Commonwealth of Nations

The Commonwealth redirects here. It is not to beconfused with the Commonwealth of Independent States.For other uses, see Commonwealth (disambiguation).

The Commonwealth of Nations,[2] or the Common-wealth (formerly the British Commonwealth of Na-tions),[3] is an intergovernmental organization of 53member states that were mostly territories of the for-mer British Empire.[4] The Commonwealth operates byintergovernmental consensus of the member states, or-ganised through the Commonwealth Secretariat, andnon-governmental organisations, organised through theCommonwealth Foundation.[5]

The Commonwealth dates back to the mid 20th centurywith the decolonisation of the British Empire through in-creased self-governance of its territories. It was formallyconstituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which es-tablished the member states as free and equal.[6] Thesymbol of this free association is Queen Elizabeth IIwho is the Head of the Commonwealth. The Queen isalso the monarch of 16 members of the Commonwealth,known as Commonwealth realms. The other membersof the Commonwealth have different persons as head ofstate: 32 members are republics and five members aremonarchies with a different monarch.Member states have no legal obligation to one another.Instead, they are united by language, history, culture,and their shared values of democracy, human rights, andthe rule of law.[5] These values are enshrined in theCommonwealth Charter[7] and promoted by the quadren-nial Commonwealth Games. On 3 October 2013, after48 years of membership, Gambia became the most re-cent nation to withdraw from the Commonwealth.[8]

The Commonwealth covers more than 29,958,050 km2(11,566,870 sq mi), almost a quarter of the world landarea, and spans all the continents. With an estimated pop-ulation of 2.328 billion, near a third of the world popula-tion,[9] the Commonwealth in 2014 produced a nominalgross domestic product (GDP) of $10.45 trillion, repre-senting 17% of the gross world product when measuredin purchasing power parity (PPP) and 14% of the grossworld product when measured nominally.

1 History

1.1 Origin

Main article: British EmpireIn 1884, while visiting Australia, Lord Rosebery de-

The prime ministers of five members at the 1944 CommonwealthPrime Ministers Conference

scribed the changing British Empire, as some of itscolonies became more independent, as a Common-wealth of Nations.[10] Conferences of British and colo-nial prime ministers occurred periodically from the firstone in 1887, leading to the creation of the Imperial Con-ferences in 1911.[11]

The Commonwealth developed from the Imperial Con-ferences. A specific proposal was presented by Jan Smutsin 1917 when he coined the term the British Common-wealth of Nations and envisioned the future constitu-tional relations and readjustments in essence at the ParisPeace Conference of 1919 by delegates from the domin-ions as well as Britain.[12][13] The term first received im-perial statutory recognition in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of1921, when the term British Commonwealth of Nationswas substituted for British Empire in the wording of theoath taken by members of parliament of the Irish FreeState.[14]

1.2 Dominions

In the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Confer-ence, Britain and its dominions agreed they were equalin status, in no way subordinate one to another in any as-pect of their domestic or external affairs, though unitedby common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associ-ated as members of the British Commonwealth of Na-tions. These aspects to the relationship were formalised

1

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2 2 STRUCTURE

by the Statute of Westminster in 1931, which applied toCanada without the need for ratification, but Australia,New Zealand, and Newfoundland had to ratify the statutefor it to take effect. Newfoundland never did, as on 16February 1934, with the consent of its parliament, thegovernment of Newfoundland voluntarily ended and gov-ernance reverted to direct control from London. New-foundland later joined Canada as its 10th province in1949.[15] Australia and New Zealand ratified the Statutein 1942 and 1947 respectively.[16][17]

Although the Union of South Africa was not among theDominions that needed to adopt the Statute of Westmin-ster for it to take effect, two lawsthe Status of the UnionAct, 1934, and the Royal Executive Functions and SealsAct of 1934were passed to confirm South Africas sta-tus as a sovereign state[18]

After World War II ended, the British Empire was grad-ually dismantled to the 14 British overseas territories stillheld by the United Kingdom. In April 1949, followingthe London Declaration, the word British was droppedfrom the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changingnature.[19] Burma (also known as Myanmar, 1948) andAden (1967) are the only states that were British coloniesat the time of the war not to have joined the Common-wealth upon independence. Former British protectoratesand mandates that did not become members of the Com-monwealth are Egypt (independent in 1922), Iraq (1932),Transjordan (1946), British Palestine (part of which be-came the state of Israel in 1948), Sudan (1956), BritishSomaliland (which united with the former Italian Soma-liland in 1960 to form the Somali Republic), Kuwait(1961), Bahrain (1971), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971), andthe United Arab Emirates (1971).

1.3 Republics

On 18 April 1949, Ireland formally became a republic inaccordance with the Irish Republic of Ireland Act 1948.Because it did this, it was automatically excluded fromthe Commonwealth. While Ireland had not actively par-ticipated in the Commonwealth since the early 1930s andwas content to leave the Commonwealth, other domin-ions wished to become republics without losing Com-monwealth ties. The issue came to a head in April 1949at a Commonwealth prime ministers meeting in London.Under the London Declaration, India agreed that, whenit became a republic in January 1950, it would accept theBritish Sovereign as a symbol of the free association ofits independent member nations and as such the Head ofthe Commonwealth. Upon hearing this, King George VItold the Indian politician Krishna Menon: So, I've be-come 'as such'".[20] The other Commonwealth countriesrecognised Indias continuing membership of the associ-ation. At Pakistans insistence, India was not regarded asan exceptional case and it was assumed that other stateswould be accorded the same treatment as India.

The London Declaration is often seen as marking thebeginning of the modern Commonwealth. FollowingIndias precedent, other nations became republics, orconstitutional monarchies with their ownmonarchs, whilesome countries retained the same monarch as the UnitedKingdom, but their monarchies developed differently andsoon became fully independent of the British monarchy.The monarch is regarded as a separate legal personalityin each realm, even though the same person is monarchof each realm.

1.4 New Commonwealth

As the Commonwealth grew, Britain and the pre-1945dominions became informally known as the Old Com-monwealth and planners in the interwar period, like LordDavies, who had also taken a prominent part in build-ing up the League of Nations Union in the United King-dom, in 1932 founded the New Commonwealth Society,of which Winston Churchill became the president. Thisnew society was aimed at the creation of an internationalair force to be the arm of the League of Nations, to allownations to disarm and safeguard the peace.The term New Commonwealth has been used in GreatBritain (especially in the 1960s and 1970s) to refer torecently decolonised countries, predominantly non-whiteand developing. It was often used in debates aboutimmigration from these countries.[21]

1.5 Plan G and inviting Europe to join

At a time when Germany and France, together with Bel-gium, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, wereplanning for what later became the European Union, andnewly independent African countries were joining theCommonwealth, new ideas were floated to prevent Britainfrom becoming isolated in economic affairs. British tradewith the Commonwealth was four times larger than tradewith Europe. The British government under Prime Min-ister Anthony Eden considered in 1956-57 a plan Gto create a European free trade zone while also protect-ing the favoured status of the Commonwealth.[22][23][24]Britain also considered inviting Scandinavian and otherEuropean countries to join the Commonwealth so itwould become a major economic common market. Atone point in October 1956 Eden and French Prime Min-ister Guy Mollet discussed having France join the Com-monwealth. Nothing came of any of the proposals.[25]

2 Structure

2.1 Head of the Commonwealth

Main article: Head of the CommonwealthUnder the formula of the London Declaration, Queen

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2.2 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 3

Queen Elizabeth II, Head of the Commonwealth

Elizabeth II is the Head of the Commonwealth, a titlethat is by law a part of Elizabeths royal titles in eachof the Commonwealth realms,[26] the 16 members ofthe Commonwealth that recognise the Queen as theirmonarch. However, when the monarch dies, the succes-sor to the crown does not automatically become Head ofthe Commonwealth.[27] The position is symbolic, repre-

senting the free association of independent members,[26]the majority of which (32) are republics, and five havemonarchs of different royal houses (Brunei, Lesotho,Malaysia, Swaziland, and Tonga).

2.2 Commonwealth Heads of GovernmentMeeting

Main article: Commonwealth Heads of GovernmentMeeting

The main decision-making forum of the organisation isthe biennial Commonwealth Heads of GovernmentMeet-ing (CHOGM), where Commonwealth heads of govern-ment, including (amongst others) prime ministers andpresidents, assemble for several days to discuss mattersof mutual interest. CHOGM is the successor to theMeet-ings of Commonwealth Prime Ministers and, earlier, theImperial Conferences and Colonial Conferences, datingback to 1887. There are also regular meetings of financeministers, law ministers, health ministers, etc. Membersin arrears, as special members before them, are not in-vited to send representatives to either ministerial meet-ings or CHOGMs.[26]

The head of government hosting the CHOGM is calledthe Commonwealth Chairperson-in-Office and retains theposition until the following CHOGM.[28] After the mostrecent CHOGM, in Colombo, Sri Lanka, from 1017November 2013 Sri Lankas president, Mahinda Ra-japaksa, became the Chairperson-in-Office and will con-tinue to hold the title until the next CHOGM in Malta inNovember 2015.

2.3 Commonwealth Secretariat

Main article: Commonwealth SecretariatThe Commonwealth Secretariat, established in 1965,

Marlborough House, London, the headquarters of theCommonwealth Secretariat, the Commonwealths principalintergovernmental institution

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4 3 MEMBERSHIP

is the main intergovernmental agency of the Common-wealth, facilitating consultation and co-operation amongmember governments and countries. It is responsible tomember governments collectively. The Commonwealthof Nations is represented in the United Nations Gen-eral Assembly by the secretariat as an observer. Thesecretariat organises Commonwealth summits, meetingsof ministers, consultative meetings and technical discus-sions; it assists policy development and provides policyadvice, and facilitates multilateral communication amongthe member governments. It also provides technical as-sistance to help governments in the social and economicdevelopment of their countries and in support of theCommonwealths fundamental political values.The secretariat is headed by the CommonwealthSecretary-General who is elected by Commonwealthheads of government for no more than two four-yearterms. The secretary-general and two deputy secretaries-general direct the divisions of the Secretariat. Thepresent secretary-general is Kamalesh Sharma, fromIndia, who took office on 1 April 2008, succeedingDon McKinnon of New Zealand (20002008), and wasre-elected in 2011 to his second term in 2012. Thefirst secretary-general was Arnold Smith of Canada(196575), followed by Sir Shridath Ramphal of Guyana(197590) and Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria(199099).

2.4 Commonwealth citizenship and HighCommissioners

Main article: Commonwealth citizen

In recognition of their shared heritage and culture, Com-monwealth countries are not considered to be foreign toeach other.[29][30][31] The exception is Australia, where nosuch distinction is made - in the High Court case of Sue vHill, other Commonwealth countries were held to be for-eign powers. When engaging bilaterally with one another,Commonwealth governments exchange High Commis-sioners instead of ambassadors. Between two Common-wealth realms, they represent the Head of Governmentrather than the Head of State.In addition, some members treat resident citizens ofother Commonwealth countries preferentially to citizensof non-Commonwealth countries. Britain and severalothers, mostly in the Caribbean, grant the right to voteto Commonwealth citizens who reside in those countries.Some states, such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand,have abolished such preferences. In non-Commonwealthcountries in which their own country is not represented,Commonwealth citizens may seek consular assistance atthe British embassy.[32] Other alternatives can also occursuch as an emergency consular services agreement be-tween Canada and Australia that began in 1986.[33]

3 Membership

Members of the Commonwealth shaded according to their polit-ical status. Commonwealth realms are shown in blue, republicsin pink, and members with their own monarchy are displayed ingreen.

3.1 Criteria

Main article: Commonwealth of Nations membershipcriteria

The criteria for membership of the Commonwealth ofNations have developed over time from a series of sep-arate documents. The Statute of Westminster 1931, asa fundamental founding document of the organisation,laid out that membership required dominionhood. The1949 London Declaration ended this, allowing republi-can and indigenous monarchic members on the conditionthat they recognised the British monarch as the "Headof the Commonwealth".[34] In the wake of the wave ofdecolonisation in the 1960s, these constitutional princi-ples were augmented by political, economic, and socialprinciples. The first of these was set out in 1961, whenit was decided that respect for racial equality would be arequirement for membership, leading directly to the with-drawal of South Africas re-application (which they wererequired to make under the formula of the London Dec-laration upon becoming a republic). The 14 points of the1971 Singapore Declaration dedicated all members to theprinciples of world peace, liberty, human rights, equality,and free trade.[35]

These criteria were unenforceable for two decades,[36]until, in 1991, the Harare Declaration was issued, ded-icating the leaders to applying the Singapore principlesto the completion of decolonisation, the end of the ColdWar, and the end of apartheid in South Africa.[37] Themechanisms by which these principles would be appliedwere created, and the manner clarified, by the 1995Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme, whichcreated the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group(CMAG), which has the power to rule on whethermembers meet the requirements for membership un-der the Harare Declaration.[38] Also in 1995, an Inter-Governmental Group was created to finalise and codifythe full requirements for membership. Upon reporting in

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3.2 Members 5

1997, as adopted under the Edinburgh Declaration, theInter-Governmental Group ruled that any futurememberswould have to have a direct constitutional link with an ex-isting member.[39]

In addition to this new rule, the former rules were consoli-dated into a single document. These requirements are thatmembers must accept and comply with the Harare prin-ciples, be fully sovereign states, recognise the monarchof the Commonwealth realms as the Head of the Com-monwealth, accept the English language as the means ofCommonwealth communication, and respect the wishesof the general population with regard to Commonwealthmembership.[39] These requirements had undergone re-view, and a report on potential amendments was pre-sented by the Committee on Commonwealth Member-ship at the 2007 Commonwealth Heads of GovernmentMeeting.[40] New members were not admitted at thismeeting, though applications for admission were consid-ered at the 2009 CHOGM.[41]

New members must as a general rule have a direct con-stitutional link to an existing member. In most cases, thisis due to being a former colony of the United Kingdom,but some have links to other countries, either exclusivelyormore directly (e.g. Samoa toNewZealand, PapuaNewGuinea to Australia, and Namibia to South Africa). Thefirst member to be admitted without having any consti-tutional link to the British Empire or a Commonwealthmember was Mozambique, a former Portuguese colony,in 1995 following its first democratic elections and SouthAfricas re-admission in 1994. Mozambiques controver-sial entry led to the Edinburgh Declaration and the cur-rent membership guidelines.[42] In 2009, Rwanda becamethe second Commonwealth member admitted not to haveany such constitutional links. It was a Belgian trust ter-ritory that had been a German colony until World WarI.[43] Consideration for its admission was considered anexceptional circumstance by the Commonwealth Sec-retariat.[42]

3.2 Members

Main article: Member states of the Commonwealth ofNationsThe Commonwealth comprises 53 countries, across allsix inhabited continents. The members have a com-bined population of 2.1 billion people, almost a third ofthe world population, of which 1.26 billion live in Indiaand 94% live in Asia and Africa combined.[44] After In-dia, the next-largest Commonwealth countries by popu-lation are Pakistan (180 million), Nigeria (170 million),Bangladesh (156 million), the United Kingdom (63 mil-lion) and South Africa (52million). Tuvalu is the smallestmember, with about 10,000 people.[45]

The land area of the Commonwealth nations is about31,500,000 km2 (12,200,000 sqmi), or about 21% of thetotal world land area. The three largest Commonwealth

Flags of the members of the Commonwealth in ParliamentSquare, London

The Commonwealth flag flies at the Parliament of Canada inOttawa

nations by area are Canada at 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100sq mi), Australia at 7,617,930 km2 (2,941,300 sq mi),and India at 3,287,263 km2 (1,269,219 sq mi).[46] TheCommonwealth members have a combined gross domes-tic product of over $9 trillion, 78% of which is accountedfor by the four largest economies: United Kingdom ($2.4trillion), Canada ($1.8 trillion), India ($1.8 trillion) andAustralia ($1.5 trillion).[47]

The status of Member in Arrears is used to denote thosethat are in arrears in paying subscription dues. The statuswas originally known as "special membership", but wasrenamed on the Committee on Commonwealth Member-ship's recommendation.[48] There are currently no Mem-bers in Arrears. The most recent Member in Arrears,

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6 3 MEMBERSHIP

Nauru, returned to full membership in June 2011.[49]Nauru has alternated between special and full member-ship since joining the Commonwealth, depending on itsfinancial situation.[50]

3.3 Applicants

See also: Commonwealth of Nations membershipcriteria Prospective members

In 1997 the Commonwealth Heads of Governmentagreed that, to become a member of the Commonwealth,an applicant country should, as a rule, have had a constitu-tional association with an existing Commonwealth mem-ber; that it should comply with Commonwealth values,principles and priorities as set out in the Harare Declara-tion; and that it should accept Commonwealth norms andconventions.[51]

South Sudan is currently (2013) the only coun-try specifically expressing an interest in joining theCommonwealth.[52] Some commentators have suggestedthat Israel and Palestine have considered applyingfor membership,[53] but there has been no formalapproach.[53]

Other eligible applicants could be any of the remaininginhabited British overseas territories, Crown dependen-cies, Australian external territories and Associated Statesof New Zealand if they become fully independent.[54]Many such jurisdictions are already directly representedwithin the Commonwealth, particularly through theCommonwealth Family.[55] There are also former Britishpossessions that have not become independent, for ex-ample, Hong Kong, which still participates in some ofthe institutions within the Commonwealth Family. Allthree Crown dependencies regard the existing situationas unsatisfactory and have lobbied for change. The Statesof Jersey have called on the UK Foreign Secretary torequest that the Commonwealth Heads of Governmentconsider granting associate membership to Jersey andthe other Crown Dependencies as well as any other ter-ritories at a similarly advanced stage of autonomy. Jer-sey has proposed that it be accorded self-representationin all Commonwealth meetings; full participation in de-bates and procedures, with a right to speak where relevantand the opportunity to enter into discussions with thosewho are full members; and no right to vote in the Min-isterial or Heads of Government meetings, which is re-served for full members.[56] The States of Guernsey andthe Government of the Isle of Man have made calls of asimilar nature for a more integrated relationship with theCommonwealth,[57] including more direct representationand enhanced participation in Commonwealth organisa-tions and meetings, including Commonwealth Heads ofGovernment Meetings.[58] The Chief Minister of the IsleofMan has said: A closer connection with the Common-wealth itself would be a welcome further development of

the Islands international relationships[59]

At the time of the Suez Crisis in 1956, in the face ofcolonial unrest and international tensions, French PrimeMinister Guy Mollet proposed to British Prime Minis-ter Anthony Eden that their two countries be joined ina union. When that proposal was turned down, Mol-let suggested that France be allowed to join the Com-monwealth, with a common citizenship arrangement onthe Irish basis. In 1957, after both proposals had beenrejected, France signed the Treaty of Rome with WestGermany and the other founding nations of the CommonMarket, which the United Kingdom joined in 1973, andlater to become the European Union (EU). The otherEuropean members of the Commonwealth (Malta andCyprus) joined the EU in 2004.

3.4 Suspension

Main article: Suspension from the Commonwealth ofNations

In recent years, the Commonwealth has suspended sev-eral members from the Councils of the Commonwealthfor serious or persistent violations of the Harare Dec-laration, particularly in abrogating their responsibilityto have democratic government.[60] This is done bythe Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG),whichmeets regularly to address potential breaches of theHarare Declaration. Suspended members are not repre-sented at meetings of Commonwealth leaders and minis-ters, although they remain members of the organisation.Currently, there are no suspended members.Nigeria was suspended between 11 November 1995 and29 May 1999,[61] following its execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa on the eve of the 1995 CHOGM.[62] Pakistan wasthe second country to be suspended, on 18 October 1999,following the military coup by Pervez Musharraf.[63] TheCommonwealths longest suspension came to an end on22 May 2004, when Pakistans suspension was lifted fol-lowing the restoration of the countrys constitution.[64]Pakistan was suspended for a second time, far morebriefly, for six months from 22 November 2007, whenMusharraf called a state of emergency.[65] Zimbabwe wassuspended in 2002 over concerns regarding the electoraland land reform policies of Robert Mugabe's ZANU-PFgovernment,[66] before it withdrew from the organisationin 2003.[67]

The declaration of a Republic in Fiji in 1987, aftermilitary coups designed to deny Indo-Fijians politicalpower, was not accompanied by an application to remain.Commonwealth membership was held to have lapsed un-til 1997, after discriminatory provisions in the republicanconstitution were repealed and reapplication for member-ship made.[68][69] Fiji has since been suspended twice,with the first imposed from 6 June 2000[70] to 20 De-cember 2001 after another coup.[66] Fiji was suspended

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7

yet again in December 2006, following the most recentcoup. At first, the suspension applied only to membershipon the Councils of the Commonwealth.[68][71] After fail-ing to meet a Commonwealth deadline for setting a datefor national elections by 2010, Fiji was fully suspendedon 1 September 2009.[68][71] The Secretary-General ofthe Commonwealth, Kamalesh Sharma, confirmed thatfull suspension meant that Fiji would be excluded fromCommonwealth meetings, sporting events and the tech-nical assistance programme (with an exception for assis-tance in re-establishing democracy). Sharma stated thatFiji would remain a member of the Commonwealth dur-ing its suspension, but would be excluded from emblem-atic representation by the secretariat.[68] On 19 March2014 Fijis full suspension was amended to a suspen-sion from councils of the Commonwealth by the Com-monwealth Ministerial Action Group, permitting Fiji tojoin a number of Commonwealth activities, including theCommonwealth Games.[72] Fijis suspension was lifted inSeptember 2014.[73] The Commonwealth Ministerial Ac-tion Group fully reinstated Fiji as a member followingelections in September 2014.[74]

Most recently, international pressure has been mountingto suspend Sri Lanka from the Commonwealth, citinggrave human rights violations by the host country. Therewere also calls to change the Commonwealth Headsof Government Meeting 2013 from Sri Lanka to an-other member country. Canadian primeminister StephenHarper threatened to boycott the event, but was insteadrepresented at the meeting by Deepak Obhrai. The UKForeign Affairs Committee called upon Prime MinisterDavid Cameron to boycott the event, however, he choseto attend.[75][76]

3.5 Termination

As membership is purely voluntary, member govern-ments can choose at any time to leave the Common-wealth. Pakistan left on 30 January 1972 in protest at theCommonwealths recognition of breakaway Bangladesh,but rejoined on 2 August 1989. Zimbabwes member-ship was suspended in 2002 on the grounds of allegedhuman rights violations and deliberate misgovernment,and Zimbabwes government terminated its membershipin 2003.[77] TheGambia left the Commonwealth on 3Oc-tober 2013.[8]

Although heads of government have the power to suspendmember states from active participation, the Common-wealth has no provision for the expulsion of members.Until 2007, Commonwealth realms that became republicsautomatically ceased to be members, until (like Indiain 1950) they obtained the permission of other mem-bers to remain in the organisation. This policy has beenchanged, so if any current Commonwealth realms wereto become republics, they would not have to go throughthis process.[78]

Ireland had withdrawn its participation in the Common-wealth in the 1930s, attending its last Commonwealthgovernmental heads meeting in 1932. However it con-tinued to be regarded by the Commonwealth as a Com-monwealth member until it declared itself a republic, on18 April 1949. It is the only country whose membershipterminated without any declaration withdrawing from theorganisation. Instead, it was (with its own tacit support)excluded from the organisation under the rules then ap-plicable.South Africa was barred from continuing as a mem-ber after it became a republic in 1961, due to hostil-ity from many members, particularly those in Africa andAsia as well as Canada, to its policy of racial apartheid.The South African government withdrew its applicationto remain in the organisation as a republic when it be-came clear at the 1961 Commonwealth Prime MinistersConference that any such application would be rejected.South Africa was re-admitted to the Commonwealth in1994, following its first multiracial elections that year.The transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong in 1997ended the colonys ties to the Commonwealth throughthe United Kingdom. The government of Hong Kong,as a special administrative region of China, did not pur-sue membership. Hong Kong has nevertheless con-tinued to participate in some of the organisations ofthe Commonwealth family, such as the CommonwealthLawyers Association, the Commonwealth ParliamentaryAssociation, the Association of Commonwealth Univer-sities and the Commonwealth Association of LegislativeCounsel.[79][80]

4 Politics

4.1 Objectives and activities

The Commonwealths objectives were first outlined in the1971 Singapore Declaration, which committed the Com-monwealth to the institution of world peace; promotionof representative democracy and individual liberty; thepursuit of equality and opposition to racism; the fightagainst poverty, ignorance, and disease; and free trade.[81]To these were added opposition to discrimination on thebasis of gender by the Lusaka Declaration of 1979,[35]and environmental sustainability by the Langkawi Decla-ration of 1989.[82] These objectives were reinforced bythe Harare Declaration in 1991.The Commonwealths current highest-priority aims areon the promotion of democracy and development, asoutlined in the 2003 Aso Rock Declaration,[83] whichbuilt on those in Singapore and Harare and clarifiedtheir terms of reference, stating, We are committedto democracy, good governance, human rights, genderequality, and a more equitable sharing of the benefitsof globalisation.[84] The Commonwealth website lists its

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8 5 ECONOMY

areas of work as: Democracy, Economics, Education,Gender, Governance, Human Rights, Law, Small States,Sport, Sustainability, and Youth.[85]

Through a separate voluntary fund, Commonwealthgovernments support the Commonwealth Youth Pro-gramme, a division of the Secretariat with offices inGulu (Uganda), Lusaka (Zambia), Chandigarh (India),Georgetown (Guyana) and Honiara (Solomon Islands).

4.2 Competence

In recent years, the Commonwealth has been accused ofnot being vocal enough on its core values. Allegationsof a leaked memo from the Secretary General instructingstaff not to speak out on human rights were published inOctober 2010.[86]

The Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting2011 considered a report by an Commonwealth EminentPersons Group panel which asserted that the organisationhad lost its relevance and was decaying due to the lackof a mechanism to censure member countries when theyviolated human rights or democratic norms.[87] The panelmade 106 urgent recommendations including the adop-tion of a Charter of the Commonwealth, the creation of anew commissioner on the rule of law, democracy and hu-man rights to track persistent human rights abuses and al-legations of political repression by Commonwealth mem-ber states, recommendations for the repeal of laws againsthomosexuality in 41 Commonwealth states and a ban onforced marriage.[88][89] The failure to release the report,or accept its recommendations for reforms in the area ofhuman rights, democracy and the rule of law, was de-cried as a disgrace by former British Foreign SecretarySir Malcolm Rifkind, a member of the EPG, who told apress conference: The Commonwealth faces a very sig-nificant problem. Its not a problem of hostility or antag-onism, its more of a problem of indifference. Its purposeis being questioned, its relevance is being questioned andpart of that is because its commitment to enforce the val-ues for which it stands is becoming ambiguous in the eyesof many member states. The Commonwealth is not a pri-vate club of the governments or the secretariat. It belongsto the people of the Commonwealth.[89]

In the end, two-thirds of the EPGs 106 urgently recom-mended reforms were referred to study groups, an actdescribed by one EPG member as having them kickedinto the long grass. There was no agreement to cre-ate the recommended position of human rights commis-sioner, instead a ministerial management group was em-powered with enforcement: the group includes allegedhuman rights offenders. It was agreed to develop a char-ter of values for the Commonwealth without any de-cision on how compliance with its principles would beenforced.[87]

The result of the effort was that a new Charter of theCommonwealth was signed by Queen Elizabeth on 11

March 2013 at Marlborough House, which opposes allforms of discrimination, whether rooted in gender, race,colour, creed, political belief or other grounds.[90][91]

4.3 Elections

See also: List of next general elections

Elections are also scheduled to be held in Antiguaand Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize,Brunei, Cyprus, Dominica, Fiji (suspended),Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Kiribati, Maldives,Malta, Mauritius, Nauru, Saint Kitts and Nevis,Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines,Samoa, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Tonga,Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. Inaccordance with the Westminster system thesenations next general elections have no fixed date,but must be held within a specified term length,usually four of five years.

5 Economy

5.1 Proposedmultilateral trade agreement

Further information: Commonwealth free trade

Although the Commonwealth does not have a multilat-eral trade agreement, research by the Royal Common-wealth Society has shown that trade with another Com-monwealth member is up to 50% more than with anon-member on average, with smaller and less wealthystates having a higher propensity to trade within theCommonwealth.[102] There have been various proposalsfor a Commonwealth free trade zone.[103] However manyCommonwealth countries already participate in exist-ing, regional integration projects, including the EuropeanUnion (3 commonwealth states) and Caribbean Commu-nity (12 commonwealth states).Some politicians in the United Kingdom have pro-posed that there should be a Commonwealth free tradezone,[104] with some suggesting it as an alternative to itsmembership in the European Union.[105] This faith in theunlimited trade potential of the Commonwealth has beenlabeled by The Economist as the ultimate Euroscepticfantasy.[106] In addition, the EU is already in the processof negotiating free trade agreements with many Com-monwealth countries including India and Canada,[107] andcurrently has free trade agreements with others, such asSouth Africa.

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6.3 Commonwealth War Graves Commission 9

6 Commonwealth Family

Main article: Commonwealth Family

Commonwealth countries share many links outside gov-ernment, with over a hundred Commonwealth-wide non-governmental organisations, notably for sport, culture,education, law and charity. The Association of Com-monwealth Universities is an important vehicle for aca-demic links, particularly through scholarships, principallythe Commonwealth Scholarship, for students to study inuniversities in other Commonwealth countries. There arealso many non-official associations that bring together in-dividuals who work within the spheres of law and govern-ment, such as the Commonwealth Lawyers Associationand the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association.

6.1 Commonwealth Foundation

Main article: Commonwealth Foundation

The Commonwealth Foundation is an intergovernmen-tal organisation, resourced by and reporting to Common-wealth governments, and guided by Commonwealth val-ues and priorities. Its mandate is to strengthen civilsociety in the achievement of Commonwealth priori-ties: democracy and good governance, respect for hu-man rights and gender equality, poverty eradication andsustainable, people-centred and sustainable development,and to promote arts and culture.The Foundation was established in 1965 by the Headsof Government. Admittance is open to all members ofthe Commonwealth, and in December 2008, stood at46 out of the 53 member countries. Associate Mem-bership, which is open to associated states or overseasterritories of member governments, has been granted toGibraltar. 2005 saw celebrations for the Foundations40th Anniversary. The Foundation is headquartered inMarlborough House, Pall Mall, London. Regular liaisonand co-operation between the Secretariat and the Foun-dation is in place. The Foundation continues to serve thebroad purposes for which it was established as written inthe Memorandum of Understanding.[108]

6.2 Commonwealth Games

Main article: Commonwealth GamesThe Commonwealth Games, a multi-sport event, isheld every four years; the 2010 Commonwealth Gameswere held in New Delhi, India, and the 2014 Com-monwealth Games in Glasgow, Scotland, and the 2018Commonwealth Games will be on Gold Coast, Aus-tralia. As well as the usual athletic disciplines, as at theSummer Olympic Games, the games include sports par-ticularly popular in the Commonwealth, such as bowls,

The Commonwealth Games are the third-largest multi-sport eventin the world, bringing together globally popular sports and pecu-liarly Commonwealth sports, such as rugby sevens, shown hereat the 2006 Games.

netball, and rugby sevens. Started in 1930 as the EmpireGames, the games were founded on the Olympic modelof amateurism, but were deliberately designed to be theFriendly Games,[109] with the goal of promoting rela-tions between Commonwealth countries and celebratingtheir shared sporting and cultural heritage.[110]

The games are the Commonwealths most visibleactivity[109] and interest in the operation of the Common-wealth increases greatly when the Games are held.[111]There is controversy over whether the gamesand sportgenerallyshould be involved in the Commonwealthswider political concerns.[110] The 1977 GleneaglesAgreement was signed to commit Commonwealth coun-tries to combat apartheid through discouraging sportingcontact with South Africa (which was not then a mem-ber), whilst the 1986 games were boycotted by mostAfrican, Asian, and Caribbean countries for the failure ofother countries to enforce the Gleneagles Agreement.[112]

6.3 Commonwealth War Graves Commis-sion

Main article: Commonwealth War Graves CommissionThe Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC)is responsible for maintaining the war graves of 1.7 mil-lion service personnel that died in the First and SecondWorld Wars fighting for Commonwealth member states.Founded in 1917 (as the Imperial War Graves Commis-sion), the Commission has constructed 2,500 war ceme-teries, and maintains individual graves at another 20,000sites around the world.[113] The vast majority of the lat-ter are civilian cemeteries in Great Britain. In 1998, theCWGC made the records of its buried online to facilitateeasier searching.[114]

Commonwealth war cemeteries often feature similarhorticulture and architecture, with larger cemeteries be-ing home to a Cross of Sacrifice and Stone of Remem-

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10 7 CULTURE

The CommonwealthWar Graves Commission serves to commem-orate 1.7 million Commonwealth war dead and maintains 2,500war cemeteries around the world, including this one in Gallipoli.

brance. The CWGC is notable for marking the gravesidentically, regardless of the rank, country of origin,race, or religion of the buried.[114] It is funded by volun-tary agreement by six Commonwealth members, in pro-portion to the nationality of the casualties in the gravesmaintained,[113] with 75% of the funding coming fromBritain.[114]

6.4 Commonwealth of Learning

Main article: Commonwealth of Learning

The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) is an intergov-ernmental organisation created by the Heads of Gov-ernment to encourage the development and sharing ofopen learning/distance education knowledge, resourcesand technologies. COL is helping developing nations im-prove access to quality education and training.

6.5 Commonwealth Business Council

Main article: Commonwealth Business Council

The Commonwealth Business Council (CBC) wasformed at 1997 CHOGM. The aim was to utilise theglobal network of the Commonwealth more effectivelyfor the promotion of global trade and investment forshared prosperity. The CBC acts as a bridge for co-operation between business and government, concentrat-ing efforts on these specific areas enhancing trade, fa-cilitating ICT for Development, mobilising investment,promoting corporate citizenship, and public-private part-nerships. The CBC has a dedicated team, CBC Tech-nologies, based in London and is focused on the interna-tional technology and global services industry throughoutthe Commonwealth.

7 Culture

Many Commonwealth nations possess traditions and cus-toms that are elements of a shared Commonwealth cul-ture. Examples include common sports such as cricketand rugby, driving on the left, the Westminster systemof parliamentary democracy, common law, widespreaduse of the English language, designation of English as anofficial language, military and naval ranks, and the useof British rather than American spelling conventions (seeEnglish in the Commonwealth of Nations).

7.1 Sport

Many Commonwealth nations play similar sports that areconsidered quintessentially British in character, rootedin and developed under British rule or hegemony, in-cluding football, cricket, rugby, and netball.[115] This hasled to the development of friendly national rivalries be-tween the main sporting nations that have often definedtheir relations with each another. Indeed, said rivalriespreserved close ties by providing a constant in interna-tional relationships, even as the Empire transformed intothe Commonwealth.[116] Externally, playing these sportsis seen to be a sign of sharing a certain Commonwealthculture; the adoption of cricket at schools in Rwanda isseen as symbolic of the countrys move towards Com-monwealth membership.[117][118]

Besides the Commonwealth Games, other sport-ing competitions are organised on a Common-wealth basis, through championship tournamentssuch as the Commonwealth Taekwondo Champi-onships, Commonwealth Fencing Championships,Commonwealth Judo Championships, CommonwealthRowing Championships, Commonwealth Sailing Cham-pionships, Commonwealth Shooting Championshipsand Commonwealth Pool Lifesaving Championships.The Commonwealth Boxing Council has long main-tained Commonwealth titles for the best boxers in theCommonwealth.

7.2 Literature

The shared history of British presence has produced asubstantial body of writing in many languages, knownas Commonwealth literature.[119][120] The Association forCommonwealth Literature and Language Studies, withnine chapters worldwide and an international conferenceis held every three years.In 1987, the Commonwealth Foundation established theannual Commonwealth Writers Prize to encourage andreward the upsurge of new Commonwealth fiction andensure that works of merit reach a wider audience out-side their country of origin. Prizes are awarded for thebest book and best first book in the Commonwealth, aswell as regional prizes for the best book and best first

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_of_Remembrancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallipolihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Learninghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Governmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Governmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Business_Councilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Heads_of_Government_Meeting_1997https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICT_for_Developmenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_Citizenshiphttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public-private_partnershipshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public-private_partnershipshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crickethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_footballhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driving_on_the_lefthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_democracyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_lawhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_English-speaking_populationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_English-speaking_populationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_where_English_is_an_official_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_where_English_is_an_official_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_rankhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_in_the_Commonwealth_of_Nationshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sportshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_footballhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crickethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_footballhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netballhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwanda_Cricket_Associationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Taekwondo_Championshipshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Taekwondo_Championshipshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Fencing_Championshipshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Judo_Championshipshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Rowing_Championshipshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Rowing_Championshipshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Sailing_Championshipshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Sailing_Championshipshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Shooting_Championshipshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Pool_Lifesaving_Championshipshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Boxing_Councilhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Writers%2527_Prize

11

book from each of four regions. Although not officiallyaffiliated with the Commonwealth, the prestigious ManBooker Prize is awarded annually to an author from aCommonwealth country or the three former members,Ireland, Zimbabwe, and the Gambia. This honour is oneof the highest in literature.[121]

7.3 Political system

Due to their shared constitutional histories, several coun-tries in the Commonwealth have similar legal and po-litical systems. The Commonwealth requires its mem-bers to be functioning democracies that respect humanrights and the rule of law. Most of Commonwealthcountries have the Westminster system of parliamentarydemocracy. The Commonwealth Parliamentary Associ-ation facilitates co-operation between legislatures acrossthe Commonwealth, and the Commonwealth Local Gov-ernment Forum promotes good governance amongst localgovernment officials. Most Commonwealth members usecommon law, modelled on English law. The JudicialCommittee of the Privy Council is the supreme court of14 Commonwealth members.

7.4 Symbols

The Commonwealth has adopted a number of symbolsthat represent the association of its members. TheEnglish language is recognised as a symbol of the mem-bers heritage; as well as being considered a symbol of theCommonwealth, recognition of it as the means of Com-monwealth communication is a prerequisite for Com-monwealth membership.The flag of the Commonwealth consists of the symbol ofthe Commonwealth Secretariat, a gold globe surroundedby emanating rays, on a dark blue field; it was de-signed for the second CHOGM in 1973, and officiallyadopted on 26 March 1976. 1976 also saw the organisa-tion agree to a common date on which to commemorateCommonwealth Day, the second Monday in March, hav-ing developed separately on different dates from EmpireDay celebrations.

7.5 Recognition

In 2009, to mark the 60th anniversary of the foundingof the Commonwealth, the Royal Commonwealth Soci-ety commissioned a poll of public opinion in seven ofthe member states: Australia, Canada, India, Jamaica,Malaysia, SouthAfrica and theUnitedKingdom. It foundthat most people in these countries were largely igno-rant of the Commonwealths activities, aside from theCommonwealth Games, and indifferent toward its future.Support for the Commonwealth was twice as high in de-veloping countries as in developed countries; it was lowestin Great Britain.[122][123][124][125]

8 See also Anglosphere

Commonwealth

English-speaking world

List of economic communities

Representatives of the Commonwealth of Nations

Propaganda in the Rhodesian Bush War

Community of Portuguese Language Countries, anequivalent grouping of Portuguese-speaking coun-tries and territories

Commonwealth of Independent States, a groupingof Post-Soviet states outside the European Union

9 Notes1. ^ The Commonwealth of Nations is some-times called the British Commonwealth todifferentiate it from the Commonwealth ofIndependent States, also called the RussianCommonwealth.[126]

10 References[1] Annex B Territories Forming Part of the Common-

wealth (PDF). Her Majestys Civil Service. September2011. Retrieved 19 November 2013.

[2] The London Declaration 1949: free and equal membersof the Commonwealth of Nations, freely co-operating inthe pursuit of peace, liberty and progress.

[3] Beginning of the modern Commonwealth, thecommon-wealth.org. Retrieved 15 July 2015.

[4] About us. The Commonwealth. Retrieved 2013-10-03.

[5] The Commonwealth. The Commonwealth. Retrieved30 June 2013.

[6] The London Declaration. The Commonwealth. Re-trieved 4 July 2013.

[7] Charter of the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth.Retrieved 30 June 2013.

[8] Statement by Commonwealth Secretary-General Ka-malesh Sharma on The Gambia. The Commonwealth.4 October 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2013.

[9] US and World Population Clock. US Census Bureau.29 June 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2013.

[10] History Though the modern Commonwealth is just 60years old, the idea took root in the 19th century. thecom-monwealth.org. Commonwealth Secretariat. Retrieved29 July 2011.

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12 10 REFERENCES

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