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J. Turner 1
Jack Turner COMM 635
Prof. HopsonMarch 2, 2010
COMM 635 MID TERM
2. Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods.
Taylor and Trujillo describe qualitative research as broad, difficult to define conclusively,
and continually emerging (2001, p. 161-162). For example, conversation analysis in qualitative
research about organizational communication has evolved from ethnomethodology (Garfinkel,
1972). Taylor and Trujillo concentrate on qualitative research methods, which help to clarify
how qualitative researchers ask research questions and how they answer them. Qualitative
methods include cultural studies of organizations, ethnographic studies, feminist viewpoints, and
critical theory. Qualitative methods usually involve more of a subjective, personal relationship
between the researcher and the population being researched.
Putnam& Fairhurst (2001, p. 79) offer a critical theory of organizational discourse, where
organizational discourse suppresses marginalized voices through hegemony, hidden and/or subtlecontrol, and ideology. They discuss the deconstruction and disassembling of organizational texts
by examining them for privilege and concealment of words and antinomies. By defining
falsehoods and contradictions in the texts, critical research helps communication scholars
understand how these strategies promote and sustain power for the elite groups that control the
organizational discourse (Derrida, 1982).
Forbes (2007) uses personal interviews and interpretive thematic analysis to present an African-
American feminist theory viewpoint of African-American women in management positions.
Forbes use of qualitative methods gives voice to the African-American women she interviews.
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Forbes privileges female African-Americans lived experience as primary basis for
understanding their communication strategies and point of view in organizations
While qualitative methods can expose power asymmetries in language and organizational
discourse, it also may create a myopic view of organizational processes that are not necessarily
universal to the organization. Qualitative researchers must be careful about getting too close to
the participants in their research, and continue to observe macro-level issues in the organization.
Taylor and Trujillo (2001) note that combining qualitative methods with quantitative methods
can benefit research by producing rich, but controlled, data that reflects more of the total
communication patterns in an organization.Katherine Miller (2001) says quantitative research methods are rooted in the logical
positivist philosophy of science (Hempel, 1900). Pre- World War Two scholars believed that
total objectivity could be achieved through the scientific method. Quantitative research methods
reflect natural science methods and usually involve objective, impersonal relationships between
the researcher and the population being researched. All theory must be translatable to observable
events or experiences, a characteristic called operationalism. Miller (2001) says that over time,
the constriction of logical positivism became apparent to scholars, so academics defined
operationalism and generalizability as applying more homogenously to other similar studies
instead of applying universally.
Generalizability is now subject to limitations bounded by rules of external validity and
reliability. Quantitative methods are highly concerned with measurement, so that variables under
study can be compared for significant relationships and correlations. External validity refers to
how well the methods of a research study compare to other studies of similar or same
characteristics and content. Reliability refers to how well the measuring instrument (often a
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questionnaire or survey) and statistical procedures actually measure the variables under
investigation. (Miller, 2001)
Deetz notes how Sutton and Staw (1995) find certain shortcomings in quantitative
research. Sutton and Staw (1995) have demonstrated that a lack of theory and theory testing is
often found in quantitative research that uses references, data, variables, diagrams, and
hypotheses to hide the absence of a theoretical basis in the work (Deetz, 2001, p. 20). I found
another drawback in a health communication experiment I performed that exposed participants to
a graphic fear appeal poster promoting HIV/AIDS awareness. One participant later commented
that the poster photos really scared her. The quantitative, Likert scale questionnaire that I usedfor an instrument did not fully measure individual emotional responses in this way. Further, a
pre-test using qualitative methods may have identified more effective language and visual
images and strengthened the validity and reliability of the poster experiment.
3. Context.
Putnam and Fairhurst define context from a linguistic analysis perspective. In this view,
the key characteristics of context include organizational events, history, and parameters (like
place and level of formality) that shape the meaning and understanding of texts. These factors
create a set of structural discourse patterns inscribed in organizations (Putnam & Fairhurst,
2001, p. 80). Putnam and Fairhurst also note the term intertextuality , a point where
organizational discourse, texts, and institutional context intersect to create meanings unique to an
organizations culture and communication patterns.
Context comprises characteristics surrounding and associated with organizational
communication and gives a basis for perceived appropriateness, acceptable speech behavior and
textual communication (context of media, entertainment, information exchange, and so on).
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Putnam and Fairhurst (2001) describe pragmatics as a study of language that is particularly
interested in contextual factors. Meaning is central to pragmatics, but context, agency, and the
relationships of actors are seen as important factors in deriving meaning from messages sent and
received. Action is motivated by working out the dialectic tension between what is said and
what is meant (Putnam & Fairhurst, 2001, p. 89) with consideration of context and relationship.
In the following table, I demonstrate the importance and affect of context on meaning
and perception. One seven-word statement about women taking male dominated jobs generates
twenty contextual factors involving gender, power, history, time, socio-economic status, and so
on. Considering the viewpoint described by Putnam and Fairhurst (2001), context has asignificant effect on shaping meaning, and controlling and/or being controlled by politics,
gender, organizational culture, and so on. I could not find anything about the relationship of
power to context, but it seems reasonable to assume that whoever holds power over
organizational discourse can at least manipulate context in the way it is perceived by less
powerful organization members. (See Table 1, next page)
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Deconstructing A Statement For Contextual Factors
Women 1 are 2 taking 3 historically 4 male 5-dominated 6 jobs. 7
Word Context
Women 1, male 5 Gender/Roles/Behavior
are 2 Time (present)
taking 3 Power/Control/Agency
historically4
Change from Past to Presentdominated 6 Power/Control/Hegemony
jobs. 7 Socio-Economic/Expertise
Additional Contextual Factors
Associated Fact Refers To
Who made the statement? Voice/Status/Power/Gender
Who heard it? Status/Space/Gaze/Face/Gender
When and where was it made? Time/History/Place/space
How was it made? Voice/Tone/Emotion
Table 1. Turner, J. (2010)
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C. Addressing sexual assault and/or harassment with a mixed methods/triangulation study
(Albrecht & Ropp, 1982: Faules, 1982; Flick, 1992. Cited by Taylor & Trujillo, 2001,
p. 166.)
Clearly demonstrating specific differences in the way males and females describe and
respond to words, language, and behaviors associated with sexual assault and/or harassment may
create a unique and powerful teaching/training tool for the Sexual Assault Services Office. A
mixed methods approach, using qualitative research in the first stage and quantitative methods
for the second, could provide rich data controlled for validity and reliability. Differences
between female and male students attitudes and towards key words, language, behavior, andthemes regarding sexual harassment and sexual assault could be predicted and results measured
to verify or nullify a hypothesis.
I believe the approach I am suggested centers on critical communication theory and
feminist theory. This approach considers male viewpoints to be dominant in the organizational
discourse at George Mason University as a basis for researching sexual harassment and sexual
assault issues. The quantitative methods used would be a basic research question-hypothesis-data
collection-data measurement process.
A suggested hypothesis would be simply that female students will experience and
perceive key words, language, and behaviors derived from interviews differently than male
students. Further, female students will experience more extreme emotional states compared to
male students in regards to words , language, and behaviors that signify or are associated with
sexual harassment and sexual assault. As qualitative methods include emergent themes, the list
of terms and situations associated with sexual harassment and/or assault could change before
quantitative methods are employed.
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The first stage of this research would be interviews with randomly selected female
students, a nod to the quantitative methods. These interviews would include a series of questions
about words, language, and behaviors that female students associate with sexual harassment and
sexual assault from their own life experience and from discourse with other female students.
Open-ended questions (Is there anything you would like to add?, and so on) would
accommodate different language and behavioral experiences and cultural points of view. Male
students would be asked the same questions, also accommodating for emergent themes or
questions.
The second stage would involve using quantitative methods to measure for significantsimilarities/dissimilarities between male and female beliefs and attitudes (there are scales and
questionnaires for this that I havent had time to research). In particular, the male students could
be given the list of words, language, and behaviors defined by female students as indicative of
sexual harassment and sexual assault. Male students could be asked to identify which definitions
of sexual harassment and sexual assault, and associated words, language, and behavior agree
with their own definitions. The hypothesis would predict significant differences in perceptions
and beliefs between female and male students.
If the hypothesis for this study is verified by data collected and measured, it could serve
as a training tool for both male and female students. A verified hypothesis would suggest that
male and female students need to find a more equitable definition of sexual harassment and
sexual assault. If this could be achieved by changing the dominant discourse over time, it would
demonstrate the strength of communication research in dealing with sexual assault issues. The
next page shows an example of interview questions for the suggested study.
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Questions for Female and Male Students Related to Sexual Harassment and Sexual Assault
1. What happens that is called sexual assault or harassment?
2. Where does it happen most often? Describe places.
Does it happen in public areas on campus? Does it happen in class, in hallways to
classrooms, at sports events or other public events? Private areas like dorm rooms or in a
residence? During the day/night?
3. How often would you say consumption of alcohol is associated with sexual
assault/harassment? Drugs?4. Have you witnessed sex harassment of someone else? Have you experienced sexual
harassment? Sexual assault?
5. Who does it happen to, who does it?
6. Any behavior or communication prior to sexual assault or harassment that you can name /
define/describe?
7. What words ,language, nonverbal behavior do you associate with sexual assault or sexual
harassment. Specific examples?
8. Would you describe the words, language , and behavior as extreme/intense, weak/mild, not
disturbing, disturbing, annoying, funny, charming, frightening, suspicious, aggressive/passive,
dangerous?
9. Do you know anybody that has been sexually assaulted and/or harassed?
J. Turner, 2010
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References
Cameron, K.S., Dutton, J.E., & Quinn, R.E. (Eds.). (2003). Positive Organizational
Scholarship . San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Cited by Llutgen-Sandvik, P.& Sypher,
B.D.(2009).
Deetz, S. (2001). Conceptual foundations. In The New Handbook of Organizational
Communication: Advances in Theory, Research, and Methods , F.M. Jablin & L.L.
Putman (Eds.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications,19-22.
Derrida, J. (1982). Margins of Philosophy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Cited by
Putnam, L.,L. & Fairhurst, G.T. (2001).Forbes, D.B. (2007). African-American women in authority, an oxymoron? Exploring
resistance in the organizational experiences of African-American women
managers. In International and Intercultural Communication Annual, Vol. XXX.
B.J. Allen, L.A Flores, M.P. Orbe (Eds.), 83-115.
Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in Ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Cited
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Hempel, C. (1966). Philosophy of Natural Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Cited
by Miller, K. (2001).
Llutgen-Sandvik, P.& Sypher, B.D.(2009). Introduction. In Destructive Organizational
Communication: Processes, consequences, and constructive ways of organizing .
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Miller, K. (2001). Quantitative research methods. In The New Handbook of Organizational
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Putman (Eds.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 137-160.
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Putnam, L.,L. & Fairhurst, G.T. (2001). Discourse analysis in organizations: Issues and
Concerns. In The New Handbook of Organizational Communication: Advances in
Theory, Research, and Methods , F.M. Jablin & L.L. Putman (Eds.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications , 78-136.
Sutton, R. & Staw, B. (1995). What theory is not. Administrative Science Quarterly , 40, 371-
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Taylor & Trujillo (2001). Qualitative research methods. In The New Handbook of
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Communication: Advances in Theory, Research, and Methods , F.M. Jablin & L.L.Putman (Eds.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 161-194.
Waldron, (2009). Emotional tyranny at work: Suppressing the moral emotions. In Destructive
Organizational Communication: Processes, consequences, and constructive ways of
organizing , P. Llutgen-Sandvik & B.D. Sypher (Eds.). New York: Routledge, 9-26.