COMMON ANTIMALARIAL TREES AND SHRUBS OF

EAST AFRICA

A practical Guide to Propagation, Domestication, Germplasm Management and Conservation of

species Najma Dharani

Geoffery Rukunga

Abiy Yenesew

Anne Mbora

Lucy Mwaura

Ramni Jamnadass

1

BACK COVER

ISBN: 978-92-9059-238-9

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)

United Nations Avenue, Gigiri, P.O. Box 30677 – 00100, Nairobi, Kenya

Tel: (+254 20) 722 4000, Fax: (+254 20) 722 4001, Email: icraf@cgiar.org

www.worldagroforestry.org

2

COMMON ANTIMALARIAL TREES & SHRUBS OF OF EAST AFRICA

A practical Guide to Propagation, Domestication, Germplasm Management and Conservation of

species

Najma Dharani, Geoffery Rukunga, Abiy Yenesew, Anne Mbora,

Lucy Mwaura, Ramni Jamnadass

Edited by: ………?

3

Correct citation: Dharani N., Rukunga G., Yenesew A., Mbora A., Mwaura L. and

Jamnadass R. (2008): Common Antimalarial Trees and Shrubs of East Africa. World

Agroforestry Centre. ISBN: 978-92-9059-238-9.

Copyright © First Edition 2008

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) United Nations Avenue, Gigiri, P.O. Box 30677 – 00100, Nairobi, Kenya

Tel: (+254 20) 722 4000, Fax: (+254 20) 722 4001, Email: icraf@cgiar.org

www.worldagroforestry.org

ISBN: 978-92-9059-238-9

This booklet is a collaborative work of World Agroforestry Centre (WAC) and Kenya

Medical Research Institute (KMRI)

This book contains general information about antimalarial plants (trees and shrubs) and

their uses. It is intended as a scientific overview and not as a medicinal handbook for

self-treatment. Neither the authors nor the publishers can be held responsible for the

consequences arising from the incorrect identification or inappropriate use of a plant.

This publication may be quoted or reproduced without charge, provided the source is

acknowledged.

4

5

Editor: …………..?

Design and Layout:-------?

Copyright Cover photographs © Najma Dharani, 2008 Top front - Artemisia annua Tea or infusion

Bottom front – Traditional Herbalist; Artemisia annua fresh leaves

Back cover – Seedlings of Warburgia ugandensis growing in the ICRAF nursery

Second page - Azadirachta indica tree

Contents – Antimalarial medicinal powder made by traditional herbalists using different plant

Material

********************************

OTHER PHOTOGRAPHIC CONTRIBUTIONS All photographs are listed below according to photographer’s name,

plate numbers and website.

Najma Dharani: Plates No’s – 1, 2, 9, 10, 15, 16, 26, 28, 35, 36, 37, 38, 47

B. Weursten: Plates No’s – 5, 6, 7, 33, 34, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46

Chris Fagg: Plates No’s – 20, 21, 22, 29, 30, 31, 32

Agroforestree Database Team: Plates No’s – 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 19

Antonie van den bos: Plates No’s – 3, 4

Forest & Kim Starr: Plates No. 23

http://www.metafro.be/prelude: Plates No. 48

Many thanks to the colleagues Nelly Mutio, Caleb Orwa and Agnes Were from GRP1 for their assistance while doing this booklet.

CONTENTS

REGIONAL BOUNDARIES AND VEGETATION ZONES OF EAST AFRICA

INTRODUCTION

REFERENCES

PHOTOGRAPHS OF SOME ANTIMALARIAL TREES AND SHRUBS

ANTI-MALARIAL TREES AND SHRUB SPECIES DESCRIPTION

SCIENTIFIC NAMES INDEX

COMMON NAMES INDEX

ABBREVIATIONS OF LOCAL NAMES

6

REGIONAL BOUNDARIES AND VEGETATION ZONES OF EAST AFRICA

7

8

INTRODUCTION Malaria is an ancient and one of the major fatal parasitic killer diseases of the world, having been

recorded as early as 1500 B.C. (Roger & Richard, 2004). This parasitic disease remains a major public

health problem and a health concern which affects hundreds of millions of people, particularly in

tropical African developing countries (Njoroge & Bussmann, 2006). The World Health Organization

(WHO) estimates of global incidence of malaria are over 300 million acute cases with approximately

two million deaths annually, mostly among young children in sub-Saharan Africa (RBM-WHO, 2006;

Rukunga & Simons, 2006). Although malaria is a preventable and curable disease, it remains the leading

cause of death and illness in Africa especially among pregnant women and children aged five years and

below (NYT, 2004; DN, 2008). Besides, childhood deaths, anaemia, low birth-weight, epilepsy, and

neurological problems, all frequent consequences of malaria, compromise the health and development of

millions of children throughout the tropical world (RBM-WHO, 2006a). Hence, malaria is Africa’s

leading cause of under five mortality (20 per cent) and constitutes 10 per cent of the continent’s overall

disease burden. It accounts for 40 per cent of public health expenditure, 30-50 per cent of inpatient

admissions, and up to 50 per cent of outpatient visits in areas with high malaria transmission (RBM-

WHO, 2006; DN, 2008).

According to World Health Organization, due to climate change and global warming could lead to a

major increase in insect-borne diseases in Britain and Europe (BBC News on Radio) and may be

allowing the insects to colonize higher altitutes and farther latitudes (National Geographic, 2007). The

average temperature in Europe has increased by 0.8C during the past century and the average global

temperature could rise by another 3.5C by the year 2100, as heat is trapped in the atmosphere by a build-

up of gases such as carbon dioxide. This would be accompanied by changes in rainfall patterns, greater

precipitation and humidity in the atmosphere, and many new areas of floodwater. This in turn could lead

9

to an increase in disease-carrying pests such as ticks, mosquitoes and rats, which live in warmer climates

and whose breeding-grounds are often in damp areas. Three countries in the European region covered by

the WHO - Azerbaijan, Tajikistan and Turkey - are already danger zones for mosquito-borne malaria

(National Geographic, 2007). The WHO says the Malaria is likely to spread to further areas within

eastern Europe, and from there, possibly, to western areas (BBC News on Radio).

There are four types of human malaria pathogens: Plasmodium vivax, P. falciparum, P. malariae and P.

ovale of which the first two are the most common. P. falciparum is the most deadly malaria parasite of

all; found throughout the tropical regions of the world that causes a severe, potentially life-threatening

infection (Rukunga & Simons, 2006; DN, 2008).

Africa, the continent with highest burden of malaria, key among the factors contributing to the

increasing malaria mortality and morbidity is the widespread resistance of P. falciparum to conventional

antimalarial drugs, such as chloroquine, sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP), amodiaquine and other

virtually affordable drug treatment options (RBM-WHO, 2006b; WHO, 2000, 2001; Greenwood &

Mutabingwa, 2002; Fiddock et al., 2004; Bickii et al., 2000; Sofowora, 1996; Olliaro & Trigg, 1995;

Mukerjee, 1991). Resistance to inexpensive monotherapies such as chloroquine and SP has developed or

is developing rapidly, with increased mortality as a result (RBM-WHO, 2006b). The limited availability

and high cost of medicines means the majority of the population in affected countries, the WHO

estimates about 80 per cent of the population in sub-Saharan Africa turns to traditional medicinal

remedies (herbal remedies) in their search for treatment (Geoffrey & Kirby, 1996; Marsh et al., 1995).

Medicinal plants have been playing a vital role in the treatment of malaria for thousands of years. Many

well-known drugs listed in the modern pharmacopoeia have their origins in natural sources-mainly from

10

plants. For example, a best- known potent antimalarial compound-quinine was isolated from the bark of

the Cinchona tree. Various other synthetic analogues of quinine have since been developed for malaria

(Van Wyk et al., 2002; Rukunga & Simons, 2006). Over a past decade, the discovery of artemisinin

from Artemisia annua has boosted research on plants in the search for new antimalarial compounds. A

new group of antimalarials – the artemisinin compounds, especially artesunate, artemether and

dihydroartemisinin – have been deployed on an increasingly large scale (RBM-WHO, 2006b). These

compounds produce a very rapid therapeutic response (reduction of the parasite biomass and resolution

of symptoms), are active against multidrug-resistant P. falciparum malaria. To date, no parasite

resistance to these compounds has been detected. If used alone, the artemisinins will cure P. falciparum

malaria in seven days, but studies in south-east Asia have shown that combinations of artemisinin

compounds with certain synthetic drugs (which is called Artemisinin-based Combination Therapies-

ACTs), produce high cure rates on just three days of treatments (RBM-WHO, 2006b). As a response to

increasing levels of antimalarials resistance, WHO recommends that all countries experiencing

resistance to conventional monotherapies, such as chloroquine, amodiaquine or SP, should use

combination therapies, preferably those containing artemisinin derivatives (ACTs) for falciparum

malaria (RBM-WHO, 2006b; WHO, 2001a,b). At present there very few drugs that can offer protection

against malaria in all regions of the world. The need for novel chemotherapeutic agents against malaria

is therefore acute. One approach to new chemotherapeutic agents is to identify drugs with novel of

action. Traditional medicinal plants used as antimalarial have the potential of providing novel

antiplasmodial active compounds (Steele et al., 1999).

It is estimated that the number of medicinal plants in the world vary between 30,000 and 75,000

(Pampona, 2001). Over 1200 plants are reported to have antimalarial effects (Willcox et al., 2004). It is

probable that some of them contain as yet undiscovered powerful antimalarial compounds. In traditional

11

medicine, only those medicinal plants considered effective in the treatment of malaria that are observed

by traditional healers to cure or prevent one or more of the recognized symptoms of malaria. Various

parts of plants utilized as anti malarial drug like fruits, bark, roots and sometimes leaves in case of

antimalarial trees and shrubs and sometimes especially antimalarial herbaceous plants, the whole plant is

uprooted and used in the preparation of the drug (Njoroge & Bussmann, 2006). These drugs can be

taken internally as tea, infusion or decoction or externally as bating or some plants used in malaria

control as repellent for the mosquitoes (Pampona, 2001; Caraballo et al., 2004).

In malaria endemic countries traditional medicinal plants are frequently used to treat malaria. The

analysis of traditional medicines that are employed for treatment of malaria represents a potential for

discovery of lead molecules for development into potential antimalarial drugs ((Muthaura, et al., 2007).

Ethnomedical beliefs of populations play a role in the choice of plants for treatment. A lot of research

dealing with plant based antimalarial drugs that can be found in the scientific literature. Plants continue

to be a major source of biologically active compounds that may serve as commercial drugs or

ingredients for botanicals, or provide lead structures for the development of derivatives. According to

Rukunga & Simons, (2006), research on plant extracts carried out world-wide during the last decade

covers over 300 extracts obtained from over 60 plant families and the antiplasmodial activity of these

plants assessed with various strains of the Plasmodium parasites. Local communities in Africa have

practice traditional and herbal remedies as an alternative choice of treatment of malaria for generations.

It is therefore of interest to screen traditional antimalarial medicinal plants for an evaluation if in vitro

antiplasmodial, in vivo antimalarial and toxicity tests (Muthaura, et al., 2007). Using medicinal plants is

a good alternative to modern antimalarial drugs, especially for the majority of those populations at

malaria risk, particularly in developing countries that cannot afford to pay for conventional drugs

12

(Raskin et al., 2002). So, it is encouraging to see such a large number of naturally-occurring antimalarial

compounds from the plants with immense structural diversity.

Several pharmacologically active antimalarial compounds have been isolated from different plants used

in ethnomedicine. Active compounds can be isolated from different parts of medicinal plants (such as

leaves, roots, bark, fruits or seeds) varies from species to species and the active chemical ingredients of

these parts are different from one another (Van Wyk, 2000; Pamplona-Roger, 2001). One part of those

plants may be quite toxic and another quite harmless. In traditional therapies, the whole plant is

therefore rarely used for medicine. Antimalarial activity have been shown from different parts of

antimalarial medicinal plants species; including for example the stem bark of Gardenia jovis tonatis

depicted antiplasmodial activity against falciparum malaria, while no activity was found in the fruit of

this species, whereas the aerial part crude extract of Cassia species exhibit high antiplasmodial activity

against different strains of P. falciparum (El-Tahir, 1999).

The antiplasmodial activity has been linked to a range of several classes of the secondary plant

metabolites including alkaloids, sesquiterpenes, triterpenes, flavanoids, limonoids, quassinoids,

xanthones, quinines and phenolic compounds of which alkaloids have been the most important and have

shown very interesting antiplasmodial activities (Saxena et al., 2003; Caraballo et al., 2004; Rukunga &

Simons, 2006).

13

Alkaloids

Alkaloids are one of the major classes of compounds possessing antimalarial activity. One of the oldest

and most important antimalarial drugs, quinine, belongs to this class of compounds and is still relevant.

Alkaloids are the physiologically active nitrogenous bases derived from many biogenetic precursors. A

number of naturally occurring alkaloids belonging to different groups are descrbed below:

Naphthylisoquinoline alkaloids

These type of alkaloids shows a remarkable activity against P. falciparum in vivo and in vitro. Extracts

from the species of Triphophyllum peltatum (Dioncophyllaceae) and the isolated compounds;

dioncopeltine A, dioncophylline B and C exhibited high anti-plasmodial activity (Francois et al., 1997).

Dioncopeltine A was shown to suppress parasitaemia almost totally while dioncophylline C cured

infected mice completely after oral treatment with 50 mg/kg daily for 4 days without noticeable toxic

effects (Francois et al., 1997). Recently, a novel dimeric anti-plasmodial napthylisoquinoline alkaloid

heterodimer, korundamine A, has been isolated from another species, Ancistrocladus korupensis in the

same family. It is one of the most potent naturally occurring anti-plasmodial naphthylisoquinoline

dimmers yet identified by in vitro screening with an EC50 of 1.1 µg/ml against P. falciparum (Hallock et

al., 1998).

Quinoline alkaloids

Up to the middle of this century, quinine was used for the treatment of malaria, and with the widespread

development of chloroquine-resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum it has become important again

(Kayser et al., 1998). Quinine was the lead structure in the discovery of synthetic derivatives (like

chloroquine and mefloquine that have higher anti-malarial activity. Other natural quinoline derivatives

like 2-n-propylquinoline, chimanine B and 2-n-pentylquinoline have been shown to exhibit activities of

EC50 = 25-50 µg/ml against parasites causing cutaneous leishmaniasis (Kayser et al., 1998).

N

HOH

NH

H

CH2

CH3O

Quinine

Bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids

A number of different bisbenzylisoquinolines with anti-protozoal activity have been identified. In vitro

anti-plasmodial activity (IC50) of most bisbenzylisoquinolines is below 1.0 µg/ml. For instance,

pycnamine from Trichilia sp. was found to have IC50 value of 0.15 µg/ml. However, monomeric

benzylisoquinolines do not have potential anti-plasmodial activity (Kayser et al., 1998). Some

aporhinoids, like isoguattouredigine from Guatteria foliosa have been tested for anti-plasmodial activity

(Kayser et al., 1998).

Indole alakaloids

Indoles comprise a group of alkaloids with varied biological activity. The indole sub-structure is widely

distributed in the plant kingdom. Some indoles are reported to possess anti-protozoal activity. For

instance, cryptolepine and related indole-quinolines isolated from Cryptolepis sanguinolenta were active

in vitro against P. falciparum strains W2, D6 and K1 with IC50s ranging from 27-41 ng/ml, (Kayser et

al., 1998).

N

N

14

Cryptolepine

Phenanthridine and benzophenanthridine

These alkaloids are mostly found within three plant families only; Papaveraceae, Fumariaceae and

Rutaceae (Krane et al., 1984). Some examples of benzophenanthridine alkaloids obtained from plant

sources are fagaronine and nitidine. Anti-malarial activities of these alkaloids ranges from (IC50 9 to

108 ng/ml against P. falciparum (Gakunju et al., 1995).

N

O

O

MeO

MeON

OMe

OH

MeO

MeO

Fagaronine Nitidine

Quassinoids

The quassinoids are heavily oxygenated lactones with majority of C20 basic skeleton named as

picrasane. However, C18, C19 and C25 quassinoids are also known. They have varying numbers of

different oxygen-containing groups. A wide spectrum of biological properties has been reported from

this class of compounds. They are biosynthetically related to triterpenes and share the same metabolic

precursors. The most active compound in this group is simalikalactone D from Simaba guianensis

(Simaroubaceae) with IC50 < 1.7 ng/ml (Cabral et al., 1993).

O

O

OHHO

O

O

R

R = O-tiglate

15

Simalikalactone D

Activity of the compounds in this group is due to the methylene-oxygen bridge. Other quassinoids like

brusatol, bruceantin and brucein A, B and C among others have been isolated and their antimalarial

activity determined.

TERPENOIDS

Monoterpenes

Monoterpenes are examples of simple anti-protozoal drugs. Piquerol A isolated from Oxandra espinata

(Annonaceae) was shown to exhibit an IC50 of 100 µg/ml against P. falciparum (Kayser et al.,

1998).This relatively very low activity compared to many other compounds.

16

HO

OH

Piquerol A

Sesquiterpenes

The discovery of Qinghaosu (artemisinin), a novel sesquiterpene lactone endoperoxide antimalarial

constituent from the Chinese plant ‘Qinghao’ (Artemisia annua), prompted the investigation of some

other naturally occurring peroxides for their anti-plasmodial activity.

O

O

OO

HCH3

CH

H

H3C

H

3

O

17

Qinghaosu

Artemisinin belongs to a new class of antimalarials, where the endoperoxide moiety plays an important

role. Its 1,2,4 trioxane ring is unique in nature and is essential for the activity. The definitive mode of

action of this series of drugs is still not known. After being opened in the Plasmodium it liberates singlet

oxygen and forms a free radical, both being strong cytotoxins. In addition to sesquiterpene

endoperoxides, other sesquiterpenes with anti-plasmodial activity have been reported. . From

Neuroleaena lobata (Asteraceae), a medicinal plant used in Guatemala for the treatment of malaria

infection, activity was documented for germacranolide sesquiterpene lactones, neurolenin A and B

(Francois et al., 1996).

Diterpenes

Diterpenes from many plant species are well known for their biological activity and are among the most

widely distributed terpenoids in the plant kingdom (Kayser et al., 1998). However, most of them

combine high anti-parasitic activity with high cytotoxicity to mammalian cells (Oketch-Rabah et al.,

1998). The macrocyclic germacrane dilactone, 16, 17-dihydrobrachy-calyxolide, from Vernonia

brachycalyx (Asteraceae) showed anti-plasmodial activity (IC50 = 17 µg/ml on P. falciparum) but also

inhibited the proliferation of human lymphocytes at the same concentration indicating general toxicity

(Oketch-Rabah et al., 1998). Other anti-plasmodial diterpenes are phytol and 6-E-geranylgeraniol-19-

oic acid isolated from Microglossa pyrifolia (Asteraceae). These compounds have been found to have

high anti-plasmodial activity, IC50 8.5 µg/ml (PoW); 11.5 µg/ml (Dd2) and IC50 12.9 µg/ml (PoW); 15.6

µg/ml (Dd2), respectively (Kohler et al., 2002).

O

O

OO

O

O

O

OCH2O

OH OH

2CH2OH

COOH

OH

17-dihydrobrachy-calyxolide Phytol 6-E-geranylgeraniol-19-oic acid

Triterpenes

Triterpenes and saponins from plant sources are known for their biological activity, but exhibit some

toxicity to humans and other mammals. Despite the fact that triterpene action in biological systems is

well known, the first rational report on their anti-protozoal activity was described in late 1970s (Kayser

et al., 1998). Betulinic acid, also known for its anti-neoplastic effect, was identified to be the anti-

plasmodial principle of Triphyophyllum peltatum (Dioncophyllaceae) and Ancistrocladus heyneanus

(Ancistrocladaceae). It had an IC50 value of 10.46 µg/ml against P. falciparum in vitro and moderate

cytotoxicity (CC50 >20 µg/ml) (Bringmann et al., 1997). The use of saponins as drugs is limited to due

to the poor bio-availability, reduced absorption in the gastrointestinal tract and haemolytic toxicity when

given orally. The plant Asparagus africanus (Liliaceae), yielded a new steroidal saponin, muzanzagenin

that exhibited anti-plasmodial activity of EC50 61 µM against K39 isolate of P. falciparum, was isolated

(Oketch-Rabah et al., 1997).

18

CO2H

HO

O

O

HO

OH O

Betulinic acid Muzanzagenin

Limonoids

Limonoids are also known as bitter terpenoids (Kayser et al., 1998). One well known plant family rich

in these is Meliaceae . Azadirachta indica, the neem tree, widely used as an anti-plasmodial plant in

Asia belongs to this family. Nimbolide (IC50 = 0.95 ng/ml, P. falciparum K1) was the first to be

identified as the active anti-plasmodial principle of the neem tree (Rochanakij et al., 1985).

Subsequently, gedunin was also found to be active in vitro against P. falciparum parasites with IC50

values in the range of 0.72-1.74 µg/ml (Khalid et al., 1989; McKinnon et al., 1997).

O

O

OO

O

OAc

O

OCOOCH3

OO

O

Nimbolide Gedunin

Phenolics

Simple phenols that are widely distributed in nature have shown characteristic inhibition of malaria

parasite growth.. Anti-plasmodial activity of 2'-epicycloisobrachycoumarinone epoxide and its

19

sterioisomer isolated from Vernonia brachycalyx (Asteraceae) have been reported. Both sterioisomers

show similar in vitro activity against chloroquine-sensitive and chloroquine-resistant strains of P.

falciparum with IC50 values of 0.11 and 0.15 µg/ml respectively (Oketch-Rabah et al., 1997). A new

coumarin derivative, 5,7-dimethoxy-8-(3'-hydroxy-3'-methyl-1'-butene)-coumarin has also been isolated

from Toddalia asiatica and was found to have IC50 value of 16.2 and 8.8 µg/ml against chloroquine-

sensitive and resistant P. falciparum isolates, respectively (Oketch-Rabah et al., 2000).

O

O

O

OH

O

Coumarin

Flavonoids

Flavonoids are widespread in the plant kingdom. Following the detection of anti-plasmodial flavonoids

from Artemisia annua (Asteraceae) this class of compound has attracted renewed interest. As part of a

multi-disciplinary research programme on anti-plasmodial drugs, additional Artemisia species have been

screened in Thailand, and exiguaflavanone A and B isolated from Artemisia indica (Asteraceae)

exhibited in vitro activity against P. falciparum with EC50 values of 4.6 and 7.1 µg/ml, respectively

(Chanphen et al., 1998).

OR O

H2C HO

OH

OOH

20

R = H R = CH3

Exiguaflavanone A Exiguaflavanone B

Chalcones

Phlorizidin, from Micromelum tephrocarpum (Rutaceae), was one of the first chalcone glycoside

reported to exhibit anti-parasitic activity (Kayser et al., 1998). In ethno-medicine M. tephrocarpum is

used to treat malaria because of the bitter taste, a property shared with quinine and other anti-malarial

herbs. Phlorizidin inhibits the induced permeability in Plasmodium infected erythrocytes to various

substrates including glucose. The most promising compound in this class of natural products is

licochalcone A. It was first isolated from Glycyrrhiza glabra (Fabaceae) and was the subject of

intensive preclinical studies (Chen et al., 1998).

21

OC H 3

OH

OH

O Licochalcone A

Naphthoquinones

Plumbagin , a cytotoxic napthoquinone has been isolated from Plumbago zeylanica has been found to

exhibit anti-plasmodial activity (IC50 178.12 and 188.8 ng/ml) against chloroquine-sensitive (D6) and

resistant (W2) isolates, respectively (Lin et al., 2003).

O

O

OH

Plumbagin

Anthraquinones and xanthonones

This group is related to naphthoquinones in structure and biological activity. The main chemical

difference between the groups is the tricyclic aromatic system with a para-quinoid substitution.

Anthraquinones isolated from the tropical tree Morinda lucida (Rubiaceae) were tested for anti-

plasmodial activity in vitro. Digitolutein, rubiadin-1-methyl ether and damnacanthal showed activity on

chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum isolate (EC50 ≈ 21.4 - 82.9 µM) (Sittie et al., 1999). Other rare

anthraquinones have been identified as potential anti-plasmodial drugs. From Psychotria camponutans

(Rubiaceae), the benzoisoquinoline-5-10-dione has been isolated and tested against P. falciparum (EC50

0.84 µg/ml) (Solis et al., 1995).

N

O

O Benzoisoquinoline-5-10-dione

Anti-plasmodial xanthones have been isolated from Garcinia cowa (Guttiferae). Preliminary screening

of five prenylated xanthones demonstrated significant activity against P. falciparum in vitro with IC50

ranging between 1.5 and 3.0 µg/ml. Cowaxanthone displayed a good anti-plasmodial potential (EC50 =

1.5 µg/ml) compared to that of pyrimethamine (IC50 2.8 µg/ml) (Likhitwitayawuid et al., 1998).

22

O

OOHH3CO

OH

OH

OH

Cowaxanthone

23

24

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Boyd M. R. (1997). Yaoundamines A and B, new antimalarial naphthylisoquinoline alkaloids

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27. Likhitwitayawuid, K., Angerhofer, C. K., Chai, H., Pezzuto, J. M., Cordell, G. A.,

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antiplasmodial coumarin from Toddalia asiatica roots Fitoterapia, 71: 636 -640.

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Site: www.rbm.who.int.

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activity or both antiamoebic and antiplasmodial properties. Phytotherapy Research. 15: 1-17.

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1441–1446.

PHOTOGRAPHS OF SOME ANTIMALARIAL TREES AND SHRUBS

Plate 1: Balanites aegyptica – tree Plate 2: Balanites aegyptica – bark

Plate 3: Balanites aegyptica –flowers Plate 4: Balanites aegyptica – branches

Plate 5: Erythrina abyssinica – tree Plate 6: Erythrina abyssinica – bark

29

Plate 7: Erythrina abyssinica –fruit Plate 8: Erythrina abyssinica – flowers

Plate 9: Olea africana – leaves Plate 10: Olea africana – bark

Plate 11: Azadirachta indica – leaves Plate 12: Azadirachta indica – flowers

30

Plate 13: Azadirachta indica – fruit Plate 14: Azadirachta indica – bark

Plate 15: Commiphora shimperi – leaves Plate 16: Commiphora shimperi – bark

Plate 17: Warburgia ugandensis – fruit Plate 18: Warburgia ugandensis – leaves

31

Plate 19: Warburgia ugandensis – bark Plate 20: Acacia tortilis – tree

Plate 21: Acacia tortilis – fruit Plate 22: Acacia tortilis – flowers

Plate 23: Melia azedarach – tree Plate 24: Melia azedarach – flowers

32

Plate 25: Melia azedarach – fruit Plate 26: Melia azedarach –bark

Plate 27: Artemesia annua – shrub Plate 28: Artemesia annua – leaves

Plate 29: Acacia mellifera – shrub Plate 30: Acacia mellifera – leaves

33

Plate 31: Acacia mellifera – flowers Plate 32: Acacia mellifera – fruit

Plate 33: Carissa edulis – flowers Plate 34: Carissa edulis – fruit

Plate 35: Albizia gummifera – leaves Plate 36: Trichilia emetica – flowers

34

Plate 37: Albizia amara – leaves Plate 38: Cassia abbreviata – leaves

Plate 39: Cassia occidentalis – fruit Plate 40: Cassia occidentalis – flowers

Plate 41: Vernonia lasiopus – flowers Plate 42: Vernonia amygadalina– flowers

35

Plate 43: Ekebergia capensis-tree Plate 44: Ekebergia capensis- fruit

Plate 45: Ekebergia capensis- flowers Plate 46: Ekebergia capensis-Bark

Plate 47: Ocotea usambarensis – tree Plate 48: Harrisonia abysinica- shrub

36

37

ANTI-MALARIAL SPECIES DESCRIPTION

Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boiv. MIMOSACEAE

Indigenous Common name: Bitter albizia Local name(s): Ruga (Luo), Kiundwa/Mwowa (Kam.), Gissrep (Som.), Gotutwet (Tug.), Muhogolo

(Gogo,), Mkengehovu (Lugu.), Mpogolo/Mtangala (Nyam), Mufoghoo (Nyir.), Msisiviri (Ran.), Mpogolo

(Suk.)

Description and Ecology: A deciduous tree, often rounded or spreading crown, reaching 10 m in height but

often smaller. Bark dark brown and roughly cracked. Leaves compound with numerous small leaflets,

feathery. Leaves and twigs covered with distinctive soft, golden hairs. Numerous small creamy-white flowers

crowded together at the end of branches. The large pods are brown and papery, up to 20 x 3 cm, bulging over

the few seeds.

Propagation methods: Natural reproduction by seed is good in areas protected from fire and grazing. It

reproduces very freely from coppice; it produces a large number of coppice shoots in the first instance,

producing as many as 50-100 shoots. Artificially, the best method is through direct seeding. Seed

pretreatment involves immersion in boiling water for 5 minutes followed by soaking for 12 hours. The

treated seed can be then sown and will germinate within 7-10 days. Germination is about 80%.

Tree Management: Spacing generally adopted is 9-10m apart along contour lines; plants are thinned

when 2-3m tall in the first year and 5-8m in the third or fourth year depending on the rate of growth.

Young seedlings should be protected from fire and grazing livestock. Though natural thinning is

universal, the best shoots left in an un-thinned stump are in no way inferior to those on a thinned stump.

On this account, therefore, yield of firewood is likely to be greater at the end of the rotation.

Germplasm Management and Conservation: The orthodox seeds can be stored up to 2.5 years

without losing viability appreciably. They are best stored in mud pots with wood ash or in sealed tins or

gunny bags.

Domestication: A. amara is already introduced in India and Indonesia. In Kenya, Tanzania and all the

other countries, growing this tree species is usually incorporated into smallholding framing systems

where its diversified with corn, cassava , maize, beans, and fruit trees such as papaya, mango and

orange. Challenges:

* Less use of all the tree species and less awareness of its potential.

* The wood although hard, rots easily

* Less awareness in its conservation status

Way Forward:

* Prolonging the life span of the wood-which rots easily

* Develop conservation strategy of this tree species (should be in high priority of the species to be

conserved in East Africa).

Traditional Medicinal Uses: Bark stem decoction taken three times a day serves as an emetic to induce

vomiting and to treat malaria1,2. Leaves are said to be used in the treatment of wounds1.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: The seeds of A. amara reported to

contain spermine alkaloids referred to as budmunchiamines 3,5, as well as some flavonoids (e.g.

melacacidin) have also been extracted from the heartwood4., budmunchiamines from other Albizia

species have been shown to exhibit anti-plasmodial activities6. A typical budmuchiamine structure is

shown below.

38

CH3

N

N

N

N

O

R1

(CH2)5 (CH2)8CH3

R

H

12 3

45

67

89

1011

12

1314

1516

17

R2

6'

RR1 = R2 = CH3 or H

Bunchiamine

References: 1. Dharani, N. (2007): Field Guide to Common Trees & Shrubs of East Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape

Town, South Africa. ISBN 978 1 86872 640 0.

2. Kokwaro, J.O. (1993): Medicinal plants of East Africa. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi. ISBN 9966-

44-190-5

3. Pezzuto, J.M. et al. (1991): DNA-Based isolation and the structure elucidation of the budmunchiamines,

novel macrocyclic alkaloids from Albizia amara. Heterocycles, 32: 1961-1967.

4. Deshpande, V.H. and Shastri, R.K. (1977): Phenolics of Albizia lebbek, A. amara and A. procera.

Indian J Chem., 15B, 201.

5. John M. Pezzuto, Woongchon Mar, Long-Ze Lin, Geoffrey A. Cordell, Andras Neszmélyi and

Hildebert Wag. (1992): Budmunchiamines D–I from Albizia amara. Phytochemistry, 31 (5): 1795-

1800.

6. Rukunga, G.M. Muregi, F.W., Tolo, F. M., Omar S.A., Mwitari, P.G., Muthaura, C.N., Omlin,

F., Lwande, W., Hassanali, A., Githure, J.I., Iraqi., F., Mungai, G.M., Kraus, W., Kofi-Tsekpo,

W.M. M (2007): Antiplasmodial activity of spermine alkaloids isolated from Albizia gummifera.

Fitoterapia, 78: 455-459.

Albizia gummifera (J.F. Gmel) C.A.Sm. MIMOSACEAE

Indigenous Common name: Peacock flower Local name(s): Mwethia (Kam.), Mukurwe (Kik.), Mcani Mbao (Swa-Ken.), Ol-osepakupes (Maa-Ken.),

Ekokwait (Tur.), Sangupesi/Asangupesi (Aru.), Mboromo/Mduka (Chag.), Ol-geturai (Maa-Tan.), Mkenge

(Swa-Tan.), Mshai (Samb.), Chiruku/Kirongo (Lugi.), Mushebeya (Ruki.), Mulera/Mushebeya (Runyan.),

Mulongo (Ruto.), Swessu (Seb.).

Botanical Description and Ecology: A large deciduous tree with flattened canopy, about 15 m high and

trunk up to 75 cm in diameter. Bark grey and smooth. Leaves compound with shiny, dark green leaflets up to

12 pairs. Flower pink and white clusters, with long bright red stamens. Cluster of pods in bundles, thin, shiny

brown, flat with raised edges, 20cm long and 3 cm wide, often shorter. A deciduous forest tree mainly found

in East Africa, but also in Ethiopia, Zaire, Madagascar and West Africa occurring from dry or wet lowlands

to upland forest edges, and also in riverine forest, at altitude from sea level to 2400 m.

39

40

Propagation Methods: Use of seedlings, direct sowing at site and wildings are popular modes of

propagation.

Tree Management: Lopping and coppicing while young to improve form.

Germplasm Management and Conservation: Either untreated or soaked seeds are sown. Fresh seeds

need no pre-treatment. Stored seeds are soaked in warm water and left to cool to room temperature. The

seed coat may be nicked at the cotyledon end to hasten germination. Seed germination is good, 70-80%,

within 10 days. Seeds should be collected while still on the tree to minimize insect damage. Seed can be

stored for at least a year if kept dry and insect free through addition of ash. There are 10 000-15 000

seeds /kg. Seed storage behavior orthodox, viability can be maintained for several years in hermetic

storage at 10 deg C.

A. gummifera is a threatened species due to its low density on farms and also in natural forests.

Domestication: A. gummifera ability to associate with crops is indicated by the tendency to leave the

tree standing in cultivated fields, intercropped with coffee in Ethiopia and in Kenya with crops. A.

gummifera is known as a good mulch tree in Kenya, thus planted on boundaries or barriers-the tree’s

branches are also used for fencing. The tree species is also planted or left out on farms for Apiculture,

medicine (a bark decoction is used against malaria) and Nitrogen fixing. The leaves of A. gummifera

quicken the ripening process in bananas.

Challenges:

* Little awareness of its potential

* Less awareness in its conservation status

* Less propagated on farms

Way Forward:

* Improve the propagation of A. gummifera

* Develop conservation strategy of this tree species (should be in high priority of the species to be

conserved in East Africa).

Traditional Medicinal Uses: Stem bark decoction is used to treat malaria and act as an emetic1. An extract

from the fresh crushed pods is taken for stomach pains, and roots are used to cure skin diseases like acne,

itching, eczema2.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: The stem bark of A. gummifera

contains certain alkaloids like budmunchiamine G3 and oleanane and lupane triterpenes4. However the

main antiplasmodial compounds from Albizia gummifera are the spaermine alkaloids shown below5.

41

N

N

N

N

O

R1

(CH2)5 (CH2)8CH3

R

CH3 H

12 3

45

67

89

1011

12

1314

1516

17

R2

6'

R R1 R2

Budmunchiamine K (1) H Me Me

6-Hydroxybudmunchiamine K (2) OH Me Me

5-Normethylbudmunchiamine K (3) H H Me

6-Hydroxy-5-normethylbudmunchiamine K (4) OH H Me

9-Normethylbudmunchiamine K (5) H Me H

References: 1. Dharani, N. (2007): Field Guide to Common Trees & Shrubs of East Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape

Town, South Africa. ISBN 978 1 86872 640 0.

2. Kokwaro, J.O. (1993): Medicinal plants of East Africa. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi. ISBN 9966-

44-190-5

3. Rukunga, G.M. and Waterman, P.G. (1996): New macrocyclic spermine (budmunchiamine) alkaloids

from Albizia gummifera: with some observations on the structure-activity relationships of the

budmunchiamines. J Nat Prod., 59: 850-853.

42

4. Rukunga, G.M. and Waterman, P.G. (2001): A new oleanane glycoside from the stem bark of Albizia

gummifera. Fitoterapia, 72: 140-145.

5. Rukunga, G.M. Muregi, F.W., Tolo, F. M., Omar S.A., Mwitari, P.G., Muthaura, C.N., Omlin,

F., Lwande, W., Hassanali, A., Githure, J.I., Iraqi., F., Mungai, G.M., Kraus, W., Kofi-Tsekpo,

W.M. M (2007): Antiplasmodial activity of spermine alkaloids isolated from Albizia gummifera.

Fitoterapia 78: 455-45

Artemisia annua L. ASTERACEAE

Exotic: Native to China and Vietnam

Common name: Sweet wormwood, Sweet annie Botanical Description and Ecology: A perennial woody herb or shrub, to 0.7- 2.5 m in height, many

stemmed, aromatic. Leaves are soft, dark green, and finely divided. Flowers are inconspicuous and borne

along the branch ends, yellow and turn brown when old. It grows on well–drained soils from 1000-1500 m. It

is traditionally grown in its native country (China) for over 2000 years and Chinese herbalists used to treat

fevers and malaria. But more recently very commonly cultivated medicinal plant in many countries of

Africa, North America, Europe, and several other parts of the world.

Propagation Methods: A. annua seedlings are raised in a nursery and transplanted. However, direct

seeding is required for commercial production. Seed are sown in spring and planted out in late spring or

early summer. Alternatively, the seed can be sown late spring in situ.

It can be grown and propagated by micro-cuttings in a hormone-free medium. Artemisinin is produced

in shoots in vitro and is enhanced by the presence of roots. None or trace levels of artemisinin are found

in roots, callus, cells, or cell free medium. There is no evidence that in-vitro production of artemisinin is

currently commercially feasible.

Shrub Management: Field production of A. annua is presently the only commercially viable

production method because the synthesis of the complex molecule is uneconomical. Due to the low

levels of artemisin in leaves and inflorescence, coupled with early flowering caused by short days, high

biomass production is required to make production in the tropics economical. The plant spacing can be

high density, 30 cm x 30 cm (111,000 plants/ha); intermediate density, 30 cm x 60 cm (55,000

plants/ha); and low density, 60 cm x 60 cm (27,778 plants/ha) to get high biomass production. The

43

leaves are harvested after 4 months. The yield is about 30 tonnes/ha with 10-12 kg oil/ha at a spacing of

0.3m x 0.6 m.

Germplasm Management and Conservation: Seeds are orthodox and can be stored for short term (1-

5years) at 4oC at a moisture content of between 7-9%. A. annua sample have been deposited in Nordic

gene-bank in Norway for conservation.

Domestication: Since the development of the selection program for A. annua hybrid lines of high

artemisinin content and agricultural improvement within the program at CPQBA-UNICAMP, new

selections have been annually evaluated for biomass yields, rates between leaves and stem, artemisinin

content, and essential oil (composition and yields). Among the genotypes were evaluated during the

period of November, 2000, to March, 2001.

A German company is grafting Artemisia with various varieties to come up with a variety which can be

raised sustainably in hot places like Kenyan coast and also develop an hybrid which produces more

leave (biomass)

Challenges:

* The plant has a very short lifespan as the plants dries or dies after seeding especially when it’s

growing in hot places.

* Side-effects-Habitual large doses of wormwood can cause restlessness, insomnia, nightmares,

vomiting, abdominal pains, dizziness, tremors, convulsions and urinary tract dis-function. It is important

then to note that wormwood is generally regarded as safe when used appropriately.

* This herb is declared unsafe for use during pregnancy due to its uterine and menstrual stimulating

effects.

Way forward:

* Propagation of different varieties for various zones should be developed e.g. variety that is suitable for

cool places and varieties that will be suitable for hot places and will still be harvested sustainably.

* Create more awareness on the use of herb for malaria treatment and teach farmers simple methods of

how to make the tea.

Traditional Medicinal Uses: Widely used anti-malarial herb in Africa and it can cure most problematic

cerebral malaria1,2. Decoction from the leaves is taken for the gastrointestinal problems, indigestion and in

loss of appetite. It is very effective as vermifuge (parasitic worm killer) and as an emetic1,3.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: Sesquiterpenes, such as

artemisinin-the active ingredient of the antimalarial plant Artemisia annua4. Flavonoids, include,

quecetagetin 4’-methyl ether have been isolated from this plant. Some of the flavonoids have markedely

enhanced the antimalarial activity of artemisinin4,5.

O

O

OO

O Artemisinin References: 1. World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF): Artemisia annua (handout). Website:

http:www.worldagroforestrycentre.org.

2.Purcell, K. (2004): WHO Approves Artemisinin for Malaria in Africa. HerbalGram. Amer. Bot. Coun 64:

19-20.

3. Hirt, H.M. and M’Pia, B. (2001): Natural Medicine in Tropics. Anamed, Action for natural

medicine, Winnenden, Germany.

4. Yang S.L. et al. (1995): Flavonoids and chromenes from Artemisia annua. Phytochemistry, 38: 255-257.

5. K. Chiung-Sheue Chen Liu, Shi-Lin Yang, M. F. Roberts, B. C. Elford, J. D. Phillipson. (1992):

Antimalarial activity of Artemisia annua flavonoids from whole plants and cell cultures. Journal of Plant

Cell Reports, 11 (12).

44

45

Azadirachta indica Linn. MELIACEAE Exotic: Native to India, Sri Lanka and Burma

Common name: Neem Local name: Mwarubaini (Swa.). Botanical Description and Ecology: A hardy, fast growing tree; from 15-20m in height, with dense, leafy,

oval shaped canopy, evergreen except in the driest areas. Bark, rough, grooved, grey-brown. Leaves shiny

green, compound leaves with 5 to 8 pairs of leaflets up to 10 cm long, margin coarsely toothed. Flowers

creamy white; small; sweet scented. Fruit oval; green berries at first to yellow berries when ripe; up to 2 cm

across. A tree well known in its native country India and is now one of the most widely planted trees in

Africa. It is commonly found growing in arid and semi arid regions; long grown at the East African coast and

naturalized there; drought resistant and does well on poor soils. It grows at an altitude sea level to 1500 m.

Propagation methods: Neem seedlings can be produced vegetatively by air layering, cuttings, grafting

and tissue culture, however, they are usually grown from seed in nurseries as bare-root stock or in

containers. Direct sowing is more cost-effective, but may result in poor survival in drier zones. Neem

wildlings are an inexpensive source of seedlings, as natural regeneration is normally abundant. Although

neem is a prolific seed producer, seed supply is frequently a problem. The viability of fresh seed

decreases rapidly after two weeks, and improperly stored seeds have low germination rates. Ripe seed

should be collected from the tree and processed immediately. First the pulp is removed and the seeds are

washed clean. Seeds are air dried for 3-7 days in the shade, or until the moisture content is about 30%.

They can then be stored for up to four months if kept at 15°C. Seed will remain viable even longer if

dried to 6-7% moisture content and refrigerated in sealed containers at 4° C.

Sow seed in nursery beds in rows 15-25 cm apart, and 2.5-5 cm spacing within the rows. Seedlings can

be pricked out when two pairs of leaves have developed (1-2 months), or the rows should be thinned to

15cm x 15cm spacing. Plastic pots are commonly used to produce neem seedlings, although rigid

container systems are used in Haiti with success. Seeds should be sown horizontally at a depth of 1cm.

Fresh seeds will have the highest germination rate, and seedlings will emerge within in 1-3 weeks.

Removal of the seed coat may increase germination rates for stored seeds. Both bare-root and

containerized seedlings should be raised under partial shade for the first 1-2 months, or until about 30

cm tall, then gradually exposed to full sunlight.

46

Bare-rooted seedlings are usually kept in the nursery for 1-2 years before outplanting. The roots and

shoots of seedlings lifted from nursery beds should be pruned before transplanting. Bare-rooted

seedlings can also be prepared for stump planting. Stumps are made from 1-2 year old seedlings by

trimming the root to 20-22 cm root and the shoot to 5 cm. Containerized seedlings should be outplanted

after 3-4 months in the nursery, when they reach 30-50 cm. Fuelwood plantations are laid out at a 2.5m

x 2.5m spacing, and then later thinned to 5m x 5m. The recommended spacing for windbreaks is 4m x

2m. Neem trees managed to maximize fruit yield should be more widely spaced to allow the crown to

develop fully.

Tree Management: Young seedlings suffer from weed competition, but weed control is usually only

needed during the first growing season. Neem seedlings should also be protected from fire, although

mature trees can recover from fire damage. Once the root system is well-established, early growth is

rapid for about five years, then slows gradually. Neem responds well to coppicing and pollarding to

produce poles, posts, or fuelwood. Coppicing to produce fuelwood is managed on a 7-8 year cycle.

Pollarding is used to manage windbreaks, and to produce posts. Yields vary greatly depending on site

conditions, but fuelwood production reports range from 6-57 m3/ha/year.

Germplasm Management and Conservation: Neem seeds are desiccation sensitive and cannot be

stored for long. They are recalcitrant. After collection and extraction, a temporary storage of seeds

seems possible for 3-4 weeks in well ventilated containers under room temperature.

Domestication: A. indica has been introduced and established throughout the tropics and subtropics for

its highly valued hardiness, its almost year-round shade, and its multiple wood and non-wood products.

Individual neem trees vary greatly in their morphology and perhaps in their chemical makeup. It is not

yet understood whether these differences are based on genetic or environment or both, although it is

believed that environmental factors (such as drought stress) play a dominant role. So far Neem can be

vegetatively propagated by air layering or by rooting stem cuttings and root cuttings. Neem tree

produces root suckers which makes it possible to propagate it using root cuttings. Stem cutting of neem

is rooted under mist. Genetic improvement through province selection are vegetative propagation of elite

clones has been initiated.

Tissue culture was used to produce the neem trees planted in Australia. One problem manifest was that,

the trees were not as strong rooted as expected; this may have resulted from the propagation methods

47

used. In Egypt, East Africa, West Africa and sub-Sahelian Africa it is widely grown and has become

naturalized

Challenges:

* While the neem tree is reasonably well adapted to different environments and may be useful in

drawing down water tables, little information is available on how it might produce in terms of growth

rates, seed production and azadirachtin content in drier areas than experienced in its natural habitat.

* The biggest challenge is to develop a production system that allows profitable production and

distribution of formulated products. A particular focus of the current review is to assess the prospects for

neem trees in the low rainfall areas of Australia where agroforestry that targets commercial production

as well as providing a sustainability function is required.

Way forward:

* Selection of high yielding trees and propagation of such trees would be necessary in order to lower

costs of production. Some information is already available regarding concentrations and genetic

variability.

* Better propagation methods should be developed to increase production.

Medicinal Uses: Leaf decoction is used in treatment of malaria1,2. Aromatic neem oil features in the

treatment of skin diseases such as leprosy, fungal infections and eczema3. Twigs contain antiseptic

ingredients and used as tooth brushes to help maintain healthy teeth and gums3. The neem bark, leaves and

ripe fruit helps in blood purification and also used as a remedy for intestinal worms2,4.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: Chemical compounds include

triterpenoids (e.g. azadiradione), limonoids (e.g. azadirachtin) isolated from the seeds5 is the most active

against insect and also have antimalarial activity6. The plant also produces phenolics such as gallic acid

and epicatechin which inhibit inflamation6.The methanol and aqueous extracts A. indica showed good

anti-plasmodial activity7.

O OHO

O

AcOO

OH

O

O O

OH

H

COOCH3

H3COOC

H

Azadirachtin

References: 1. Sofowora, A. (1982): Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine in Africa. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. ISBN

0 471 10367 5.

2. Eugene, B. et al. (1992): Neem, a tree for solving global problems. National Academy Press, Washington,

D.C. ISBN 0-309-04686-6.

3. Dharani, N. (2007): Field Guide to Common Trees & Shrubs of East Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape

Town, South Africa. ISBN 978 1 86872 640 0.

4. Hirt, H.M. and M’Pia, B. (2001): Natural Medicine in Tropics. Anamed, Action for natural

medicine, Winnenden, Germany.

5. Karus, W. et al. (1981): Tetranortriterpenoids from the seed of Azadirachta indica. Phytochemistry, 20:

117-120.

6. Devi, C.U. et al. (2001): Anti-plasmodial effect of three medicinal plants: a preliminary study. Curr Sci.,

80: 917-919.

7. P.G. Kirira, G.M. Rukunga, A.W. Wanyonyi, F.M. Muregi, J.W. Gathirwa, C.N. Muthaura,

S.A. Omar, F. Tolo, G.M. Mungai and I.O. Ndiege. (2006): Anti-plasmodial activity and toxicity of

extracts of plants used in traditional malaria therapy in Meru and Kilifi Districts of Kenya. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology. 106 (3): 403-407.

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. BALANITACEAE

Indigenous Common name: Desert date Local name(s): Mulului (Kam.), Othoo (Luo), Olngoswa (Maa.), Mjunju (Swa.), Eroronyit (Tur.),

Mohoromo (Chag.), Mkongo (Lugu.), Myuguyugu, Nyuguyu (Suk.), Echoma (Ate.), Musongole (Lug.),

Zomai (Lugi.), Mutete (Runy.),

48

49

Botanical Description and Ecology: Evergreen tree, about 5 – 6m high, with rounded crown and strong

thorny branches. Bark smooth, green in young trees, dark fissured when old. Leaves with distinctive pairs of

grey-green, oval-shaped leaflets. Flowers yellow-green in clusters, fragrant. Fruit oblong, up to 5 cm.

Commonly found in dry bushland, bushed grassland, wooded grassland or woodland also grows along the

rivers from 250-2000m of an altitude.

Propagation methods: Seeds may be collected from fruit that is being processed for other purposes,

from dung, and directly from the trees. Soaking in water for some hours and then stirring vigorously

separates the stones from the pulp. Seed germination can be improved by immersing the seeds in boiling

water for 7-10 min then cooling slowly. The effect that passage through an animal’s intestinal tract has

on germination is unclear. However, seeds are said to germinate readily, although with some difference

associated with date of collection. Natural regeneration is primarily through seeding. The fruit is high in

demand, which gives it high economic value; therefore, little fruit and thus few seeds are left for natural

regeneration of the species. The tree also can generate by coppice shoots and its abundant root suckers.

Tree Management: Coppices and pollards well and can regenerate after lopping and heavy browsing.

Where fruit is the principal interest, pollarding and coppicing for obtaining fodder are seldom employed.

Germplasm Management and Conservation: Seed storage behaviour is orthodox; viability can be

maintained for 2 years in air-dry storage at cool temperatures or for several years in hermetic storage at

3 deg. C with 6-10% mc. One kilogram of cleaned, extracted seeds, air-dried to 15% mc, contains 500-

1500 seeds. B. aegyptiaca is common within its area of distribution

Domestication: Individual trees are planted extensively in Africa, and small plantations have been

established in Niger, Chad and northern Nigeria. Farms in East Africa leave some natural plants of this

species on farms for use as a hedge or fodder or fruits, or for shade. Plantings of this tree have also been

reported in India.

Challenges:

* Lack of propagation methods which can improve its slow growth rate

* Little is known on other uses of the species e.g. on water purification and medicinal values.

Way Forward:

* Develop propagation methods which can improve the growth rate

* Explore the full potential of this tree species.

Medicinal Uses: An infusion of roots or bark is a remedy for malaria1. The infusion of the roots used as an

anthelmintic2, purgative and to treat abdominal pains3. The fruit and seeds are poisonous to fresh water snails

and have been used for the remedy for billharzia and as purgative3,4.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: The extracts of B. aegyptiaca has

been reported to exhibit anti-plasmodial activity5,6. Several sapogenins and saponines such as diosgenin7

and cryptogenin8 have been isolated from Balanites species. In addition, the presence of flavonoids like

for example astragalin9 have also been reported. Furostanol saponin was isolated from the mesocarp of

B. aegyptiaca fruits10. 26-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(25R)-furost-5-ene-3,22,26-triol3-O-{[ -l-

rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)]-[β-d-xylopyranosyl-(1 → 2)]-β-d-xylopyranosyl-(1 → 2)}-β-d-

xylopyranoside (balanitesin) 10.

O

OH

OH

OH

OOglucose

Astragalin Balanitesin References: 1. Maundu, P.M. (1999): Traditional Food plants of Kenya. National Museums of Kenya, KENRIK. ISBN

9966-9861-4-6.

2. Kokwaro, J.O. (1993): Medicinal plants of East Africa. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi. ISBN 9966-

44-190-5.

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51

3. Liu, H.W. and Nakanishi, K. (1982): The structures of balanitins, potent molluscicides isolated from

Balanites aegyptiaca. Tetrahedron., 38: 513-519.

4. Dharani, N. (2007): Field Guide to Common Trees & Shrubs of East Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape

Town, South Africa. ISBN 978 1 86872 640 0.

5. Koch, A., Tamez, P., Pezzuto, J., Soejarto, D (2005). Evaluation of plants used for antimalarial

treatment by the Maasai of Kenya. J. Ethnopharm., 101 (1): 95-99.

6. Prozesky, E.A., Meyer, J.J., Louw.,(2001). In vitro anti-plasmodial activity and cytotoxicity of

ethnobotanically selected South African plants. A.I. J. Ethnopharm., 76 (3): 239-245.

7. Nakanishi, K. (1982): Recent studies on bioactive compounds from plants. J Nat Prod., 45: 15-26.

8. Van Wyk, B.E. et al. (2000): Medicinal plants of South Africa. Bariza Publications, Pretoria - South

Africa. . ISBN 1 875093 09 5.

9. Saleh, N.A.M. and El-Hadidi, M.N. (1977): An approach to the chemosystematics of the

Zygophyllaceae. Biochem Syst Ecol., 5: 121-128.

10. M. S. Kamel (1998): A furostanol saponin from fruits of Balanites aegyptiaca. Phytochemistry. 48

(4): 755 – 757.

Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl APOCYNACEAE

Indigenous Common name: Simple-spined carissa, Natal plum

Local name(s): Mukawa (Kam., Kik.), Ochuoga (Luo. Ken.), Olamuriaki (Maa.), Legetetuet (Nan.),

Mtanda-mboo (Swa.), Manka (Chag.), Muyanza/Muyonza (Haya), Mfubeli (Nyam.), Mkabaku (Ran.),

Emuriai (Ate.), Muyonza/Nyonza (Lug.), Mutulituli (Ruki.), Muyonza (Runy.).

Botanical Description and Ecology: A spiny evergreen shrub or a scrambling bush, grows to 5m in height.

Bark grey, smooth, with straight woody spines, spines straight sometimes forked up to 5cm long. Leaves

glossy green, base rounded and apex pointed. Flowers reddish pink outside, white inside when they are open,

highly scented, in terminal clusters. Fruit round or ellipsoid up to 2.2cm in diameter, green often tinged red

or purple when ripe, turning dark purple (almost black) and glossy when ripe. It is widespread in bushland

and dry forest edges at altitudes from sea level to 2000m.

52

Propagation methods: C. edulis propagates from seeds. Seeds germinate in 2 weeks, but seedlings

grow very slowly at first. Vegetative propagation is preferred and can be done easily by air layering,

ground layering, or shield budding.

Shrub Management: The slow-growing trees respond well to pruning. Germplasm Management and Conservation: Seeds storage behaviour is orthodox, and their viability

can be maintained for more than 12 months in dry air storage at 5 deg. C. There are about 28 000-30 000

seeds/kg.

Domestication: C. edulis is one of a number of thorny species that is planted to form a dense hedge. It is

used mainly for boundaries to household plots and for cattle enclosures on farms. It is very common

throughout East Africa.

Challenges:

* C. edulis species is underutilized and neglected in conservation. This severely hinders its successful

improvement and promotion.

* Efforts need to be directed towards the better maintenance of its resource base, both through ex situ

and in situ conservation methods, to ensure its development and sustainable use by present and future

generations.

* Little is known about how to improve varieties yield and quality, and little has been done to identify

the most effective commercialization, marketing and policy frameworks to promote its use and

maximize its economic value.

Way Forward:

* Conservation and research strategy should be improved and development of markets of its products.

Medicinal Uses: Root decoction is used against to treat malaria1, headache and fever in children2. The ripe

fruits help in treatment of dysentery and also to treat gastrointestinal problems3. Decoction from the roots is

used for treating chronic chest pains2 also helps to cure dysentery and diarrhea.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: Chemical compounds that have

been extracted from the roots includes Benzenoids (e.g. 2-Hydroxyacetophenone)4 and sesquiterpenes

(e.g. carissone)4. The methanol and aqueous extracts Carissa edulis showed good anti-plasmodial

activity5. The methanolic extract from the root of Carissa edulis contains about 5% sesquiterpenes.

Isolated compounds are carissone, cryptomeridiol and β-eudesmol6.

OOH

Carissone References: 1. Dharani, N. (2007): Field Guide to Common Trees & Shrubs of East Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape

Town, South Africa. ISBN 978 1 86872 640 0.

2. Maundu, P.M. (1999): Traditional Food plants of Kenya. National Museums of Kenya, KENRIK. ISBN

9966-9861-4-6.

3. Johns, T. et al. (1995): Anti-giardial activity of gastrointestinal remedies of the Luo of East Africa. J.

Ethnopharmacol., 46: 17-23.

4. Bentley, M.D. and Brackett, S.R. (1984): 2-Hydroxyacetophenone: principal root volatile of the East

African medicinal plant, Carissa edulis. J. Nat .Prod., 47: 1056-1057.

5. Kirira, P.G., Rukunga, G.M., Wanyonyi, A.W., Muregi, F.M., Gathirwa, J.W., Muthaura, C.N.,

Omar, S.A., Tolo, F., Mungai, G.M., Ndiege, I.O. (2006): Anti-plasmodial activity and toxicity of

extracts of plants used in traditional malaria therapy in Meru and Kilifi Districts of Kenya. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology. 106 (3): 403-407.

6. Achenbach, H., Waibel, R., Addae-Mensah, I. (1985): Sesquiterpenes from carissa edulis.

Phytochemistry. 24 (10): 2325-2328.

53

54

Senna occidentalis L. CAESALPINIACEAE

Synonymous: Cassia occidentalis Indigenous Common name: Stinking Weed Local name(s): Mwengajini (Swa.), Segusse (Suk.), Imindi (Luny.). Botanical Description and Ecology: An erect herb, sometimes slightly woody shrub up to 2m high. Stem

greyish–black, slightly hairy. Leaves with 3–6 pairs of leaflets, ovate–elliptic or sometimes lanceolate, non

hairy, 5-10cm long. Flower yellow, in short racemes from upper axils. Fruit pods narrow and semi-flattened.

Found in grassland and lake-shores; altitude range sea-level -1800m.

Propagation methods: S. occidentalis flowers and fruits throughout the year or seasonally, depending

on rainfall and cold seasons. Seeds collected in Puerto Rico averaged 0.0158 + 0.0002 g/seed or 63,000

seeds/kg. Some 95 percent of scarified seeds sown in potting mix germinated between 5 and 36 days

after sowing. Scarification is necessary for good seed germination. Mechanical scarification, acid

treatment, and immersing in boiling water all worked well, giving 82 to 100 percent germination The

seeds are dispersed by grazing animals.

Shrub Management: In seasonally cold or dry climates, the life cycle of S. occidentalis is complete in

6 to 9 months, but in warm, continually moist areas plants may last a full year or grow through the

second year. Perhaps in Brazil where extraordinary heights are reached, the species may live a third or

fourth year. Growth is moderately rapid. Plants add 0.5 to 1.5m during the first season. Although S.

occidentalis is planted to yield medicinal materials because of its short life and weedy potential, it is not

advisable to plant it in wildlands. The species can be controlled with broadleaf herbicides.

Germplasm Management and Conservation: Seed storage behaviour is orthodox. Well-dried seeds

stored in airtight containers remain viable for more than three years. A purity of 99% can be achieved. It

is a common and easily accessed-not threated species in East Africa

Domestication: Grows on roadsides and waste ground and as a weed in cultivated areas. No

improvement has been undertaken on propagation.

Challenges:

* S. occidentalis is one of the underutilized crops in East Africa.

* Weed control measures and policies often view weedy plants e.g. Senna occidentalis as problem

species that interfere with agricultural productivity. This results in these plants being eradicated

sometimes indiscriminately without regard for their other economic importance

Way Forward

* Senna occidentalis is one of the underutilized crops in East Africa.

* Weed control measures and policies often view weedy plants e.g. Senna occidentalis as problem

species that interfere with agricultural productivity. This results in these plants being eradicated

sometimes indiscriminately without regard for their other economic importance

Medicinal Uses: Leaves decoction used for the treatment of fever, possibly malaria. The dried entire plant is

used as a diuretic and treatment against intestinal parasites. Fresh leaves can be applied directly as poultices

on the affected part of skin for the treatment of fungal diseases1, inflammation and swellings, bruises,

furuncles and sprains. The infusion of the roots are used for malaria, kidney disease, to treat fatigue, for

indigestion and also used for colic and to cure stomach ache2.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: The ethanolic, dichloromethane and

lyophilized aqueous extracts of Cassia occidentalis root bark, showed antimalarial activity3. ethanol and

dichloromethane from Cassia occidentalis leaves showed antiplasmodial activity4. However no specific

compounds have been associated to the anti-plasmodial activity observed in this plant. Three new C-

glycosidic flavonoids, cassiaoccidentalins A, B and C, were isolated from aerial parts of Cassia

occidentalis, and their structures with a 3-keto sugar were established on the basis of spectroscopic and

chemical evidence5. A biologically active component was isolated and identified as emodin by

spectroscopic analysis6, 7.

OH O OH

OH

O

Emodin (1,3,8-trihydroxy-6-methylanthraquinone)

55

References:

1. Hirt, H.M. and M’Pia, B. (2001): Natural Medicine in Tropics. Anamed, Action for natural

medicine, Winnenden, Germany.

2. Novy, J.W. (1997): Medicinal plants of the Eastern region of Madagascar. J Ethnopharmacol, 55: 119-

126.

3. Totte J., Tona L., Pieters L., Mesia K., Vlietinck A. J., Ngimbi N. P., Chrimwami

B., Okond'Ahoka Cimanga K., de Bruyne T., Apers S., Hermans N. (2001): In-vivo antimalarial activity

of Cassia occidentalis , Morinda morindoides and Phyllanthus niruri . Annals of Tropical Medicine and

Parasitology. 95 (1): 47-57.

4. Tona, L., Ngimbi, N. P., Tsakala, M., Mesia, K., Cimanga, K., Apers, S., De Bruyne, T., Pieters,

L., Totté, J., Vlietinck, A. J. (1999): Antimalarial activity of 20 crude extracts from nine African

medicinal plants used in Kinshasa, Congo Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 68 (1-3): 193-203.

5. Hatano,T., Mizuta, S., Ito, H., Yoshida, T. (1999): C-Glycosidic flavonoids from Cassia

occidentalis . Phytochemistry. 52 (7): 1379-1383.

6. Koistinen, K.M., Soininen, P., Venäläinen, T.A., Häyrinen, J., Laatikainen, R., Peräkylä, M.,

Tervahauta A.I., Kärenlampi, S.O. (2005): Birch PR-10c interacts with several biologically important

ligands Phytochemistry. 66 (21): 2524-2533.

7. Chukwujekwu, J.C., Coombes, P.H., Mulholland, D.A., Staden. J.van. (2006): Emodin, an

antibacterial anthraquinone from the roots of Cassia occidentalis. South African Journal of Botany. 72

(2): 295-297.

Cassia abbreviata Oliv. CAESALPINIACEAE

Indigenous Common name: Long-pod cassia Local name(s): Mbaraka (Swa.), Malandesi (Kam.), Domader/ Domaderi/Rabuya (Som.), Msoko/Mkangu

(Tai.), Mulimuli (Gogo, Hehe), Nundalunda (Suk.).

Botanical Description and Ecology: A shrub or small many branched tree, grows to 7m in height, with

rounded crown. Bark reddish when young, become brown and cracked when old. Leaves compound, with 5-

56

57

12 pairs of leaflets, each up to 6 cm long. Flowers yellow, in heads to 9 cm, usually on bare tree. Fruit

brown-black pods, 30-90cm long, thick, cylindrical, with many seeds. Commonly found in coastal areas and

in dry thorn bush especially Acacia-Commiphora bushland, often in woodland or wooded grassland; altitude

50 to 1500m.

Propagation methods: Propagated by seedlings and wildings. Seeds are sown in a sand:compost

mixture (1:1) and should be kept warm and moist. It is better to sow seed directly into polythene bags or

into the ground.

Tree Management: Pollarding, coppicing, trimming and pruning are recommended management

strategies. Over-watering results in poor flower display. Root trimming is necessary because the plants

develop a long taproot early and should be planted out in 1-2 weeks.

Germplasm Management and Conservation: Seed are orthodox and can be stored at 6-8% moisture

content for over a year. Soaking seeds in warm water at 80oC improves seed germination. Seeds

germinate 4-10 days after sowing. Common and easily accessed-Not threatened

Domestication: C. abbreviata is either deliberately planted or managed within its natural habitat to

improve its productivity in some of the SADC countries and also in East Africa. No genetic

improvement has been under taken so far. Challenges:

* No improvement on domestication –to come up with a variety which can do well in more parts of East

Africa.

* Poor marketing of its products.

Way Forward:

* Improvement on domestication.

* Develop marketing strategy for all the tree products.

Medicinal Uses: A decoction of the roots used to cure malaria, pneumonia and other chest complaints1,2

whereas leaves or roots or stem bark infusion are used in the treatment of stomach disorders3.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: C. abbreviata flowers contain

quinoids like aloe-emodin4 and flavonoids includes 2(R)-3(S)-guibourtinidiol in the bark5. The dried

leaves and dried roots of C. abbreviata showed anti-malarial activity against multi-drug resistant

Plasmodium falciparum6. However no specific compound has been associated with anti-plasmodial

activity from this plant.

O

O

CH2OH

OHOH

Aloe-emodin References: 1. Kokwaro, J.O. (1993): Medicinal plants of East Africa. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi. ISBN

9966-44-190-5

2. Dharani, N. (2007): Field Guide to Common Trees & Shrubs of East Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape

Town, South Africa. ISBN 978 1 86872 640 0.

3. Beentje, H.J. (1994): Kenya Trees, Shrubs and Lianas. National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi. ISBN:

9966-9861-0-3

4. Mutasa, S.L. and Kahn, M.R. (1995): Phytochemical investigations of Cassia abbreviata. Fitoterapia,

66: 184.

5. Nel, R.J.J. et al. (1999): The novel flavan-3-ol, (2R,3S)-guibourtinidol and its diastereomers.

Phytochemistry. 52: 1153-1158.

6. Connelly, M.P.E. et al. (1996): Anti-malarial activity in crude extacts of Malawian medicinal plants. Ann

Trop Med Parasitol; 90: 597-602.

Ekebergia capensis Sparm. MELIACEAE Indigenous Common name(s): Ekebergia, Dogplum, Teldet

58

59

Local name(s): Mukongu (Kam.), Mununga (Kik.), Manuki-masi (Tai.), Ol-subukiai (Maa. Ken.), Tido

(Luo), Mfuare/Msisi (Chag.), Mvumba (Gogo), Musimbi (Haya), Osongoroi (Maa. Tan.), Mnu/Mtarima

(Ran.), Umuyagu (Zin.), Musalamumali (Lugi.), Mufumba (Ruki.).

Botanical Description and Ecology: A semi-deciduous tree, 3-30 m, with a large spreading crown. Bark

grey-brown and rough with age. Leaves compound, up to 30 cm long, crowded at the ends of branches,

leaflets thin, up to 5 pairs plus terminal leaflet. Flowers small, white tinged with pink, in loose sprays, up to 8

cm, sweet scented. Fruit rounded, 1-2 cm long, fleshy, orange-red. It is widely distributed in a variety of

habitats from lowland scrub, woodland, wooded grassland to highland forest; commonly in dry forest, less

often in moist forest; often seen growing at forest edge; also in riverine forest; from coast to 2600m of an

altitude.

Propagation methods: Trees are easily propagated from fresh seeds, which do not require pretreatment,

but the fleshy part must be removed from the seed. Seeds take 8-9 weeks to germinate. If seeds are

collected on the ground beneath the tree, germination is usually 40-50%, but it can be as high as 90% if

seeds are collected off the tree. Seeds are sown in flat seedling trays filled with a mixture of river sand

and compost (5:2), covered with sand not deeper than 5 mm and kept moist. It is best to out-plant

seedlings when they are 100-150 mm tall. Wildings and cuttings can also be used to propagate E.

capensis.

Tree Management: Trees are fairly fast-growing. Young trees should be protected from cattle and

game for the 1st two years. This is a fast-growing species with a growth rate of up to 1 m/year; it

responds well to watering.

Germplasm Management and Conservation: Seed storage behaviour is uncertain; 52% germination is

observed with seeds at 21% mc, 39% germination after 9 months of subsequent storage at 4 deg. C.

There are 2900-8600 seeds/kg.

E. capensis is a threatened species in Uganda, Kenya and a protected tree in South Africa. It is

recommended to be conserved to increase the biodiversity of the site and to provide tree resources to

meet the multiple needs of the communities around them. Domestication: Trees are planted in the farms for erosion control, windbreaks, shade and as ornamental

or street trees. Trees may be intercropped with coffee and bananas. Growing period: Perennial. It can

tolerate slight drought conditions and very light frost but is tender to severe frost. It occurs naturally in a

variety of habitats including high-altitude evergreen forests, riverine forests and coastal sandveld. It is an

occasional tree of sub-mountain and swamp forests. It also occurs in scrub, both along the coast and

inland, where it may be stunted or gnarled. It is found in most parts of Zambia and it extends in a belt

down the eastern side of the African continent from Ethiopia to the Cape, South Africa. Challenges:

* Lack of fast propagation methods.

* Poor marketing strategy for medicinal products from this plant.

* Threatened species in Kenya and Uganda.

Way Forward:

*Establishment of fuelwood plantation and providing alternative sources of fuel such as solar energy,

electricity and biogas should be considered to help reduce pressure on the exploitation of this species.

*Develop fast propagation methods.

*Develop marketing strategy for medicinal products.

Medicinal Uses: Leaf decoction is used as vermifuge1; bark and root decoction is used to cure dysentery,

fever and as an emetic. Roots infusion is used for chronic coughs, dysentery and scabies1,2.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: Seeds of E. capensis have yielded a

limonoid called ekebergin as a major compound3,4. Limonoids are known for their high anti-plasmodial

activities. Organic and aqueous extracts of Ekebergia capensis showed good anti-plamodial activity 5.

O

OH

OH

OOAc

O

O

CO2CH3

Ekebergin

60

61

References: 1. Watt, J.M. & Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G. (1962): The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and

Eastern Africa. 2nd Edition. Livingstone, London.

2. Pujal, J. (1990): Naturafrica - the Herbalist Handbook. Jean Pujal Natural Healer’ Foundation, Durban-

South Africa.

3. Taylor, D.A.H. (1981): Ekebergin, a limonoid extractive from Ekebergia capensis. Phytochemistry. 20:

2263-2265.

4. Devi, C.U. et al. (2001): Anti-plasmodial effect of three medicinal plants: a preliminary study. Curr

Sci; 80: 917 - 919.

5. Muregi, F.W., Chhabra, S.C., Njagi, E.N.M., Lang'at-Thoruwa, C.C., Njue, W . M., Orago,

A.S.S., Omar, S.A., Ndiege. I.O. (2004): Anti-plasmodial activity of some Kenyan medicinal plant

extracts singly and in combination with chloroquine. Phytother Res; 18 (5): 379-384.

Erythrina abyssinica DC. PAPILIONACEAE

Indigenous Common name(s): Flame tree, lucky bean tree, Red hot poker tree. Local name(s): Muvuti (Kam.), Muthuti (Kik.), Olepangi (Maa. Ken.), Muuti (Mer.), Mwamba-ngoma

(Swa. Ken.), Miriri (Chag.), Ol-ngaboli (Maa. Tan.), Mkalalwanhuba/Pilipili (Suk.), Mjafari (Swa.

Tan.), Muyirikiti (Lug.), Oluo/Olugo (Lugb.), Cheroguru (Lugi.).

Botanical Description and Ecology: A deciduous tree with a short trunk and thick spreading branches and

rounded crown, up to 6–12 m in height. Bark yellowish brown, thick, corky and fissured, with or without

woody spines. Leaves compound, with three leaflets, broadly ovate. Flowers orange-red heads. Fruit woody

pods, straight or curved, up to 10 cm long with bright red seeds with a black patch. Found throughout East

Africa, commonly occurs in open savannah woodland, grassland and scrubland; not found in very dry or very

high altitude areas; altitude ranges from sea level to 2000 m.

Propagation methods: E. abyssinica grows easily from a truncheon planted at the onset of the rainy

season and in 3-4 years will have reached a fair size. Propagation may also be carried out using seeds,

seedlings, cuttings or direct sowing. The most common method is by large cuttings stripped of leaves,

planted at the beginning of the rains directly in the location desired. E. abyssinica seeds have a hard coat

and should be scarified to allow moisture to penetrate the seed, enhancing germination and making it

62

more uniform. Seeds are easily scarified by rubbing with sandpaper or nicking with a knife. They should

be immersed in water for several hours after scarification until they begin to swell. An alternative

pretreatment method is to soak the seed in warm water (40 deg. C) for 12 hours. Seeds should be

inoculated with Rhizobium bacteria after pretreatment and immediately before planting. This ensures

nodulation and increases nitrogen fixation. Seeds germinate best in sterile sand; the soil can be sterilized

by washing it in a solution of 5% formalin in water. The seeds should be well separated from one

another in the germination box. Alternatively they may be sown directly into black polythene bags,

using a mixture of soil, sand and compost in the proportion of 2:1:1. They should be sown just below the

soil surface, with the hilum facing downwards. Nursery-grown plants are ready for transplanting when

20-30 cm tall. They can be established either by planting directly from plastic bags or by removing from

the nursery beds and planting as bare-root stock. In the latter case, all leaves should be removed before

planting.

Tree Management: Young trees should be protected from heavy frosts until they are well established.

Growth is slow. Pollarding and coppicing are suitable for E. abyssinica. Trees should not be pruned until

they are 1 year old. Frequent pruning will reduce the competitive effects of hedgerows and increase the

ratio of leaves to stems but will also increase labour costs and reduce total tree biomass production. With

its soft wood, E. abyssinica is somewhat easier to prune than other species used in alley farming. It may

be advisable to grow the trees with shade-tolerant crops, rather than imposing a severe pruning regime to

favour shade-intolerant crops. As a shade tree, it can be established rapidly by planting large stakes, 2.5

m long and 8-10 cm in diameter. Stakes this size can produce a canopy of 3-4 m diameter in 6 months.

Germplasm Management and Conservation: The seeds may be stored for long periods without losing

viability if kept cool, dry and insect free. Seeds that have been damaged by insects should be discarded.

Before storage, remnants of the pod should be removed and the seeds sun dried for 1 day. Storage

should be in a cool, dry place. For long-term storage, seeds are kept in a low-temperature seed-storage

facility (approximately 5 deg. C and 30-40 r.h.). On average, there are about 6800 seeds/kg.

Domestication: E. abyssinica tree cultivation and management on farm in Central Kenya is common.

This species is used to make cattle enclosures for the homestead. Cuttings from this species are planted

to form living fences. Erythrina abyssinica is also planted or left on farm, when farmers are clearing the

63

farm for fodder, apiculture, medicinal and soil erosion control. The species was introduced into India

from Uganda.

Challenges:

* A study on its root systems should be carried since this competes with crops.

* Massive production of E. abyssinica products is difficult in some communities (e.g. Luo community of

Kenya) since the tree is associated with evil spirits and therefore not planted in homesteads or left in

farms.

* Seed germination rate is very low (10-30%).

Way Forward

* Ways of controlling the massive root system should be developed.

* Improve germination rate.

Medicinal Uses: Root and stem bark decoction is used to treat malaria and syphilis1,2. The powdered bark

applied to burns and for general body swellings, rheumatism and arthritis2,3. Extract of the dried leaves used

for the treatment of leprosy4 and fever5.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: Several tetracyclic isoquinoline

alkaloids (so-called Erythrina alkaloids) have been reported from certain Erythrina species6. Typical

compounds that have been isolated from E. abyssinca are pterocarpans in roots, (e.g. Phasiolliin)7,

flavanones in roots7 and stem bark8 (abyssinone II)7 and alkaloids in seeds and flowers (e.g. erysodine)9.

The crude extract and the flavonoids and isoflavonoids obtained from the roots of Erythrina abyssinica

showed antiplasmodial activities8. The ethyl acetate extract of the stem bark of Erythrina abyssinica

showed anti-plasmodial activity. A new chalcone, 2′,3,4,4′-tetrahydroxy-5-prenylchalcone (trivial name

5-prenylbutein). Flavanone, 4′,7-dihydroxy-3′-methoxy-5′-prenylflavanone (trivial name, 5-

deoxyabyssinin II), have been isolated as the anti-plasmodial principles of the stem bark of Erythrina

abyssinica10.

OOH

O

OH

OH

OH

OH

OOH

OH

OMe

OH

O

O

Abyssinone II 5-prenylbutein 5-deoxyabyssinin II

References:

1. Ichimaru, J.N. M. et al. (1996): Structural elucidation of new flavanones isolated from Erythrina

abyssinica.. J. Nat. Prod., 59: 1113-1116.

2. Kokwaro, J.O. (1993): Medicinal plants of East Africa. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi. ISBN 9966-

44-190-5.

3. Dharani, N. (2007): Field Guide to Common Trees & Shrubs of East Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape

Town, South Africa. ISBN 978 1 86872 640 0.

4. Boily, Y.and Van Puyvelde, L. (1986): Screening of medicinal plants of Rwanda (Central Africa) for

antimicrobial activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 16: 1-13.

5. Chagnon, M. (1984): General pharmacologic inventory of medicinal plants of Rwanda. Journal of

Ethnopharmacology, 12: 239-251.

6. Dictionary of Natural Product on CD-ROM, release 4:2 (1996): Chapman & Hall, London.

7. Kamat, V.S. et al. (1981): Antimicrobial agents from an East African medicinal plant Erythrina

abyssinica. Heterocycles, 15: 1163-1170.

8. Yenesew A., Derese S., Irungu B., Midiwo J.O., Waters N.C., Liyala P., Akala H., Heydenreich

M., Peter M.G. (2003): Flavonoids and isoflavonoids with anti-plasmodial activities from the roots of

Erythrina abyssinica. Planta medica., 69: 658-661.

9. Barakat, I. et al. (1977): Further Studies of Erythrina Alkaloids. Llodya, 40: 471-475.

10. Yenesew, A., Induli, M., Derese, S., Midiwo, J.O., Heydenreich, M., Peter, M.G., Akala, H.,

Wangui, J., Liyala, P., Waters, N.C. (2004): Anti-plasmodial flavonoids from the stem bark of

Erythrina abyssinica . Phytochemistry. 65 (22): 3029-3032.

64

65

Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. SIMAROUBACEAE

Indigenous

Local name(s): Mulilyyulu (Kam.), Pedo/Omindi (Luo.), Mkidunya (Luh.), Msamburini (Swa.).

Botanical Description and Ecology: Evergreen shrub or a tree (sometimes climbing), 2–6 m high. Bark

with conical corky bosses to 2 cm, rarely unarmed; branches with straight or re-curved spines to 8 mm,

usually in pairs. Leaflet 7–15, apex slightly pointed or rounded. Flowers are cream or yellow, in 5–15 cm

long panicles. Fruit red, round berry. It is commonly found growing in riverine vegetation; in dry bushland,

wooded grassland; also on the coastal forest margins; at altitude coastal levels to 1600m.

Propagation methods: Propagate through seedlings or root suckers. Seeds does not store for long. Fresh

seeds germinate best.

Shrub Management: The main stem is normally weak so sticks should be used to support the plant

until it can stand on its own. Prune lower braches regularly. The plant coppices very easily and may

even be a nuisance in cropland. A fairly fast growing shrub with potential as a shade

Germplasm management and conservation: The fruits are red to black when ripe, with 4–8 seeds.

Seed storage behaviour is uncertain. Rare and threatened species due to over-exploitation as a medicinal

plant.

Domestication: A number of the herbal practitioners in Eastern Kenya cultivate H. Abyssinia for use as

a medicinal plant around their homesteads in an effort to ensure replenishment, availability,

and proximity of this specie that has become rare and requires traveling a distance to collect.

Challenges:

* Habitat restriction

* Germination difficulty

* Very slow growth

* Poor propagation methods

* An availability of the products for medicine

Way Forward:

* It is important to develop a strategy on conservation of this species.

* Appropriate agronomic techniques should be adopted that will ensure cultivation, integration into

farming systems, and hence availability of these important.

* Resources within the proximity of the local people.

* Awareness campaigns on the importance of cultivating of this medicinal plant should be carried out to

grass root levels, A policy should be enacted that would empower traditional herbalists to practice

without restriction or fear of intimidation from their counterparts in conventional medicine

Medicinal Uses: The root and bark decoction is used for the treatment of malaria, abdominal pain,

hemorrhoids and snake bite1. Leaf extract alone or together with roots is used to treat snakebite2. Young

leaves decoction drunk as an aphrodisiac, while old leaves decoction drunk for women's abdominal pains

during menstruation3.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: Terpenoids (e.g. harrisonin), has

been isolated in the root bark4 of H. abyssinica. Quassinoids such harrisonin are known to exhibit anti-

plasmodial activities. Other compounds isolated includes prenylated polyketids in stem bark5 and a new

cyclotriterpene has also been reported from the stem bark6.The methanolic extract of Harrisonia

abyssinica (Simaroubaceae) showed antiplasmodial activity7.

O

O

OO

O

O

OHOMe

OH

O

Harrisonin References: 1. Chhabra, S.C. et al. (1984): Phytochemical screening of Tanzanian medicinal plants. I. J.

ethnopharmacol., 11: 157-179.

66

67

2. Kokwaro, J.O. (1993): Medicinal plants of East Africa. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi. ISBN 9966-

44-190-5.

3. Haerdi, F (1964): Native medicinal plants of Ulanga District of Tanganyika (East Africa).

Dissertation,Verlag Fur Recht Und Gesellschaft Ag, Basel.. Dissertation-Ph.D.-Univ. Basel.

4. Massele, A.Y. and Nshimo, C.M. (1995): Brine shrimp bioassay for biological activity of medicinal

plants used in traditional medicines in Tanzania. E. Afr. .Med. J., 72: 661-663.

5. Balde, A.M. et al. (1999): Oumarone, bissaone, and aissatone, unusual prenylated polyketides from

Harrisonia abyssinica. J. Nat. Prod., 62: 364-366.

6. Baldé, A.M. et al. (2001): Cycloabyssinone, a new cycloterpene from Harrisonia

abyssinica. Fitoterapia, 72: 438-440.

7. El Tahir, A., Gwiria M. H. Satti-Sami A. K. (1999): Antiplasmodial activity of selected Sudanese

medicinal plants with emphasis on Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell. Journal of Ethnopharmacology.

64 (3): 227-233.

Melia azedarach L. MELIACEAE

Exotic: Native to Asia and Australia

Common name(s): Indian lilac, Persian lilac Local name(s): Dwele (Luo), Mmelia/Mwarubaini nusu (Swa.), Lira (Lug., Lugb.). Botanical Description and Ecology: A small deciduous tree, reaching up to 5-6m in height, with a thin

trunk and spreading crown. Bark grey, smooth when young, rough and brown with age. Leaves compound

with 3-9 leaflets, narrow, wavy margins and pointed tips, hang in terminal bunches. Flowers small, fragrant,

pale lilac, in profuse rounded clusters, each with a dark purple staminal tube. Fruit yellow-orange berries,

fleshy, oval shaped, to 1.5 m in diameter. It grows in moist soils, both in acidic and saline, at altitude from

sea level to 2000 m. In East Africa it grows very fast on higher altitudes, particularly suitable for

reafforestation or where termite-resistant timber is needed for building.

Propagation methods: Fruit drop is limited, and ripe fruit clings to the branches for several months

even after the leaves have fallen. Propagation is by direct sowing or by planting out seedlings or stumps;

85% germination may be expected in 2 months.

Tree Management: Under optimal conditions, M. azedarach grows fast. It is generally deciduous, but

some forms in the humid tropics (e.g. in Malaysia and Tonga) are evergreen. Does not coppice well

68

from large stumps, but excellent coppice is obtained from trees up to a girth of 0.9 m. The tree resprouts

after cutting and regrows after pollarding, making it suitable for pole production.

Germplasm Management and Conservation: Seed storage behaviour is orthodox. Viability is

maintained for 1-3 years in hermetic storage at room temperature with 11-15 % mc. There are 470-2800

seeds/kg.

Domestication: This tree, well known as Persian lilac, is native to India but is now grown or introduced

in all the warmer parts of the world; in many of these places it is naturalized. It is widely planted in

Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia and Eritrea. It’s common on farms in warm high potential

areas where it is grown for medicinal use other purpose.

Challenges:

* Little use of its berries which are extremely poisonous to human beings, livestock and poultry if large

amounts are ingested.

* The species may become weedy in some countries though in Kenya it has not been a problem.

Way Forward

* Study on uses of the berries need to be undertaken and also create awareness to farms on the danger of

feeding animals with berries

* Study on the invasiveness of the species should be carried out.

Medicinal Uses: Infusion of powdered leaves, root and stem bark used to treat malaria and anthelmintic1,2,3.

oil from seeds to treat skin rashes and itching1. Leaves are used to cure infected wounds. Bark decoction is

used as a remedy for fever1, pains and aches in the body4.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: Melia azedarach contains several

compounds such as triterpenoids (amoorastatone)5, quinoids (1-8-dihydroxy-2-methyanthraquinone) in

stem bark6, and flavones (apigenin-5-O-β-D-galactoside) in the roots7. However the main anti-

plasmodial compounds are tetranoterpenoids (limonoids) such as Nimbolin8.

O

O

OH

O

AcO

AcO

OCn

Nimbolin

References: 1. Hamdard Publication (1959): Village Physician. Part 1, Dehli, India. Pp. 255-256.

2. Hirt, H.M. and M’Pia, B. (2001): Natural Medicine in Tropics. Anamed, Action for natural

medicine, Winnenden, Germany.

3. Dharani, N. (2007): Field Guide to Common Trees & Shrubs of East Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape

Town, South Africa. ISBN 978 1 86872 640 0.

4. Kokwaro, J.O. (1993): Medicinal plants of East Africa. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi. ISBN 9966-

44-190-5.

5. Nakatani, M. et al. (1998): Degraded limonoids from Melia azedarach. Phytochemistry. 49: 1773-1776.

6. Srivastava, S.K. and Mishra, M. (1985): New anthraquinone pigments from the stem bark of Melia

azedarach Linn. Indian J Chem., 7: 793-794.

7. Gupta, H.O. and Srivastava, S.K. (1985): Apigenin-5-O-galactoside from the roots of Melia azedarach,

Linn. Curr Sci., 54: 570-571.

8. Kraus, W., Bokel, M., Bruhn, A., Cramer, R., Ehhammer, BGutzeit.,H., Herr, B., Kauffmann-

Horlacher, I., Keller, U., Klingele, M., Schwinger, M., Thiele, S., Vogler, B., Zhou, Y., Soellner, R.,

Wendish, D., Steffens, R., Wachedorrf, U (1991): Constituents of Neem and other Meliaceae species

in the pest control . 17th Pacific Science Congress (Honolulu, H.I).

Ocotea usambarensis Engl. LAURACEAE

Indigenous Common name(s): Camphor tree, East African Camphor-wood

69

Local name(s): Muthaiti (Kik.), Muura (Mer.), Miseri/Muwong (Chag.), Muheti (Hehe), Msibisibi (Nyak.),

Mwiha (Ruki.).

70

Botanical Description and Ecology: A large, majestic, evergreen timber tree with a massive trunk, up to 3

m across, with spreading crown, mature trees may reach to 40 m in height. Young trees are green-grey with a

conical shape. Bark reddish brown, granular, scaly or flaky. Leaves are oval to rounded, up to 8 cm long.

Flowers separate male and female, small, greenish-white. Fruits very small, smooth and green, oval shaped

to 6 mm. It can grow in wet montane forest up to 2,600m of an altitude.

Propagation methods: Seeds are sensitive to desiccation and should be sown fresh. Pretreatment is not

necessary; under ideal conditions, seeds germinate in 30-45 days, and the expected germination rate of

mature, healthy and properly handled seeds is 45%. Regeneration by root suckers is also possible, as

stumps sucker easily.

Tree Management: The tree has a large, spreading crown, so should not be intercropped with light-

requiring crops. It does not otherwise interfere with crops. Rotation length is between 60 and 75 years.

Management Systems: Produces suckers after felling, which may be controlled by cutting the roots some

distance from the stump.

Germplasm Management and Conservation: Seed storage behaviour is recalcitrant, but seed can be

stored in containers with moist sawdust for a few days. On average, there are 15 000-20 000 seeds/kg.

O. usambarensis is endemic to East Africa and widely distributed from the eastern parts of the

Democratic Republic of Cong and Rwanda, throughout Eastern Africa to Northern parts of Malawi and

Zambia. It is more common in wetter forests. Once dominant in the wet forests of the eastern Aberdares

and Southern parts of Mt. Kenya, up to 2,600m alt. and also in Taita Hills, but now rare everywhere due

to over-exploitation. The Kenya government is putting more effort to enhance biodiversity conservation

by protecting all the wild populations (in-situ conservation) and encouraging farmers to plant it on

farms.

Domestication: Farms in high potential areas are growing O. usambarensis on farms mainly for timber

since it has very high quality timber. However most of the trees are growing naturally or from wildings.

This is observed from a study of tree diversity on farm conducted by Ard Lengkeek of ICRAF in 2001

around Mt. Kenya.

Challenges:

* Very little is known on the species growth rate or best propagation methods of this species.

* At the monument the species is one of the really treated species as there is also very few trees

remaining in the natural forests and almost none in the farms.

Way Forward:

* Selection of plus trees from the natural forest should be carried out and using planting materials from

these superior trees more should be introduced on farm.

* Improved propagation methods should be developed to speed-up growth and enable farms grow more

trees.

* Enforcement of conservation of the remaining natural forests should be implemented.

Medicinal Uses: Root infusion taken as a remedy for backache and also to treat malaria, whereas also

powdered bark is used as a dressing for wounds and to cure abscess1.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: Both organic and water extracts of

O. usambarensis is reported to exhibit anti-plasmodial activity2. The bark is rich in certain volatile

compounds like monoterpenoids (e.g. β-pinene) and sesquiterpenes (e.g. β-bisabolol)3. However none of

these compounds have been associated with the activity observed in this plant.

OH

β-Bisabolol References: 1. Kokwaro, J.O. (1993): Medicinal plants of East Africa. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi. ISBN 9966-

44-190-5.

71

72

2. Muthaura, C.N., Rukunga, G.M., Chhabra, S.C., Omar, S.A., A.N. Guantai, A.N., Gathirwa,

J.W . Tolo, F.M., P.G. Mwitari, P.G., Keter, L.K, P.G. Kirira, P.G .(2007): Antimalarial activity of

some plants traditionally used in Meru district of Kenya. Phytotherapy Research. 21 (9): 860 – 867.

3. Terreaux, C. et al. (1994): Analysis of the fungicidal constituents from the bark of Ocotea usambarensis

Engl. (Lauraceae). Phytochem Anal., 5: 233-238.

Olea europaea L. ssp. africana Mill. OLEACEAE

Indigenous Common name(s): African wild olive Local name(s): Muthata (Kam., Mer.), Mutamaiyu (Kik.), Ol-orien (Maa.), Tamiyai (Sam.),

Mlamuru/Msenefu (Chag.), Murama (Runyan.).

Botanical Description and Ecology: An evergreen tree to 15m in height, with rounded crown. Bark grey-

brown and rough, longitudinally fissured. Leaves stiff, narrowly oval and sharply pointed with prominent

midrib. Flowers small, white to cream. Fruit purple, fleshy, oval to 1 cm long. Widely distributed in dry

upland evergreen forest and on forest margins, often associated with Juniperus procera; at altitudes 750-

3000m above sea level.

Propagation methods: A large increase in germination is obtained by removing the endocarp; it

imposes a mechanical constraint to germination not a chemical one. Cracking with a hand vice or by

rolling a stone over seeds can cause the endocarp to break along or across the suture line, which bisects

it. By removing the endocarp germination is greatly enhanced, reaching up to 92% in seed stored for 18

months. Low temperature stratification does not appear to be necessary. Seedlings should not be

outplanted shortly after being fertilized. Cuttings root fairly easily. Rooting and the growth of new

leaves are strongly influenced by the nutrient status of parent plants and the application of rooting

hormone to the base of cuttings.

Tree Management: Unfertilized seedlings show drought tolerance whilst fertilized seedlings do not.

Fertilization with adequate watering results in greatly increased shoot growth but little change in root

growth. In summary, plants need adequate nutrition and water to grow, and irrigation or fertilizing plants

usually increases their growth where water or nutrients are deficient. Fertilization and irrigation need to

be carefully managed to ensure optimal growth is consistent with post-transplant survival.

73

Germplasm Management and Conservation: Seed storage behaviour is orthodox. Viability can be

maintained for several years in hermetic storage at 3 deg. C with 6-10% mc. The seeds can be stored at

dry room temperature for a few years. There are approximately 13 800 seeds/kg. Over-exploitation has

made it rare in Kenya but all remaining trees in natural forests are now protected.

Domestication: Few trees remaining in natural habitat but farmers are now planting on farms. No

improved propagation methods have been developed to speed-up growth rates. Only few trees are found

on farms though farmers wish to plant this species especially for its prime timber.

Challenges:

* Little is done to explore its medicinal value.

* The exploitation rate is too high so fast methods of propagation need to be developed.

Way Forward:

* Its medicinal potential need to be explored more.

* Improved propagation methods need to be developed.

Medicinal Uses: Root, bark or leaf decoction is used as remedy for malaria and fever1. Bark decoction helps

in healing of skin rashes and irritations; and also used as laxative and anthelmintic especially as a remedy for

tapeworms2.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: The organic extracts from the

leaves of O. europaea have been shown to exhibit significant anti-plasmodial activity3. The leaves

contain the triterpenes oleanolic acid and ursonic acid4,5. Leaves also consist of several other

secoiridoids terpenoids (such as oleuropein) and flavonoids6. Other compounds like lignans, africanol,

olivil and 8-hydroxypinoresinol derivatives have been isolated from the bark of Olea7. It is not clear

which of the compound or mixture of the compounds provides the activities reported.

CH3

CH3

COOH

H3C CH 3

CH3H3C

HO

HO

HO

O C

O

C OMe

O

OO

O

HOOH

OH

OH

1

3

45

6

7

8

910

1'

2'3' 4'

5' 6'

1''

2''3''

4''5''

6''

7'' 8''

Oleanolic acid Seco-iridoid ( oleuropein) References: 1. Beentje, H.J. (1994): Kenya Trees, Shrubs and Lianas. .National Museums of Kenya.

2. Dharani, N. (2007): Field Guide to Common Trees & Shrubs of East Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape

Town, South Africa. ISBN 978 1 86872 640 0.

3. Clarkson, C., Mahararaj., V.J., Cruch, N.R., Grace, O.M., Pillay, P., Matsabisa, G.M.,

Bhagwandin, N., Smith, P.J., Folb, P.I. (2004) In vitro anti-plasmodial activity of medicinal plants

native naturalized in South Africa. J. of ethnopharmaclogy, 92: 177-191.

4. Somova, L.I., et al. (2004): Cardiotonic and antidysrhythmic effects of oleanolic and ursonic acids,

methyl maslinate and uvaol. Phytomedicine, 11: 121-129.

5. Somova, L.I., et al. (2004): Antihypertensive, antiatherosclerotic and antioxidant activity of triterpenoids

isolated from Olea europaea, subspecies africana leaves. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 84: 299-305.

6. Bruneton, J. (1995): Pharmacognosy. Phytochemistry. Medicinal Plants. Intercept, Hampshire.

7. Hansen, K. et al. (1996): Isolation of an Angiotension Converting Enzymes (ACE) inhibitor from Olea

europaea and Olea lancea. Phytomedicine, 2 (4): 319-325.

Trichilia emetica Vahl. MELIACEAE

Indigenous Common name: Cape mahogany. Local name(s): Mururi (Kik.), Musambo (Kam.), Ochond-Rateng’ (Luo), Muwamaji (Swa. Ken.),

Mchengo/Mututu (Chag.), Mtengotengo (Lugu.), Sungute (Suk.), Mkungwina/Mtimaji (Swa. Tan.), Sekoba

(Lug.).

74

75

Botanical Description and Ecology: A large, evergreen tree, growing 15-30m in height, with dark hanging

foliage, pyramid shaped when young, rounded when old. Bark grey-red-brown, finely grooved, rough and

scaly with age. Leaves compound, brownish green to pale brown, with 3-5 pairs of leaflets, crowded towards

the ends of branches and twigs. Flowers in inconspicuous clusters, creamish-white, sweet scented. Fruit

round, furry, red-brown hairy capsules. Commonly found growing in riverine savanna, often by rivers. It

prefers well-drained, rich soils and high ground water. Found throughout East Africa at altitude from sea

level to 1800m.

Propagation methods: Well-prepared seed germinates within 10–20 days after sowing. One kg of fruit

contains about 250 g of seed; the weight of 1000 seeds is 1–2 kg. Seedlings can be planted out when 6–8

months old and initially require shade. They are best planted out under a stand of about 30 existing trees

per ha to provide shade. Recommended spacing in pure stands is 3 m × 3 m for fruit production. It can

also be planted at 6 m × 6 m in agroforestry systems. Propagation is possible from cuttings. Cuttings can

be taken from layered branches, roots or 1-year-old coppice shoots. They can be planted in the sun, but

preferably under some shade.

Tree Management: T. emetica is a fast-growing species; up to 1 m/year in colder areas and 2 m in

warmer areas. It should be planted in groups near water in shade or full sun. Not resistant to frost and is

therefore more suited to warmer areas, but can survive long periods of drought.

Germplasm Management and Conservation: Seed of Trichilia emetica is recalcitrant and cannot be

stored for longer periods. Seeds are perishable and should not be allowed to dry and should be sown as

soon as possible.

Domestication: Trichilia emetica is a fast-growing tree species. It is planted in groups or in lines or

scatted on farms for medicine and apiculture. T. emetica has been widely planted as a street or garden

tree, its ideal for car-parking areas as it never grows very high and has an evergreen, spreading crown.

No information is available of its introduction in other countries. Farms also leave this tree species on

farms for same purpose.

Challenges:

* Seeds have got short life span

* Lack of good propagation methods

Way Forward

* Develop good propagation methods, which will improve tree production on farms since this species is

a very suitable agroforestry species with high potential

Medicinal Uses: An infusion of the roots, stem bark and leaves used to cure malaria and acts as an emetic1,2.

A decoction of roots is taken as a remedy for colds, as a diuretic, or to induce labour in pregnant women1.

Bark, roots and leaves are used in remedy for intestinal complaints include indigestion and infestation by

parasites3.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: Several limonoids such as trichilin

A and dregeanin have been isolated from the seed oil of Trichilia species3,4,5. The root bark of Trichilia

emetica also contains trichilin3,4. The leaves of this plant showed anti-plasmodial activity against both

chloroquine-sensitive (Dd2) and chloroquine-resistant (3D7) strains of Plasmodium falciparum .6 The

observed anti-plasmodial activity could be attributed to limonoids such trichilin A. Limonoids are well

documented for anti-plasmodial activities.

O

OHAcO

AcO OH

OH

OO

OO

O

Trichilin A

References:

1. Kokwaro, J.O. (1993): Medicinal plants of East Africa. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi. ISBN 9966-

44-190-5.

2. Dharani, N. (2007): Field Guide to Common Trees & Shrubs of East Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape

Town, South Africa. ISBN 978 1 86872 640 0.

3. Van Wyk, B.E et al. (2000): Medicinal plants of South Africa. Bariza Publications, Pretoria - South

Africa. . ISBN 1 875093 09 5.

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4. Nakatani, M. et al. (1981): Isolation and structures of trichilins, antifeedants against the southern army

worm. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 103: 1228-1230.

5. Taylor, D.A.H. (1984): The chemistry of limonoids from Meliaceae. In: Herz, W. et al. (eds.), Progress in

Chemistry of Organic Natural Products. Springer-Verlag. New York. 45: 2-92.

6. El Tahir, A. et al. (1999): Antiplasmodial activity of selected Sudanese medicinal plants with emphasis

on Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell. Journal of ethnopharmacology. 64: 227–233.

Vernonia amygdalina Del. ASTERACEAE

Indigenous Common name: Bitter leaf vernonia Local name(s): Musuritsa (Luh.), Omororia/Olusia (Luo), Mtukutu (Swa.), Mululuza (Lug.),

Muuluza/Luluza (Lugi.), Labori (Luo A), Okelo-okelo (Luo L)

Botanical Description and Ecology: A woody shrub to 3m, sometimes a tree to 10 m with a wide bole and

brittle branches. Young stems hairy. Leaves alternate, oval-shaped , tapering both ends, 10-20cm long.

Flowers tiny, white-green-pink, in small heads, sweet scented in the evenings. Fruit small nutlets bristly

hairy. Widely distributed throughout tropical Africa. Commonly growing in wooded savanna and forest

edges, often left as dispersed trees in pasture land; wetter highlands from 1300-2300 m of an altitude.

Propagation methods: Propagated from seedlings and cuttings. Dry mature flower heads are harvested,

dried in the sun, crushed and seeds cleaned by winnowing. Seed germination rate is low. Seed does not

require any treatment before sowing. Do not store seeds, best to use fresh seeds.

Tree Management: A medium to fast growing tree suited to coppicing. Germplasm Management and Conservation: Dry mature flower heads are harvested, dried in the sun,

crushed and seeds cleaned by winnowing.There are 850,000 seeds/kg. Thie seeds have low germination

rate. No pretreatment is required. Seeds may be stored for a short time.

V. amygdalina is a threatened species in East Africa. In Western Kenya it is highly exploited due to its

use as a vegetable and also for medicnal purpose.

78

Domestication: V. amygdalina tree species is planted or preserved by farmers for medicinal purpose

and also as fuelwoods and, to a lesser extent, as yeasts for brewing beer, for fences and for a number of

other purposes. This species is also grown in a less intimate associations with crops (most tree growing

in woodlots), leading to highly diverse but low density Agro-forestry systems.

Challenges:

* V. amygdalina is one of the underutilized crops in East Africa.

* Weed control measures and policies often view weedy plants e.g. V. amygdalina as problem species

that interfere with agricultural productivity. This results in these plants being eradicated sometimes

indiscriminately without regard for their other economic importance.

Way Forward:

* These weed species therefore deserve to be considered as important plants when Kenyan government

is legislating problem plants species.

* Agro-biodiversity conservation strategies should include weedy species of medicinal value. The

medicinal weed species e.g. V. amygdalina need to be incorporated in agro-ecosystems in East Africa

region as domesticated plants or plants in the process of domestication.

* Further study of these plants especially phytochemical and pharmacological studies may contribute to

development of important pharmaceutical products in future

* Create more awareness on the potential of V. amygdalina

Medicinal Uses: Root bark or leaves decoction is used in treatment of malaria1. Vernonia also helps in

treatment dysentery, to give relieve from abdominal pain, and constipation1.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: Several sesquiterpenoids lactones

such as vernodalin2, also certain flavones, for example luteolin3, including vernonioside A-14 have been

isolated from the leaves of Vernonia species. Extracts from the leaves and root bark of Vernonia

amygdalina showed antimalarial activity5.

O

O

OO

O

HH

O

H

O H

Vernodalin

References: 1. Hirt, H.M. and M’Pia, B. (2001): Natural Medicine in Tropics. Anamed, Action for natural

medicine, Winnenden, Germany.

2. Ganjian, I. et al. (1983): Insect antifeedant elemanolide lactones from Vernonia amygdalina.

Phytochemistry, 22: 2525-2529.

3. Igile, G.O. et al. (1994): Flavonoids from Vernonia amygdalina and their antioxidant activities. J Agr

Food Chem., 42: 2445-1448.

4. Ohigashi, H. et al. (1991): Bitter principle and a related steroid glucoside from Vernonia amygdalina, a

possible medicinal plant for wild chimpanzees. Agr Biol Chem., 55: 1201-1203.

5. Abosi, A.O., Raseroka, B.H. (2003): In vivo antimalarial activity of Vernonia amygdalina. British. Journal of Biomedical Science. Vernonia lasiopus O.Hoffm. ASTERACEAE

Indigenous Common name: Common vernonia Local name(s): Muvatha (Kam.), Mucatha (Kik.), Olusia (Luo), Ol-euguru (Maa.).

Botanical Description and Ecology: Woody herb or semi-scandent shrub that reaches 1-3 m in height.

Bark greyish brown, smooth. Leaves oval-shaped, densely hairy. Flowers pale mauve or white, in heads, flat

or slightly rounded, 5-10 mm across. Found in disturbed areas, bushland, grasslandand riverine woodland or

forest; altitudes 1000-2500 m.

Propagation methods: Easily grown from seeds, wildings and cuttings.

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80

Shrub Management: Medium-Fast growing. It is considered as weed of cultivated and disturbed

grounds. This plant is a weed so farmers Trip the braches to control its spread and also uproot all other

small plants to create space for other crops

Germplasm Management and Conservation: The plant is a weed so seeds have no problem on

germination. No need of any pretreatment.

Common in fallow land, bushed grassland and forest edges and clearings and easily accessed, however

replant it on farms to avoid future extinction.

Domestication: Farmers get cuttings from the natural forest and plant on boundaries for use as fodder

and medicinal purposes. Farmers also leave the remnants on farms for various purposes, e.g. Medicinal,

fodder and also ripening bananas.

Challenges:

* Weed control measures and policies often view weedy plants e.g. V. lasiopus as problem species that

interfere with agricultural productivity. This results in these plants being eradicated sometimes

indiscriminately without regard for their other economic importance...

* V. lasiopus is one of the underutilized crops in East Africa

Way Forward:

* These weed species therefore deserve to be considered as important plants when Kenyan government

is legislating problem plants species.

* Agro-biodiversity conservation strategies should include weedy species of medicinal value. The

medicinal weed species e.g. V. lasiopus need to be incorporated in agro-ecosystems in East Africa

region as domesticated plants or plants in the process of domestication.

* Further study of these plants especially phytochemical and pharmacological studies may contribute to

development of important pharmaceutical products in future.

* Create more awareness on the potential of V. lasiopus.

Medicinal Uses: Powdered leaves infusion is used to cure indigestion, severe stomach-ache, malaria and

also acts as purgative1. Root decoction is said to be one of the most effective treatment for stomach-ache1.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: Methanolic extracts Vernonia

lasiopus showed significant antimalarial activity2. Dichloromethane extracts from Vernonia lasiopus

showed good antiplasmodial activity3. Two new elemanolides, epivernodalol and lasiopulide, were

isolated from alcoholic extract of the dried aerial parts of the Vernonia lasiopus. These elemanolides are

new C-10 epimers of the sesquiterpene lactones vernodalol and demethylacroylated vernodalol isolated

from other species of Vernonia4. The organic extracts of Vernonia lasiopus showed good antimalarial

activity5.

Epivernadol diacetate

References:

1. Kokwaro, J.O. (1993): Medicinal plants of East Africa. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi. ISBN 9966-

44-190-5.

2. Muregi, F.W., Ishih, K., Miyase, T., Suzuki,T., Kino, H., Amano, T., Mkoji, G.M., Terada, M.

(2007): Antimalarial activity of methanolic extracts from plants used in Kenyan ethnomedicine and

their interactions with chloroquine (CQ) against a CQ-tolerant rodent parasite, in mice . Journal of

Ethnopharmacology. 111, (1, 20): 190-195.

3. Irungu, B.N., Rukunga, G.M., Mungai, G.M., Muthaura. C.N. (2007): In vitro antiplasmodial and

cytotoxicity activities of 14 medicinal plants from Kenya. South African Journal of Botany. 73 (2): 204-

207.

4. J. L. Koul, S. Koul, C. Singh, S. C. Taneja, M. Shanmugavel, H. Kampasi, A. K. Saxena, G. N.

Qazi. (2003). In vitro cytotoxic elemanolides from Vernonia lasiopus. Planta Med., 69 (2): 164-166.

5. Muregi, F. W., Chhabra, S. C., Njagi, E. N. M., Lang'at-Thoruwa, C. C., Njue, W. M., Orago,

A. S. S., Omar, S. A., Ndiege, I. O. (2003): In vitro antiplasmodial activity of some plants used in

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Kisii, Kenya against malaria and their chloroquine potentiation effects. Journal of Ethnopharmacology.

84 (2-3): 235-239.

Warburgia ugandensis Sprague CANELLACEAE

Indigenous Common names: East African greenheart, Pepper-bark tree. Local name(s): Muthiga (Kik.), Moissot (Kip.), Sogo-maitha (Luo), Ol-sogunoi (Maa. Ken.), Muhiya

(Haya), Olmsogoni (Maa. Tan.), Msokonoi (Rang.), Mukuzanume/Muwiya (Lug.),

Botanical Description and Ecology: An evergreen tree to 25 m in height, with a dense leafy rounded

canopy. All parts of this tree have hot peppery taste. Bark rough, black-brown, cracked in rectangular scales.

Leaves shiny, dark-green above, to 10cm long. Flowers inconspicuous, greenish to cream. Fruit round to

egg-shaped, hard, 3-5 cm long, green, turning to black-purple on ripening. Widely distributed in the lower

montane rainforests and in the drier highland forest areas; also found in riverine forest and Acacia

xanthophloea woodland, from altitude 1000-2000m.

Propagation methods: Natural regeneration is primarily from seed, which germinates easily in natural

forests. Artificially, W. ugandensis can be regenerated from cuttings, seedlings and direct sowing.

Timing of the seed collection is important. Fruit that has fallen to the ground rots easily. The ripe fruit is

collected directly from the tree or shaken off the branches and collected from the ground. Pretreatment is

not necessary. Under ideal conditions, the seeds germinate within 15 days. The average germination rate

of mature, healthy and freshly sown seed is 70%.

Tree Management: Deserves wide planting as a shapely garden or park tree, but young plants can be

difficult to obtain. The bark is frequently removed for medicinal use, and care must be taken to avoid

tree mortality. A fairly slow-growing tree, but once established it is hardy and coppicing can be

practised.

Germplasm Management and Conservation: W. ugandensis is classified as recalcitrant; however,

with dry seed, viability can be maintained for 6 months at cool temperatures, storability is intermediate

between orthodox and recalcitrant. In the short term, seeds can be stored in moist sawdust at 3 deg. C.

83

Based on fruit structure, seed size and natural habitats, seed of this species may not be recalcitrant. More

investigation is needed. A purity of 98% can be achieved. On average, there are 10 000 seed/kg,

depending on the provenance and the climatic conditions of the ripening year.

To enhance biodiversity conservation, a deliberate effort has been geared towards conserving and

sustainable use of W. ugandensis both in-situ and ex-situ in Kenya. In South Africa, specifically Kwa-

Zulu Natal, the closely related species, W. salutaris, has been documented as scarce due to sourcing of

the material from the wild population for traditional medicine (Cunningham, 1990). W. salutaris has

been proclaimed a protected tree species in South Africa in terms of the National Forests Act (Act 84 of

1998).

Domestication: More people are growing W. ugandensis on their farms. The seeds take about 18 to 45

days to germinate and about 3 to 4 months for seedlings to be ready for planting in the field. Propagation

through tissue culture of the species has been successfully done at the Kenya Forestry Research Institute

(KEFRI) to support rapid multiplication of planting material. Through tissue culture, one explant is

likely to produce over 100 plantlets in four months (Ms Wahu, KEFRI, personal communication, May

2006). Although propagation of the species is on the rise, there was a need to rightly advise the

stakeholders on which provenance would be effective in both active ingredients and site conditions.

This species, commonly used by the traditional practitioners in Kenya, has gained a lot of popularity.

Some provenances are considered more effective than other provenances (Traditional practitioner,

personal communication). Similar observations of popularity of some provenances have been

highlighted in South Africa (Geldenhuys & Mitchell, 2006). The preference of some provenances over

others by the end users could be attributed to factors such as the environmental or genetic variation.

Challenges:

* Lack of research on the development of high-yielding varieties, domestication etc.

* Poor propagation methods.

* Inefficient processing techniques leading to low yields and poor quality products.

* Poor quality control procedures.

* High-energy losses during processing.

* Lack of current good manufacturing practices.

* Difficulties in marketing.

Way Forward:

* Further research to be done on W. ugandensis underlying genetic make-up of the species, best

propagation methods which can produce high-yielding varieties.

* Develop good storage methods to prolong seed life.

* Linking farmers with markets and creating awareness on the value of the species.

Medicinal Uses: A decoction of the bark or leaves is administrated as a cure for malaria (though it causes

violet vomiting)1. An infusion of bark and roots is taken as a cure for stomachache, toothache, malaria, colds

and general muscular pains1,2.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: The dichloromethane extract of the

stem bark of Warburgia ugandensis three coloratane sesquiterpenes were isolated 6,9-dihydroxy-

4(13),7-coloratadien-11,12-dial, 4(13),7-coloratadien-12,11-olide, and 7β-hydroxy-4(13),8-coloratadien-

11,12-olide3,4,5. Other sesquiterpenes isolated from Warburgia ugandensis include cinnamolide-3β-

acetate, muzigadial, muzigadiolide3, 11-hydroxymuzigadiolide, cinnamolide, 7-hydroxy-8-drimen-

11,12-olide, ugandensolide, mukaadial, ugandensidial , and linoleic acid. The bark is said to contain

various sesquiterpenoids such as muzigadial3,6, polygodial, warburganal, and mannitol4,6. Flavonol

glycosides have been reported from the leaves5. There is no antiplamodial work reported on Warburgia

ugandensis.

H

OO

HO H

H

Muzigadial References:

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85

1. Dharani, N. (2007): Field Guide to Common Trees & Shrubs of East Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape

Town, South Africa. ISBN 978 1 86872 640 0.

2. Kokwaro, J.O. (1993): Medicinal plants of East Africa. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi. ISBN 9966-

44-190-5.

3. Woube, A.A. et al. (2005): Sesquiterpenese from Warburgia ugandensis and their antimycobacterial

activity. Phytochemistry. 66: 2309-2315.

4. Watt, J. M. and Breyer-Brandwijk, M.G. (1962): The Medicinal and Poisonous plants of Southern and

Eastern Africa. 2nd edition. Livingstone, London.

5. Manguro, L.O.A. et al. (2003): Flavonol glycosides of Warburgia ugandensis leaves. Phytochemistry.

64: 891-896.

6. Abraham Abebe Wube, Franz Bucar, Simon Gibbons, Kaleab Asres. (2005). Sesquiterpenes from

Warburgia ugandensis and their antimycobacterial activity. Phytochemistry. 66 (19): 2309-2315.

Acacia mellifera (Vahl.) Benth MIMOSACEAE

Indigenous Common names: Hook-thorn, Wait-a-bit thorn Local name(s): Muthia (Kam.), Muthigira(Kik.), Eiti/Oiti (Maa.), Kilawata/Kikwata (Swa.), Mrugara

(Suk.), Mkambale (Gogo), Eregai (Ate.), Magokwe (Lugi.).

Botanical Description and Ecology: Usually a low shrub, sometimes up to 9m. Bark pale grey-brown,

smooth. Thorns distinctive, small to 6mm long, hooked prickles, in pairs, grey with black tips. Leaves only

2-3 pairs of blue-green leaflets, each to 2cm. Flowers white or creamy spikes to 4cm, attracting bees. Fruit

short and wide pods, tapering abruptly at both ends, flat, papery, pale brown-yellow, rarely to 8cm long with

prominent veins. A widely distributed acacia, widespread in all arid and semi-arid areas, may be dominant in

dry Acacia-Commiphora bushland. It thrives in a variety of soils including rocky, loam, volcanic and sandy.

It grows at altitude range from 300-1800m.

Propagation methods: Direct sowing of seeds is the common method of artificial propagation. Seed are

soaked in concentrated sulphuric acid for 5-15 min or in hot water, left overnight and planted the next

morning. Seeds usually germinate from the 5th day onwards. Due to its high rate of seeding, long

86

viability of seed and ability to overcome arid climates, profuse natural regeneration is generally

common.

Tree Management: Young trees are subject to heavy browsing by stock and game and must be

protected for the first two seasons. A. mellifera has a moderate growth rate of up to 500 mm/year. It does

not coppice well.

Germplasm Management and Conservation: Seed storage behaviour is orthodox; viability can be

maintained for several years in hermetic storage at 10 deg. C with 4.5-9% mc. There are approximately

20 000 seeds/kg. Not threatened

Domestication: Farms leave remnants of this tree on farms a few farmers are planting it on farms for

fuelwood, edible gum, fodder, medicinal and as hedge. No genetic improvement has been done. Challenges: * Slow in growth.

* Development of improved propagation methods.

Way Forward:

* Develop good propagation methods which can speed up growth.

* Create more awareness on the potential of the species, e.g. medicinal uses and timber.

Medicinal Uses: A decoction of the bark or leaves is administrated as a remedy for malaria, stomach

ailments and pneumonia1,2.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: Methanolic extract and lupane

triterpenes (betulin) isolated from the stem bark of Acacia mellifera, produced considerable antimalarial

activity in vivo3,4.

HH

OH

CH 2OH

H

H

H

H

Betulin References:

1. Dharani, N. (2006): Field Guide Acacias of East Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Pp.

110 - 113. ISBN 10 98765432 1.

2. Dharani, N. (2007): Field Guide to Common Trees & Shrubs of East Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape

Town, South Africa. . ISBN 978 1 86872 640 0.

3.Mutai, Charles; Rukunga, Geoffrey; Vagias, Constatinos & Roussis, Vassilios. (2008). In vivo

screening of antimalarial activity of Acacia mellifera (benth) (leguminosae) on plasmodium berghei in

mice. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines. 5 (1): 46-50.

4. Charles Mutai, Dennis Abatis, Constantinos Vagias, Dimitri Moreau, Christos Roussakis and

Vassilios Roussis. (2004). Cytotoxic lupane-type triterpenoids from Acacia mellifera Phytochemistry.

65 (8): 1159-1164.

Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hyne MIMOSACEAE

Indigenous Common names: White-thorn Local name(s): Kilaa/Moghaa (Kam.), Oltepesi/Olgorete (Maa.), Oldepesi/Olerai (Aru.), Mrimba (Chag.),

Mgunga (Suk.), Mgunga/Mugumba (Swa.), Eoi (Ete K.), Etirr (Ete T.).

Botanical Description and Ecology: Medium to large-sized tree, up to 20m, with conspicuously flattened,

spreading umbrella-shaped or sometimes rounded crown. Also sometimes grows as small shrub or bush.

Bark dark grey, longitudinally fissured. Thorns pairs of small hooked thorns, also pairs of long white thorns

to 8cm, sometimes mixed pairs. Leaves compound, with 6-20 pairs, narrow and pale blue-green. Flowers

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white to cream heads, fragrant. Fruit greenish yellow to yellow-brown pods, spirally twisted, sometimes in

rings. Widespread in semi-arid savanna on river terraces, dry river courses and hillsides. It favours the

altitudes of sea level to 1,600m.

Medicinal Uses: A bark decoction used as a treatment for malaria and stomach aches1,2. Some tribes use the

gum to make sweets which are given to women as a tonic after the childbirth1,2.

Propagation methods: For good seed germination, seeds should be treated with concentrated sulphuric

acid for 30 minutes (Roy et al, 1973). Artificial regeneration aiming at large-scale nursery production

requires full use of the germination capacity of the available seeds. This may be achieved by sulfuric

acid pretreatment, which brings about the germination of all viable seeds. Treatment with boiling water

is selective and mainly breaks the dormancy of bruchid-infested seeds, some of which are no longer able

to germinate. Sowing of unripe seeds without pretreatment may be called for as an emergency measure

in case of very severe infestation, to achieve at least partial success. Prior to storage, seeds should be

fumigated to arrest progressing deterioration of seed viability by bruchids (Karschon, 1975). NAS

(1980a) recommends dipping the seed in hot water to soak overnight. Seedlings require initial weeding

to facilitate faster growth. Plantations can be spaced at 3 x 3 m.

Tree Management: Initial integrated soil and water conservation measures help check mortality and

boost early growth and establishment of trees in very unfavourable conditions. The fast-growing tree

develops a long lateral root system and creates problems in marshy fields, paths and roadways. It grows

fairly well even on shallow soils less than 25 cm deep. However, the plant assumes shrubby growth and

must be widely spaced for the lateral root growth. It responds vigorously to felling by producing

numerous coppice shoots, provided there is no interference from browsing animals. Lopping of entire

branches does not seem to affect the vitality of the tree. Studies conducted on its nitrogen-fixing ability,

photosynthetic efficiency, seedling morphology and drought resistance have shown that it is relatively a

better species than Prosopsis juliflora. A tree 6-7 years old on average yields about 5-6 kg of clean

seeds. Planting is done in pits 60 cm deep dug at a spacing of 5 x 5 m and filled with weathered soil. If

raised as a windbreak, 3 rows are planted spaced at 9 x 10 m, and 50 gm/plant of ammonium sulphate is

applied at watering time. Plants grow to about 1.5 m in 2 years, should be protected from grazing and

mulching should be practised. 2 weedings in the 1st year and 1 in the 2nd year are considered sufficient.

Germplasm Management and Conservation: Seed storage behaviour is orthodox; viability can be

89

maintained for several years in hermetic storage at 10 deg. C with 4.5-9% mc. There are about 12 000-

25 000 seeds/kg.

Domestication: Five provenances of Acacia tortilis were established in Sudan as part of the

"International Series of Trials of Arid and Semi-Arid Zone Arboreal Species", a program coordinated by

FAO in collaboration with international and national partners, in which seed was collected and species

and provenance trials were established in a number of countries in arid and semi-arid areas in Africa,

Asia and South America.

Most of the Acacia tortilis are found in the natural forests but few farmers leave a few trees on farms for

use as fuelwood, timber and medicine. Very little is done to improve this species to encourage farmers

to grow it on farm however farmers are using it for fuelwood, timber, fodder and medicinal

Challenges:

* A. tortilis is one of the treatened tree species in East Africa due to overexploitation.

* Growth rate needs to be studied and tree improvement which can improve growth rate and may be

reduce thorns.

Way Forward: * Future efforts should start by planning for the conservation of A. tortilis since its one of the

endangered tree species and then implementation of conservational plans. This requires inter-country

collaboration especially in view of the uniqueness of the vulnerable dry land zone and that the important

and endangered species are shared in the dry land of East Africa.

* The National institutions or International institutions should provide improved seeds while

maintaining the genetic variability of the forest genetic resources for use in establishment of

conservation units

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: The bark and leaves of Acacia

species contains tannins; bark consists of benzenoids (eg catechol)3, alkanols (octacosan-1-ol)4 and

triterpenes (eg β-amyrin)5. There is no antiplamodial work reported on Acacia tortilis.

OH

β-amyrin References:

1. Dharani, N. (2006): Field Guide Acacias of East Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Pp.

110 - 113. ISBN 10 98765432 1.

2. Dharani, N. (2007): Field Guide to Common Trees & Shrubs of East Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape

Town, South Africa. . ISBN 978 1 86872 640 0.

3. Ayoub, S.M.H. (1984): Polyphenolic molluscicides from Acacia nilotica. Planta Med., 50: 532-.537.

4. Ayoub, S.M.H. (1985): Flavanol molluscicides from the Sudan acacias. Int J Crude Drug Res., 23: 87-90.

5. Saharia, G.S., Sharma, M. (1981): Chemical examination of Acacia senegal.Willd. Indian J For., 4: 63-

.67.

Zanthozylum chalybeum Engl. RUTACEAE

Indigenous Common names: Knobwood Local name(s): Mukenea/Mukanu (Kam.), Roko (Luo), Oloisuki (Maa.), Loisugi/Loisuki (Sam.), Mjafari

(Swa.), Entare/Yeirungo (Haya), Mulungu (Ran.), Eusuk (Ate.), Ntaleyedungu (Lug.), Roki (Luo A.).

Botanical Description and Ecology: A spiny deciduous shrub or tree to 8m height, with rounded open

crown. The bole has characteristic large, conical woody knobs with sharp prickles at their tips. Bark pale

grey, fissured. Leaves compound, with strong lemon smell if crushed, 6-9 pairs of shiny leaflets. Flowers

yellow-green, in short heads below leaves on new branchlets. Fruit red-brown-purple, like berries. Found in

dry woodland, bushland or grassland, often on termite mounds and in rocky areas, on the coast and also in

dry forest and closed thicket near the sea, at altitude range from 0-1800m.

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Propagation methods: Zanthoxylum seeds exhibit strong dormancy, which appears to be imposed by

the seed coat. Scarification with concentrated sulphuric acid has given fair germination results. Sowing

of seeds immediately after collection is recommended. Germination is epigeal. Propagation by root

cutting and suckers is practised.

Tree Management: Coppicing and pollarding are recommended. Germplasm Management and Conservation: There are approximately 30 000 seeds/kg. Domestication: Z. chalybeum produces seeds every second year thus needs to be conserved. It is heavily

coppiced by stem cutting and at the same time protected across the mountains, around homes and on

farms by the local communities leaving in areas where it grows e.g. Taita, West Pokot in Kenya.

Challenges:

* Little is done to improve the tree propagation or growth on farm

.* Its one of the underutilized species, yet threatened.

* Poor marketing of its products.

Way Forward:

* Study on improved propagation methods to be undertaken

* Ex-situ and in-situ conservation to be improved

* Develop market links for the medicinal products

Medicinal Uses: A decoction of leaves, bark and root is used against treatment of malaria and fever1. Bark

or root decoction also used as a cure for coughs, colds, chest pains and respiratory diseases such as asthma,

tuberculosis and sore throat1,2.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: Zanthoxylum chalybeum showed

strong antimalarial activity3. Z. usambarense and Z. chalybeum, contain similar alkaloids but colored

protoberberines were found only in Z. chalybeum4. Phytochemical investigations of Zanthoxylum

chalybeum (seed) yielded a pure crystalline alkaloid which was characterized as skimianine5,6.

N

OMe

OMe

MeO O

Skimmianine References: 1. Maundu, P.M. (1999): Traditional Food plants of Kenya. National Museums of Kenya, KENRIK. ISBN

9966-9861-4-6.

2. Kokwaro, J.O. (1993): Medicinal plants of East Africa. Kenya Literature Bureau, Nairobi. ISBN 9966-

44-190-5.

3. Gessler, M. C., Nkunya,., M. H. H., Mwasumbi, L. B., Heinrich, M., Tanner, M. (1994):

Screening Tanzanian medicinal plants for antimalarial activity. Acta Tropica., 56 (1): 65-77.

4. Kato, A., Moriyasu, M., Ichimaru, M., Nishiyama, Y., Juma, F.D., Nganga, J.N., Mathenge,

S.G., Ogeto, J.O. (1996): Isolation of Alkaloidal Constituents of Zanthoxylum usambarense and

Zanthoxylum chalybeum Using Ion-Pair HPLC. J. Nat. Prod., 59 (3): 316 -318.

5. Olila, D., Odyek, O., Opuda-A.J. (2001): Antibacterial and antifungal activities of extracts of

Zanthoxylum chalybeum and Warburgia ugandensis, Ugandan medicinal plants. Afr Health Sci., 1 (2):

66-72.

6. Chakravarty, A.K., Sarkar, T., Masuda, K., Shiojima, K. (1999): Carbazole alkaloids from roots

of Glycosmis arborea. Phytochemistry. 50 (7): 1263-1266.

Zanthozylum usambarense Engl. RUTACEAE

Indigenous Common names: Knobwood Local name(s): Muvuu/Muvulu (Kam.), Muguchua/Muheheti (Kik.), Roko (Luo), Oloisungi (Maa.),

Mugucua (Mer.).

Botanical Description and Ecology: A prickly, much-branched shrub or tree, usually 5-8m high,

occasionally up to 14m, often multi-stemmed and rather straggling, with spreading crown and dropping

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branches. Bark greyish brown, deeply fissured branchlets with straight or slightly upcurved dark red prickles.

Leaves compound, to 24cm long, with 5-16 leaflets, oval-shaped up to 5cm long. Flowers cream, small, in

much branched terminal heads, 10-15cm long. Fruit rounded, about 1cm across, paired, sharply tipped. It is

found in highland zones, especially in dry forest edges or its remnants such as secondary bushland or bushed

grassland. Common at about 1600 to 2600m of altitude.

Propagation methods: Z. usambarensis is propagated by use of seeds, which are raised to seedlings.

Wildings are also used to propagate this tree species.

Tree Management: Trees on farm are pruned to guide branches to control growth

Germplasm Management and conservation: Seeds are recalcitrant thus should be sown immediately.

No pre-treatment is required. This tree species is common and easily accessed in East and Central

African region

Domestication: Z. usambarensis is a valued forest tree growing naturally and planted in Western Kenya

in the farms for its timber and medicinal properties. Little is done on the improvement of the tree

propagation and speeding up growth rate on farm.

Challenges:

* Little is done to improve the tree propagation or growth.

* Poor marketing of its medicinal products.

Way Forward:

* Emphasis on domestication should be a priority, considering the marginal economic status and special

interest in plant resources of the communities surround the sites with this species.

* Government legislation regarding plants protection should be strengthened to control harvesting of

medicinal plants in the wild. Studies to validate safety and efficacy, assess harvesting sustainability and

wild status of Z. usambarensis is recommended to improve the health care system and strengthen

conservation abilities in East Africa.

Medicinal Uses: The leaves are used in soup as a treatment for colds and flu and an infusion of the bark is

used for coughs and rheumatic pains1. Leaves, bark and root decoction taken for the treatment of Malaria.

Active Compounds and their Antiplasmodial Activity Reported: The methanol and aqueous extracts

of Zanthoxylum usambarensis showed in vitro anti-plasmodial activity2. Bioassay-guided fractionation

of the dichloromethane extracts of the roots and the bark of Zanthoxylum usambarense led to the

isolation of two physiologically active compounds, i.e.canthin-6-one(fungicide) and pellitorine

(insecticide). Oxychelerythrine, orchelerythrine, sesamin and piperitol-3,3-dimethylallyl ether, were

isolated from this plant3. Piperitol-3,3-dimethylallyl ether, a lignan of the furofuran group was isolated

from Zanthoxylum4.

O

H

O

O

O

O

piperitol-3,3-dimethylallyl ether

References: 1. Noad, T. & Birnie, A. (1994): Trees of Kenya. Revised Edition. Pp. 261. ISBN 9966-848-95-9.

2. P.G. Kirira, G.M. Rukunga, A.W. Wanyonyi, F.M. Muregi, J.W. Gathirwa, C.N.

Muthaura, S.A. Omar, F. Tolo, G.M. Mungai, I.O. Ndiege. (2006). Anti-plasmodial activity

and toxicity of extracts of plants used in traditional malaria therapy in Meru and Kilifi Districts

of Kenya. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 106 (3): 403-407.

3. Weidong He, Luc Van Puyvelde, Norbert De Kimpe, Luc Verbruggen, Kristel Anthonissen,

Mark Van der Flaas, Jan Bosselaers, Simon G. Mathenge, Francis P. Mudida. (2002).

Chemical constituents and biological activities of Zanthoxylum usambarense. Phytotherapy

Research. 16 (1): 66 – 70.

4. Francesco Epifano, Salvatore Genovese, Luigi Menghini, Massimo Curini. (2007).

Chemistry and pharmacology of oxyprenylated secondary plant metabolites. Phytochemistry. 68

(7): 939-953.

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SCIENTIFIC NAMES INDEX

Acacia mellifera (Vahl.) Benth ----PAGE NO.?

Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hyne

Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boiv.

Albizia gummifera C.A.Sm.

Artemisia annua

Azadirachta indica Linn.

Balanites aegyptica (L.) Del.

Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl.

Cassia abbreviata Oliv.

Cassia occidentalis L.

Ekebergia capensis Sparrm.

Erythrina abyssinica DC.

Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv.

Melia azedarach L.

Ocotea usambarensis Engl.

Olea europaea L. ssp. africana Mill.

Trichilia emetica Vahl.

Vernonia amygdalina Del.

Vernonia lasiopus O.Hoffm.

Warburgia ugandensis Sprague

Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl.

Zanthoxylum usambarensis Engl.

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COMMON NAMES INDEX

African wild olive ----PAGE NO.?

Bitter albizia

Bitter eaf vernonia

Camphor tree

Cape mahogany

Common vernonia

Deset date

Dog plum

East African camphor-wood

East African greenheart

Ekebergia

Flam tree

Hook-thorn

Indian lilac

Knob wood

Long pod cassia

Lucky bean tree

Natal plum

Neem

Peacock flower

Pepper-bark tree

Persian lilac

Red hot poker tree

Simple-spined carissa

Stinking weed

Sweet annie

Sweet wormwood

Teldet

Wait-a-bit thorn

White-thorn

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Abbreviations of Local Names Abbreviation Language Country

Aru Arusha Tanzania

Ate Ateso Uganda

Ate-T Ateso, Tororo Uganda

Chag Chagga Tanzania

Gogo Gogo Tanzania

Haya Haya Tanzania

Hehe Hehe Tanzania

Kam Kamba Kenya

Kik Kikuyu Kenya

Kip Kipsigis Kenya

Lug Luganda Uganda

Lugb Lugbara Uganda

Lugi Lugishu Uganda

Lugu Luguru Tanzania

Luh Luhya Kenya

Luny Lunyoro Uganda

Luo Luo Kenya

Luo-A Luo, Acholi Uganda

Luo-L Luo, Lango Uganda

Luo-Ugan Luo Uganda

Maa Maasai Kenya/Tanzania

Maa-Tan Maasai Tanzania

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Abbreviation Language Country

Maa-Ken Maasai Kenya

Mer Meru Kenya/Tanzania

Nan Nandi Kenya

Nyak Nyakyusa Tanzania

Nyam Nyamwezi Tanzania

Nyir Nyiramba Tanzania

Ran Rangi Tanzania

Ruki Rukiga Uganda

Runy Runyoro Uganda

Runyan Runyankore Uganda

Ruto Rutoro Uganda

Sam Samburu Kenya

Samb Sambaa Tanzania

Seb Sebei Uganda

Som Somali Kenya

Suk Sukuma Tanzania

Swa Swahili Kenya/Tanzania

Swa-Ken Swahili Kenya

Swa-Tan Swahili Tanzania

Tai Taita Kenya

Tug Tugen Kenya

Tur Turkana Kenya

Zin Zinza Tanzania

The World Agroforestry Centre is an autonomous, non-profit research organization whose vision is a

rural transformation in the developing world resulting in a massive increase in the use of trees in rural

landscape by smallholder households for improved food security, nutrition, income, health, shelter,

energy and environmental sustainability. The Centre generates science-based knowledge about diverse

role that trees play in agricultural landscapes, and uses its research to advance policies and practices that

benefit the poor and the environment.

We are one of the 15 centres of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research

(CGIAR).

We receive our funding from over 50 different governments, private foundations, international

ornizations and regional development banks. Our current top ten donors are Canada, the European

Union, the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway,

Sweden, the United Kingdom, the United States of America and the World Bank.

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KEMRI LOGO----?

KENYA MEDICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE The Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) was established in 1979 under the Science and

Technology (Amendment) Act of that year to represent the national body responsible for carrying out

health science research in Kenya. Prior to the establishment of KEMRI, health research in Kenya was

conducted under the aispices of East Africa Medical Research Council which had been established in

1957 to serve the countries in the East African community. Following the break up of the East African

community in 1977, the Kenyan parliament passed the Science and Technology Act of 1977 and

amended it in 1979 to provide for establishment of research institutes. Since then KEMRI has been

conducting biomedical research in Kenya and serves as a centre of excellence for health research in

Africa. It also woprks closely with the Kenyan Ministry of Health and various national councils and

committees on issues of research policy and priorities.

The institute accomplishes its mandate through research centres which are created by the board of

management. These centres are intended to focus on certain specific areas of national and /or strategic

importance, and each of these centres of excellence is expected to emphasize and articulate the

respective areas in which it has been given mandate by the board to do research. The board may, may in

conformity with the national objectives, may reorganize the structures of these centres as it may deem

appropriate. The centre that conducts research on herbal medicines is the Centre for Traditional

Medicine and Drug Research (CTMDR). Under the current leadership od Dr. Geoffrey Rukunga, the

centre has the following research mandates:

i) Traditional medicines: Rationalization of traditional medicine in collaboration with

traditional healers, evaluation of plant drug using medicinal phytochemistry, pharmacology

and toxicology; Formulation of herbal remedies; antischistozomal agents of plant origin

ii) Sociocultural and anthropological aspects of traditional medicine

iii) Drugs: Experimental pharmacology and toxicology, biopharmaceutics and relevant

pharmacokinetics; clinical trials

iv) Agents for control and management of HIV/AID/STI

v) Quality assurance of drugs; quality control and surveillance

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CONTACT INFORMATION

Kenya Medical Research Institute

P. O. Box 54840, 00200

Tel + 254 20 722541

Fax + 254 20 720030

Nairobi, Kenya

Email: director@kemri.org

PROFILE OF THE AUTHORS

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