2003). However, entrepreneurial
activity is scarce (Liñán, Rodríguez-Cohard & Rueda-Cantuche, 2011). According to
the General Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM, 2011), in 2007 less than 10% of the
OECD adult population was starting a new business venture, as the financial collapse
and the subsequent economic recession questioned the implementation and promotion
of certain public and fiscal policies, and individual and collective business initiatives
(Goyanes, 2014). In this context, a considerable consensus exists regarding the political
importance of the promotion of entrepreneurship to stimulate the worldwide
development of the economy and business (de Pillis & Reardon, 2007).
In Spain, the popularisation and political incentivisation of entrepreneurship as an
alternative career path has been induced, mainly, by the increase of unemployment rates
as a result of the bursting of the housing bubble and the subsequent economic downturn.
The relatively recent appearance of this negative political, economic and social context
has served as a decisive catalyst for political leaders to encourage their citizens to
embrace an entrepreneurial mind-set to employment in addition to pursuing traditional
career paths. In this process of transformation and learning, the design and
implementation of programmes that raise the individual capacity to plan and execute
measures oriented to self-employment is fundamental both from an academic and
political-economic strategy point of view.
Media organisations have not been the exception to the rule during the recent
international and national economic turbulences and, in order to ensure their economic
viability, they have initiated a restructuration process through the exploration and trial-
error learning of new digital business models, coupled with layoffs, wage cuts,
downsizing, the recruitment of interns, and, ultimately, the gradual erosion of job
security (Campos, 2010). In this context of industrial uncertainty and instability (De
Bustos & Casado del Río, 2010; Goyanes, 2015), the traditional role of the
communication sector professionals as salaried employees, requires an extensive review
(Aceituno-Aceituno et al., 2014, Goyanes & Peinado-Miguel, 2014). In this sense, the
voices that champion self-employment and call for its early incentivisation and
promotion at universities as a future career path for Communications students are
growing louder. For example, it is suggested that university courses should adopt new
methodologies and teaching approaches that best harness, encourage and enhance
entrepreneurial skills of the students that consequently invigorate their desire to become
self-employed (Paniagua, Gómez & González, 2014). However, to our knowledge, there
is a noticeable lack of previous studies that describe in detail and empirically validate an
entrepreneurship programme specifically designed to foster the entrepreneurial intention
of students pursuing Journalism Studies.
The present study empirically examines how a specific and original entrepreneurship
programme influences the entrepreneurial intention of Journalism students from a
Spanish public university. Based on a sample of 83 students divided in to 4 different
groups and using pre-post-test surveys, the results show that the programme raises the
overall entrepreneurial intention of the students under study. Educational, managerial
and political implications are finally discussed.
2. Theoretical framework
In entrepreneurship literature, some previous empirical studies focused on the
analysis of entrepreneurial intention, interest or propensity of university students (Scott
& Twomey, 1988; Begley et al., 1997; Henderson & Robertson, 2000; Wang &Wong,
2004; Lee & Wong., 2004). Fundamentally, there are two prominent overlapping
strands: on the one hand, there are those empirical studies that looked at the personal
characteristics of potential entrepreneurs (Henderson & Robertson, 2000; Wang
&Wong, 2004) and/or contextual factors (Scott & Twomey, 1988; Begley et al., 1997;
Lee et al., 2005), and on the other hand, there are those studies specifically focused on
empirically validating entrepreneurship programmes. But, more specifically, what does
entrepreneurial intention refer to?
Despite the wide-ranging debate regarding the theoretical framework for its analysis
(Wennekers & Thurik, 1999; Thompson, 2009), the vast majority of empirical models
depart from the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). In this sense,
entrepreneurial intention would be a decisive and determinant element in
entrepreneurial behaviours (Fayolle & DeGeorge, 2006). Therefore, the prediction of
future entrepreneurial behaviour could be obtained through the measurement of this
intention. Based on this logic, entrepreneurial intention could be conceptualised as the
self-acknowledged conviction by persons that they intend to set up a new business
venture and consciously plan to do so at some point in the future (Thompson, 2009).
In the Spanish context, the number of initiatives to develop new business ventures
has been traditionally medium to low (GEM, 2011), especially when compared to other
Northern European countries and North America. Several factors may explain this
pattern of behaviour towards self-employment as a career path preference: the lack or
the perceived lack of public subsidies, high taxes, bureaucratic sluggishness, limited
entrepreneurial education and formation etc. If the pre-crisis situation was problematic
in this regard, the economic downturn led to the closure, downsizing and slowing down
of a considerable number of business ventures (IFIC, 2014). However, by the same
token, the downturn promoted the political incentivisation of entrepreneurship, as this
career path began to be increasingly perceived by society as attractive, viable, and, in
some cases, even necessary, given the lack of traditional labour opportunities (GEM,
2011). As we previously observed, media organisations do not appear to obey to a
different pattern.
In a digital environment characterised by information-overload and job uncertainty,
the role of communication sector professionals as interpreters, whistle-blowers and
advocates of democracy, is more indispensable than ever (Díaz-Nosty, 2011). Their
work, generally articulated through the industrial production systems that traditional
media organisations (digital or not) represent, is being extended through the political
and fiscal fomentation of new labour careers oriented towards self-employment.
However, despite the promotion and incentivisation of entrepreneurship, the lack of
previous studies that empirically analysed new educative programmes that trigger
student’s intentions towards entrepreneurship, is more than notable. Therefore, the
present study asks the following research question: does COMMPRENEUR
significantly increase the entrepreneurial intention of students pursuing Journalism
Studies?
3. Methodology of the study
3.1. About the course
“Organization and Management of Media Enterprises” is a mandatory course that is
worth 6 ECTS practical-theoretical credits and is offered in the third year of the BA
degree in Journalism and Bilingual Journalism. The course theoretically explores basic
business concepts that are particularly required in order to design, develop and manage
a media company in a relatively competitive and realistic environment. In this sense, the
course adopts a practical and didactic approach and each of the topics includes case
studies and exercises that help students understand the theoretical contents under study.
In general, the main objective of the course is to provide students with the basic and
fundamental theoretical and conceptual tools to develop new business-ventures in a
relatively real and competitive context.
3.2. Procedure
Intention towards entrepreneurship was analysed on four different groups of students
that took the mandatory course “Organization and Management of Media Enterprises”
in the first semester of the academic year 2014/2015. From the four groups, three of
them were taught in Spanish whilst the fourth one was imparted in English. In this last
group, the origin of the students was as follows (most of the non-Spaniards were part of
the international programme): USA (n = 1; 5,6%), Portugal (n = 1; 5,6%), Australia (n =
2; 11,1%), Germany (n = 3; 16,7%), England (n = 3; 16.7%) and Spain (n = 8; 44,5%).
The total number of students in all four courses amounted to 120, of which 89 were
surveyed (the response rate was 74,16%). The total sample of 89 students included
slightly more women (n = 61; 69,3%) than men (n = 27, 30,7%) which follows the
current gender representation of the vast majority of Journalism courses in Spanish
universities. The average age was 20,79 (max.: 33; min.: 19; dt = 2,27).
The distribution of the students by group were as follows: a total number of 25
students were surveyed in group one, 18 students were surveyed in group two (this is
the Bilingual Journalism BA Degree), a total of 23 students were surveyed in group
three as well as in the fourth group. The same students participated in both the pre and
post-test. As previously stated, the surveys were conducted at the beginning and at the
end of the first semester of the 2014/2015 academic year in all four groups. Data for the
pre-test were collected on the 15th
of September of 2014 while data for the post-test
were collected on the 15th
of December 2014, that is, three months later after
COMMPRENEUR.
The procedure to collect pre-data was as follows: after the introduction of the course
(the first day of class) the official lecturer kindly invited their students to fill a survey
that is designed to measure their entrepreneurial intention before and after the course.
The survey was given in a relaxed environment at the same university where the
students belong to. In addition to the concise explanation of the aim of the survey by the
official lecturer, a cover letter was also provided, explaining the objectives and the
procedure to fill it. Before covering the survey the lecturer of the course clearly
explained that the survey must be anonymous and that the data would never be used for
academic purposes, but for the sole use of measuring the applicability of
COMMPRENEUR. Finally, the procedure to collect post-data was the same as with the
pre-data but only those students who had carried out the pre-survey were taken into
consideration in the sample. Data was analysed in Stata.
5. COMMPRENEUR programme
The duration of the course is 14 weeks, with one three-hour class per week. The
course design is identical for all the groups and complies with the following pattern.
From the beginning, according to their number (usually around 25), the students are
randomly divided into three or four groups of 6-8 members and they start working on
the idea of a business project in a media industry that will be presented at the end of the
term. In the first part of the course (weeks 1-6) the classes are divided into two equal
parts. During the first half, the lecturer introduces some theoretical concepts and
managerial tools, whereas the second part is dedicated to team-working and the students
try to apply these notions to their projects, which grow week by week.
The different teachers are free to organize their lectures according to their personal
inclinations, but they all typically cover the following topics: mission, vision and values
of the company; industry analysis; product development and innovation process; value
chain and competitive advantage; organizational structure and marketing. The contents
tackled in the lectures provide an introduction to management for journalists and
represent a guide for the realization of the final project, a 5-10 sheet document
organized as follows. Firstly, it must present a mission statement, a vision statement,
and a values statement of the company. The second part is dedicated to an analysis of
the industry in which the firm is entering, of its direct competitors and of their potential
response. In the third section of the project, the students must describe the company’s
value chain and core processes, its position in the value system and then indicate how
they think it is possible to achieve a competitive advantage in the chosen industrial
sector. After this, the document illustrates the formal organization of the firm and
provides a possible salary frame. The successive paragraph deals with the competitive
strategy of the company and its middle-term strategy. Then there is a description of the
launching process and of the launching timing plan, illustrated by a Gantt chart. The
following section of the project envisions a marketing strategy and the last one
examines the sources of revenues that are expected to provide profitability. Given that
the course is part of a journalism degree, no financial analysis is required. Above all, the
final project design attempts to give a taste of what an entrepreneurial process can be
and it provides a first grasp of the basic managerial tools.
The second part of the course (weeks 7-11) is characterized by the absence of
lectures and every week each group presents a different study on a national media
industry. Ideally, the chosen country coincides with the one in which the group is
considering as the place to start the company of the final project, but this is not
mandatory. The first presentation is dedicated to the press industry, then the industries
of radio, television, and advertising are covered in this order; lastly, the groups provide
a general framework of the chosen national media industry1.
1 For a better understanding of the details, we briefly describe here the structure of the presentation:
1) The press industry: evolution of the industry; industry’s volume (readers and advertisement
investments); general audience’s evolution (last 5-10 years minimum); cost structure; revenues structure;
promotion / marketing; industry analysis (Michael Porter’s 5 competitive forces); impact of digital media;
segmentation and regionalization; business opportunities.
2) The radio industry: regulation of the industry; volume of the industry (listeners and advertising
investments); evolution of the audiences; timeline of daily consumption (who watches what at what time);
industry analysis; segmentation of the contents and the markets; radio station groups; digital radio;
business opportunities.
3) The television industry: regulation of the industry (including advertising regulation); volume of the
industry (audiences and advertising investments); evolution of the audiences; timeline of daily
consumption; segmentation of the contents and the markets; television groups; industry analysis; new
ways of watching television; business opportunities.
Every member must participate in the public presentation, which lasts 25-30 minutes
and is accompanied by a multimedia document (no longer than 10 slides) and a two-
sheet pdf document containing subsidiary information and all the sources of the data2.
At the end, the teacher comments on the research and a class discussion follows. Also,
the other groups deliver a brief written analysis/consideration and an evaluation of the
presentation to the lecturer. These “peer-reviews”, that may or may not be taken into
account by the teacher, have the purpose of maintaining the attention of the students and
motivating a critical view.
Overall, the goal of these five presentations is to develop the ability of studying a
media industry from an entrepreneurial point of view, of providing a concise account of
its situation, and of seeing the business opportunities within the distinct sectors. This
also aims to improve the final projects, which acquire details and background
information during these weeks.
The class of week twelve is dedicated to a group tutorship in which each team
receives the final advice and feedback from the teacher. Then, the last two days are
spent by the teams on the making of a 30-45 minute public presentation of their final
projects.
4) The advertising industry: regulation; evolution of the investments in all media industries (general
overview), in each traditional media industry (radio, television, press), and by advertisers; structure of the
industry (number and size of companies); factors in media selection; new advertising trends in traditional
media companies and new media companies.
5) General framework: it is a more free presentation that provides a description of the present situation of
a national media industry mostly using the data gathered in the previous weeks. The primary aim is to
highlight the most important features of the industry and, secondly, present the business opportunities
within the industry. 2 These restrictions are not applied in the case of the last presentation.
6. Evaluation system
The final grade is the result of the team work, which is evaluated during the course of
the quadrimester, and of a final individual exam. Both the exam and the continuous
evaluation account for half of the final grade, which is expressed, according to the
Spanish system, in a 0-10 scale where 5 is the minimum mark needed to pass. The final
exam consists of 10 questions about the topics covered in the lectures and a reference
book (Organización y gestión de la empresa informativa by Galán J. et al. for the
Spanish group and Strategic Management in the Media: Theory to Practice by Lucy
Küng for the English group).
The final project account for 25% of the grade and its mark is up to 250 points. To
avoid cases of free-riding, this mark is multiplied by the number of the members of the
groups and the students split it and share it according to the perceived individual
contribution. So, if the final project grade is 200 and the group has 6 members, the mark
will be 1200, and the individual marks may be 200 for everybody if the group agrees to
share equally, or may be different in case it decides otherwise. Finally, each of the 5
presentations of the national media industry account for 5% of the final grade. Their
marks are up to 50 and they follow the same sharing rule of the final project’s grade.
7. Results
Prior to conducting the experimental analysis, we analysed both pre and post data in
order to see significant differences in relation to the level of entrepreneurial intention
and course/gender. The means of the entrepreneurial intention are very similar in pre
data (to be in ascending order): course 3 has the lowest entrepreneurial intention (m =
2.13; SD = 1.14), followed by course 1 (m = 2.48; SD = 1.12), course 2 (m = 2.80; SD =
1.07), and finally course 4 has the highest entrepreneurial intention (m = 2.84; SD =
0.95). The mean of the entrepreneurial intention in all courses is 2.54 (SD = 1.10). In
order to determine whether the course (in pre-data) significantly affects entrepreneurial
intention, we conducted an analysis of variance (ANOVA). Since the p value is above
5% significance level, we conclude that there are no significant differences between the
four courses in relation to the level of entrepreneurial intention. Finally, to determine
whether significant differences exist between the levels of entrepreneurial intention
depending on gender in pre-data, we conducted another analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Given that the p value is above 5% of significance level, we conclude that there are no
significant differences between gender and the level of entrepreneurial intention in pre
data. In addition, in the four courses a series of analysis of variance were conducted, and
in all of them there no significant differences that exist in relation to gender and
entrepreneurial intention.
Figure 1. Pre data. Entrepreneurial intention in the four courses.
In relation to the post analysis, data is very similar with regard to the parity of means
of entrepreneurial intention, although there is a notable increase with respect to pre-data
(to be in ascending order): course 3 has the lowest mean in entrepreneurial intention in
post data (m = 2.65; SD = 1.08), followed by course 2 (m = 2.85; SD = 1.06), course 4
(m = 3.01; SD = 1.07) and finally, course 1 (m = 3.19; SD = 1.16) has the highest
entrepreneurial intention in post data.
In order to determine whether the course (in post-data) significantly affects
entrepreneurial intention, we conduct an analysis of variance (ANOVA). Since the p
value is above 5% significance level, we conclude that there are no significant
differences between the four courses in relation to the level of entrepreneurial intention.
Finally, to determine whether significant differences exist between the level of
entrepreneurial intention depending on gender in post-data, we conduct another analysis
of variance (ANOVA). Given that the p value is below 5% of significance level, we
conclude that in post-data there are significant differences between gender and the level
of entrepreneurial intention. Therefore, the entrepreneurial intention in male students is
higher than in female students after COMMPRENEUR. In addition, in the four courses
a series of analysis of variance were conducted, and in all of them significant
differences exist in relation to gender and entrepreneurial intention.
Figure 2. Post data. Entrepreneurial intention in the four courses
As we previously noted, the entrepreneurial intention in pre data was 2.54 (SD =
1.10) while in post data was 2.92 (SD = 1.09). To verify if our methodology
(COMMPRENEUR) significantly increases the entrepreneurial intention among
communication students (from four different courses) we conduct an analysis of
variance (ANOVA). Our results indicate that there are significant differences in relation
to the pre/post data and the level of entrepreneurial intention (p < 0.05). Therefore, we
conclude that COMPRENEUR increases the overall entrepreneurial intention among
communications students. Furthermore, in the four courses a series of analysis of
variance were conducted, and in all of them, except in course 2, there are significant
differences between pre and post data (p < 0.05).
Figure 3. Pre-Post data. Entrepreneurial intention
As reflected in the figure, there is a notable increase in the entrepreneurial intention
of journalism students in all groups. However, in course number two, the difference is
not significant. In descending order, these are the steepest increases of entrepreneurial
intention by groups: course one is where COMMPRENEUR has affected the
entrepreneurial intention of journalism students the most (pre m = 2,48; post m = 3,19),
followed by course 3 (pre m = 2,13; post m = 2,165), course 4 (pre m = 2,84; post m =
3,01) and finally course 2 (pre m = 2,80; post m = 2,85).
Figure 4. Pre and Post-data in the four groups.
Analysed the simple effects (pre/post*EI), we explore whether the relationship
between pre/post data and entrepreneurial intention depends on the level of gender
(male/female). In order to determine the interaction effects we conduct 2x2 ANOVA
design (pre/post*gender). The results of the 2x2 ANOVA, indicate no significant
interaction effects (F = 1,587; p = ,210), suggesting that gender does not significantly
affects the relationship between pre/post data and entrepreneurial intention.
8. Discussion
The present article is one of the first studies in proposing, describing in detail and
empirically validating a methodology for raising the entrepreneurial intention among
communication students (in particular journalism and media studies students). Based on
pre-post surveys on four different groups of 20-25 students (total of 85) from a Spanish
public university, the study measures the change in students’ intentions after a period of
three months of COMMPRENEUR, the original methodology designed and developed
by the authors.
Firstly, this study addresses a very low entrepreneurial intention among the students
pursuing Journalism and Media Studies in Spain, before COMMPRENEUR, and even
after, although the Analysis of Variance suggests a significant increase with respect to
pre-data. If intention is considered as one of the most important predictors of future
behaviour (Ajzen, 1991), self-employment as a career path in the communication sector
remains as a subordinate labour alternative. Therefore, being a salaried employee in the
communication sector continues to be one of the most important and desirable labour
preferences for future professionals.
A comparison of these results with some earlier empirical studies, conducted on
college students from other academic backgrounds (technical studies, economy,
business, natural sciences, etc.) and countries (Greek, Turkey, Ireland, United States or
even Spain itself), shows a considerable difference with respect to the entrepreneurial
intention depending on the university study being undertaken (see for example,
Zampetakis & Moustakis, 2006; de Pillis & Reardon, 2007; Liñán, Rodríguez-Cohard &
Rueda-Cantuche, 2011). That is, the entrepreneurial intention among the students
pursuing Journalism and Media Studies was lowest in comparison to all of the earlier
studies referred, even for the samples focused on Spanish college students (but with
different academic backgrounds: economy and business).
There are several different reasons that might explain this lack of entrepreneurial
intention, including the relief, security and sense of belonging to a workforce of a
traditional media company (Brenner, Pringle & Greenhaus, 1991; Delano, 2001;
Greenhaus & Callanan, 2009), the lack of educational support for the students pursuing
Journalism and Media Studies in developing new business-ventures (Liñán, Rodríguez-
Cohard & Rueda-Cantuche, 2011; Fretschner & Weber, 2013), their habits, experiences
and lifestyles (Bedeian, Burke & Moffet, 1988; Parasuraman, Greenhaus & Granrose,
1992; Carlson, Kacmar & Williams, 2000), the current Spanish economic context
(GEM, 2011) etc. However, in an environment of economic instability where media
companies tend to implement radical austerity measures (fundamentally through layoffs
and wage cuts) (Campos, 2010; Author, 2013), the promotion of entrepreneurship as a
labour career for the future professionals of communication sector should be a strategic
priority from both academic and legislative point of view.
With this in mind, encouraging university entrepreneurship education through
workshops and innovative teaching methods that trigger an entrepreneurial behaviour is
a matter of urgency and vital importance for the future of university students in the
communication sector. As it stands, certain Communication, Media and Journalism
university faculties in Spain3 (and in the majority of European countries and North
America) already develop programmes that encourage and foster entrepreneurship
through subjects such as “Creation and Management of Media Enterprises”,
“Organisation of Media Business” or “Organisation and Management of Media
Enterprises” with the main objective of providing students with the basic and
fundamental theoretical and conceptual tools to develop new business-ventures in a
relatively real and competitive context.
However, in many other universities such programming is non-existent or other
aspects in relation to media economics or the political economy of communication are
preferentially addressed. If it is true that these component subjects are both appropriate
and necessary within the overall curriculum spectrum of Communication Studies, then
the promotion, incentivisation and further development of courses that galvanise student
3 As is the case of the university under study.
interest towards the pursuit of a self-employed career path, is of vital importance in the
current and forthcoming business-economic environment.
The present research represents a step forward in order to empirically test the impact
of student’s entrepreneurship education in order to foment their intentions to develop
new business ventures. As our empirical examination has tested, COMMPRENEUR is a
valid and generalizable methodology designed to increase the overall entrepreneurial of
students pursuing Journalism Studies. In all the groups where the COMMPRENEUR
was implemented a notable and significant increase in entrepreneurial intention was
observable, although in course number two the difference was notable but not
significant.
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