coming soon to a live theater near you: performing arts trailers as paratexts

Coming soon to a live theater near you:performing arts trailers as paratextsStephen Bruce Preece*School of Business and Economics, Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada

� Dramatic changes in technology present not-for-profit performing arts organizations

with both opportunities and challenges for engaging and attracting audiences. With

its emphasis on deep engagement with a select group of users, the Internet ‘‘long tail’’

presents a natural application for this sector; however, performing arts groups must

grapple with developing the most optimal web-based content for their particular

organizational needs. This paper analyzes the use of web-based video offerings used

currently by professional symphony orchestras in the United States and Canada. One

third of observed websites included video of some kind (including a wide-array of

content), while roughly half of that number focused on promoting concerts scheduled

for the future. An even smaller number have embraced the practice of presenting

performing arts previews (after the longstanding tradition within the film industry)

as a purposeful kind of paratext, including representational elements of the work, the

performers, and the overall concert context. A conceptual frame of video types is

presented and discussed, with particular attention to the preview format. The

research on film previews as an analogous vehicle is evaluated including the

tradition of telling the incomplete story, while also promoting the movie. The research

on paratexts in relation to books, theatre programs, and film trailers is reviewed and

the case is made for web-based performing arts previews as an emergent genre within

the paratext conceptual frame. Specific video examples currently in use illustrate

theory and concepts presented in the paper.

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The whole program is centered around

the Rachmaninoff Piano Concerto No.

3. . .[which is] about as far as you can push

the boundaries before what we think of as

rational thought starts to give way [amischievous twinkle in St. Louis Symphonyconductor David Robertson’s eye].

Rachmaninoff was a very tall man—he had huge hands. So what he could

physically do at the piano was how he wrote

his music. So now pianists come along who

have to deal with the equipment with which

they were given [grins the boyishly-handsomecellist Bjorn Ranheim], and somehow make

their way around this piece.You need a pianist like Yefim Bronfman—

who we affectionately call Fima—to play it

properly [Conductor Robertson], because you

International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector MarketingInt. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark. 16: 23–35 (2011)Published online 27 June 2010 in Wiley Online Library(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/nvsm.392

*Correspondence to: Stephen Bruce Preece, School ofBusiness and Economics, Wilfrid Laurier University, 75University Ave., Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3C5, CanadaE-mail: [email protected]

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., February 2011

DOI: 10.1002/nvsm

need an unbelievable amount of technique so

that you’re not confronted with the sheer

difficulty of the piece which is enormous. But

the great thing about Fima Bronfman is that

there isn’t anything he can’t play.—Opening video sequence: Sneak Peek 1,

Opening Weekend 2008 (Saint Louis Symph-ony Website, 2008)

Introduction

Rapidly evolving technological advances havebrought about unprecedented challenges—and opportunities—for those working in thenot-for-profit arts and culture sectors (Hartley,2004). Arguably, the performing arts are anideal candidate for the Internet ‘‘long tail’’(Kluger, 2007), with its emphasis on a narrowbut deep audience engagement availablethrough web delivery. The proportion of thepopulation attending the not-for-profit arts hasnever been large (Seaman, 2005), though thosethat do participate, tend to respond to ameaningful sense of engagement (Boyle,2006). As such, promotion can potentiallyshift from wide and thin (e.g., newspaper ad),to narrow and deep (e.g., web-based appli-cations), resulting in a much more directcommunication and an enhanced sense ofrelationship (Conway and Whitelock, 2007).With direct access to audience viewers, thequestion naturally emerges, what is the mostappropriate web-based content to utilize?Attention is directed to the relatively recent

practice of incorporating video streaming intodedicated websites as a means of supportingand promoting the performing arts. To exploreconcrete examples of current practice, web-video applications used by symphony orches-tras in the United States and Canada areobserved and analyzed1. Arguably a functionof the technology’s relative newness, there isstill a widespread lack of video use amongthese organizations; and for those that haveembraced it, substantial heterogeneity. While

most of the video clips presented on orchestrawebsites are easily discernable segments withrelatively straightforward intent, a new form oftrailer or preview has emerged (albeit with avery small number of organizations), which hasconceptual interest given its similarity to thelongstanding practice within the motionpicture industry. This development is particu-larly intriguing when considered within thetheoretical tradition of paratexts—a framewhich has guided understanding of otheraesthetic offerings such as books, movies,television, and theatre.

Against the backdrop of a plethora of web-delivered video offerings, the purpose of thispaper is to consider the use of performing artstrailers as a form of paratext. While thepractice is too recent to develop an empiricalevaluation of its effectiveness, a conceptualargument for web-delivered trailers can bedrawn based on their kinship with movietrailers, and their potential placement withinthe practice of other forms of performing artsparatexts (e.g., theatre programs).

Paratexts

While performing arts websites are essentiallyubiquitous, their variations in style and formvary substantially. The simplest replicate infor-mation from the season brochure, while themore sophisticated include functions such asticketing, online donations, volunteer manage-ment, and outreach. A small number arerecognizing the potential for video technologyto enhance and expand their available tools ofcommunication. During November and Decem-ber 2008, an analysis of the 95 websites forprofessional symphony orchestras in the UnitedStates and Canada was conducted to assess theirutilization of dedicated video technology2. Closeto one third (33) had some form of videopresentation (including a wide variety of clipsfrom a number of eclectic sources), while less

1While insights from this paper should be limited tosymphony orchestra organizations in North America,broader relevance (i.e., art forms, geographies) is con-ceivable, with appropriate adaptation to the necessarycontext and unique characteristics.

2The sample was derived from Drew McManus’Adaptistration Blog which includes the AnnualReview of Symphony Orchestra Websites: http://www.adaptistration.com/


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24 Stephen Bruce Preece

than half that number (15) were profilinginformation on specific upcoming perform-ances. An even smaller handful was producinga kind of performing arts preview or trailer withcarefully crafted images, sound, and pro-motional intent. Given their kinship to thelongstanding practice with motion pictures, thislast group provides particular conceptual inter-est as an emerging type of paratext within thecontext of the performing arts.Paratexts have their roots with the written

word. Drawing from the seminal work byGenette (1987), paratexts include all thoseelements surrounding the actual words or textof a book. Some are physically appended to thetext itself (i.e., introduction, preface, dedica-tions), while others are more embedded (i.e.,typeface, paper quality, author’s name). Para-texts also include elements focused on thebook, but found apart from its physical form,such as reviews, author interviews, or maga-zine ads.Paratexts function as ‘‘thresholds of

interpretation’’ (Genette, 1987) and serve topresent the text to the public. A kind of mid-space between the text and what is beyond,they inevitably perform a persuasive function,inviting those on the outside to take part inwhat the text makes available—in essence avestibule where the participant can either stepinside, or turn away. Paratexts also have theability to influence the quality of the experi-ence—framing it or setting it up—with theintent of enhancing its reception, and poten-tially facilitating a ‘‘more pertinent reading ofit’’ (Genette, 1987: 2).The notion of paratexts has also extended to

other aesthetic domains such as the performingarts. Harbeck (1998) and Carlson (1993)examine the qualities and impact of theatricalplaybills or programs drawing on a paratextconceptual frame. Perused by audiences inadvance of a performance, programs help toestablish meaning and set up the play in a waythat shapes or enhances the viewing experi-ence. Fodstad (2006) analyzes variations intheatre programs for multiple performances ofone particular play (Ibsen’s A Doll’s House),noting a wide range of visual and textual

representations, including artwork, poetry,political commentary, satire, and social state-ments. Presented in a variety of shapes, sizes,and formats, Fodstad evaluates these variationsthrough a paratextual lens, noting substantialvariety in the interpretive messages used toshape audience reception and understandingover time; these important ‘‘thresholds ofinterpretation’’ were instrumental in guidingthe audience into the performance—eachdifferent in their own way—well beyondproviding credits and the synopsis of the play.Beyond the application to books and

theatre, the concept of paratexts has beenapplied to other aesthetic domains such astelevision (Stanitzek, 2005), and more exten-sively, motion pictures (Kernan, 2004)—inparticular movie trailers (see next section). Inaesthetic contexts, the role of paratexts, whileoften serving a traditional marketing function(Venkatesh andMeamber, 2006), also include asubstantial impact on the overall culturalexperience (i.e., a proposal of how it can beunderstood, interpreted, and received).Easy access to relatively high-quality video

production and web distribution capabilitiesplaces this media mechanism within reach ofeven the leanest of performing arts organiz-ations. While television and video transmissionwere historically cost prohibitive, performingarts groups now have the opportunity topresent video previews of coming attractionsto new or existing audiences. Early adopterssuggest the potential for a new form ofparatext in the performing arts. Prior toconsidering these developments, a discussionof film previews (which have a much longerand well-entrenched tradition) can be useful,given their potentially analogous forms andpurposes.

Film previews3

Zanger (1998) identifies the dual nature oftrailers in both providing information about, aswell as promoting, a particular film. Trailerssimultaneously tell and hold back the story—

3The terms trailer and preview are used interchangeably.


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Performing arts trailers as paratexts 25

typically utilizing scene clips, music, andnarration. Medhurst (1998) refers to this dualprocess as ‘‘the big tease’’ focusing on theoverriding method of enticement. Kernanargues that the trailer genre both ‘‘sells andtells a reconfigured version of a film narrative’’(2004: 2), and is one that neither advertisingnor narrative film theories can adequatelyaddress alone. The overall intent for filmtrailers is to create a feeling of nostalgia foran unseen film, which thereby serves tomotivate future film attendance. The powerto influence action is confirmed in Faber andO’Ginn’s (1984) findings that trailers outweighother media and interpersonal referenceswhen making choices about what movies tosee.Movie trailers are typically 1–3 minutes in

length and have traditionally been viewed intheatres prior to full-length features, but arenow becoming commonplace on the web(Johnston, 2008). Movie trailers vary substan-tially from film to film, though Kernan broadlygroups trailer content into genres, stories, andstars (2004: 5). Previews weave these threeelements together playing into audiencedesire, not to consume an object, but ‘‘toengage in an experience, in a process ofmeaning-production through narrative film’’(Kernan, 2004: 9).Further to the effectiveness in motivating

attendance, Hennig-Thurau, Walsh and Wruck(2001) refer to a trailer’s ‘‘symbolicity’’ or itspotential to be categorized into existingcognitive references which have positiveassociations for the viewer. Relationship toprior works, being part of a series or genre, anda statement of the key benefits (e.g., engagingplot) are all associated with creating a desire toattend the film. They find the challenge for filmpromotion is in reaching the middle pointbetween the familiar (i.e., known, comforta-ble) and the new (i.e., surprise, innovative-ness).Drawing on the work of Beardsley (1958)

and Blake (1962), Zanger (1998) conceptual-izes three content groupings for film trailerswhich are used to both tell and hold back thestory: (1) materials (qualities of the com-

ponents); (2) structure and proportions (therelations between the materials); and (3) theglobal qualities of the whole (the cumulativeeffect)—none of which is fully presented inthe trailer, but rather sampled or hinted at. Theform of these content groupings typically fallswithin one of five modes of representation formovie trailers (Zanger, 1998). ‘‘Meta-text’’trailers focus on the external context (e.g,genre, circumstances of production) and arebased on references to phenomena notspecifically in the film. ‘‘Single selected seg-

ment’’ trailers provide one continuous frag-ment, essentially a quotation or samplerepresenting the film as a whole. ‘‘Quotequilts’’ are most common, providing a varietyof representational images, sound, music,voice-over, and text, often in a fragmentedor dis-ordered display, attempting to piqueaudience interest. ‘‘Summary’’ trailersuse similar components, but present them ina chronological sequence, while ‘‘Metaphori-

cal Expressions’’ zero in on symbolic objectsor phenomena found within the film, torepresent its overall meaning. The commonthread between these trailer forms is the intentto entice the potential audience member byboth telling and not telling the story, empha-sizing different elements thought to be import-ant to the audience and relevant to the film.

In sum, film trailers are an important modeof both enticement and meaning creation,thereby qualifying as a form of paratext for film(Kernan, 2004). While Genette (1987) con-structed his theoretical framework with thewritten word (books) as his subject, theapplication to film is in line with his centraltheme—providing ‘‘thresholds of interpret-ation.’’ We now explore an analogous appli-cation to the performing arts.

Performing arts previews

Technology developments (i.e., digital, audio-visual, Internet, computing)make it possible toadvance the practice of video previews for thenot-for-profit performing arts. Specifically, theyhave potential to serve an enhanced role as a


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kind of paratext—serving as ‘‘thresholds tointerpretation.’’ As with film, the not-for-profitperforming arts need, not only to be promoted,but also to be understood. As publicly-sanc-tioned, not-for-profit arts organizations, theirraison d’etre is driven by deeper ‘‘eudaimonicmotivations’’, based on greater insight, poign-ancy, self reflection, meaningfulness, and whatmakes life valuable, as opposed to the moresimple and pleasure-based hedonic entertain-ments (Oliver, 2008). While websites have thepotential to provide access to many forms ofrelevant, performance-related information, aspecifically-designed preview can act as a kindof vestibule or point of entry, motivatingfurther commitment (i.e., purchasing a ticket,planning an outing, seeking further infor-mation) stemming from an initial decision toproceed further.In his pathbreaking exposition Paratexts,

Genette (1987) addresses the fundamentalquestions: who, how, where, what, andwhy, in evaluating how paratexts impact andrelate to the original text. Following thattradition, we consider performing arts pre-views through the same frame, consideringtheir relationship to the performance.

Who?

The question of ‘‘who’’ has two sides whenevaluating performing arts previews: producer(arts organization) and viewer (potentialaudience). While much discussion has cen-tered around the potential for interactivity inweb applications (Christodoulides, 2009), theconcept of providing a preview for comingattractions remains a one-way communicationbetween the organization and its potentialaudiences. With the dual purpose of para-texts—both serving to imbue with meaningand to promote an offering—organizationalvoices may at various times represent theartistic director, the administration, or specificindividuals in the marketing department(among others), each with their own particularbiases and intent. Nevertheless, to the audi-ence, the previewwill ultimately represent theorganization as a whole.

In its simplest form, the viewer is someonewho has been motivated to access theorganization’s website. Seeking out infor-mation from a website has become a common-place practice, though an important factor willbe the relative experience the individual haswith the organization (Ranaweera et al., 2005).For the neophyte, the first experience with thewebsite and the experience of seeing a videoproduced by the organization, will be verydifferent from a somewhat experienced user orhabitual audience member. The difficulty ofachieving meaning creation and promotionthat appeals to this broad range of users—withtheir varying levels of education and under-standing of the artform—will be a keychallenge within this genre.

When?

As a preview, ‘‘when’’ is assumed to be at somepoint in advance of the performance (rangingfrom days toweeks or months), representing theparatextual notion of a vestibule where thedecision is made to attend or not.When to post apreview can be an important tactical point,considering such elements as keeping webcontent fresh and evolving, as well as anticip-ating when people make decisions aboutperformance ticket purchases. It’s conceivablethat experienced audience members may evenstart to anticipate the next trailer posting as partof the ongoing thrust of a seasonal or annualperformance cycle.In addition, while the prima facie purpose for

trailers is to view it in advance of a performance,there is also a potentially important role forretrospective trailers. Zanger notes movietrailers can convey meaning and providesense-making ex postfacto, in addition to beinga ‘‘fetishized reminder for spectators who havealready viewed the film’’ (1998: 208). Whileretrospective movie trailers may motivate thesearch for the DVD, the performance opportu-nity is gone for the arts audience. Nevertheless,there are still potentially two targets for retro-spective trailers in the performing arts: thosewho participated (‘‘wasn’t it great’’), and forthose who didn’t (‘‘too bad to have missed it’’).


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One reinforces the experience, the otherconveys a sense of a missed opportunity—bothcould ultimately provide a forward-lookingmotivation in that those who did attend willbe motivated to seek out a similar experience,while those that did not attendwill bemotivatedto not miss the next one.

Where?

Motion picture trailers evolved with a particu-lar sense of place—in the movie theater priorto a full-length feature film. Current practicealso includes web-delivered trailers (Johnston,2008), creating amore diffused opportunity forviewing anywhere a web link can be experi-enced—computer, laptop, smart-phone. Per-forming arts videos exist in a website context,with streaming facilitated either internally, orthrough an external means (i.e., YouTube).The positioning of video offerings within thewebsite is as varied as the types of videosthemselves, ranging from a relatively large‘‘play’’ button on the front page, to burieddeep within the site, after navigating severallinks, often within a multimedia subheading.While a review of the entire online marketingstrategy literature is beyond the scope of thispaper (see Jensen (2008) for a review), theplacement within the website signals import-ant information regarding how the organiz-ation views the paratextual potential for thevideo. A prominent positioning signals avestibule which helps to create meaning andplays an important role in promotion, whereas,a buried position suggests periphery and lessparatextual significance.One important point about ‘‘where’’ is the

portability of web-delivered video. Word-of-mouth has always been a substantial factor inthe success of performing arts ventures both inthe communication of value, as well as in thefacilitation of social bonds (Bernstein, 2007).The ease by which a performing arts trailer canbe transmitted to friends and colleaguesarguably nests squarely into the desired frameof social confluence (whether it be a meansof suggestion, anticipated shared experience,or mutual reminiscence) naturally facilitating

longstanding social patterns in arts participa-tion (Lizardo, 2006). As such, web-basedportability becomes an important element of‘‘where’’ for performing arts video previewconsumption.

What?

In the face of a wide range of possibleinclusions, content (‘‘what’’) deserves specialattention. Before considering the componentparts of performing arts trailer content, it isimportant to address what would not necess-arily be considered a trailer—i.e., a performingarts preview. To probe this matter, weexamine web-based video in use by symphonyorchestras in North America. A rough groupingof five different types of web-based videoofferings is identified (based on observations of95 symphony orchestra websites), all of whichare drawn from organizationally-sanctionedvideo clips, as opposed to whatever videocontent might appear independent of theorganization. While each has some merit inrelation to the relevant orchestras, only onecategory will be considered as a true trailer(vis-a-vis movie trailers).

Exhibit A groups examples of video clipswhich have been posted by symphony orches-tras on their websites, including a description ofwhat distinguishes the type, approximatelength, and the category or type of video.Referencing Video Type, the ‘‘PerformanceTrailer’’ has already been introduced and willbe discussed in detail in the next section. The‘‘Conductor Interview’’ is a simple video of theconductor speaking about an upcoming per-formance. As artistic director interpreting thepiece to the public, it is an understandablechoice; however, this approach is far more one-dimensional than the trailers we identify (i.e.,imagine a movie director speaking the entiretime about an upcoming film). The OregonSymphony is a good example of an orchestrawhich has utilized the ‘‘Conductor Interview’’format (Oregon Symphony Website, 2008).

Another approach has been for orchestras toprovide multiple video segments in support ofupcoming performance—‘‘Composite Infomer-


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cials.’’ No one video addresses the program in itsentirety; rather a variety of video (and audio)clips focus on giving background and insight intoeach of the works on the program. The BostonSymphony is a good example where eachupcoming performance piece includes someform of individual video and/or audio preview(Boston Symphony Website, 2008).Some orchestras choose to maintain virtually

no discernable pattern to their video offerings,posting seemingly random clips from eclecticsources (these are often unprocessed and havean edgy, unpolished feel). A good example ofthis is the Edmonton symphony with videosranging from performer interviews to fanreactions, and clips from a recent internationaltour (Edmonton Symphony Website, 2008). Atthe other extreme, a small number of sympho-nies are assembling highly processed, extended‘‘Video Edutainment’’ about particular works orcomposers. San Diego’s 8-minute video onTchaikovsky’s Pathetique (entitled ‘‘That FatefulForce’’) provides sumptuous detail about thework and its composer with only a brief passingmention to a specific performance date (SanDiego Symphony Website, 2008). Chicagopresents highly processed, hour-long videos ofits popular ‘‘Beyond the Score’’ series, includingperformance music, images, poetry, and spokentext (Chicago Symphony Website, 2008).Three orchestras include what can be

considered actual trailers (after the film trailergenre) in their websites—each addressing aspecific upcoming program in its entirety (oftena text slide within the video portrays keyprogram information) and coming frommultipleperspectives (i.e., conductor, musicians, admin-istrators, composers). A ‘‘quote-quilt’’ format(the most frequently used format in the filmtrailer genre4) juxtaposesmultiple video and still

images, typically with voice-over and music.Finally, elements of the works, the performers,and the overall context for the performance areincluded—all within 2–3minutes. Each of thesethree orchestras have also developed their owndefined format (e.g., the same 15-second clipintroduces the St. Louis videos, including anoutside image of the performance hall, close-upof a St. Louis orchestral music folder, and a briefglimpse of the orchestra in rehearsal withinstrument close-ups) (Saint Louis SymphonyWebsite, 2008). Exhibit B includes a detailedsummary of one St. Louis trailer (also cited in theopening paragraphs of this paper). The othertrailers can be viewed at each of the threesymphony websites.While the found practice is a very small

number (a scant three out of 95), theseexamples provide important conceptual inter-est given their kinship to longtime traditionwith movie trailers. We therefore turn to thattradition, and following Zanger’s (1998) con-tent groupings (reviewed earlier in the ‘‘FilmTrailers’ section), the adapted applicationmostrelevant to the performing arts is proposed asfollows: (1) performers—as the materials (i.e.,musicians, actors, conductor); (2) works—asthe relationship between materials (i.e., com-position, libretto, play); and (3) context—asthe global qualities of the whole (i.e., program,series, broader organization). By incorporatingelements of each of these content groups, thetrailer both tells and holds back the story of theperformance, with the intent of imbuingmeaning while also serving to promote. Eachof these three will be addressed in turn.

Performers

Singers, dancers, actors, and musicians bringperformance to life, and their ability toeffectively execute artistic intentions directlycontributes to a successful performance.Performer reputation serves as an enticementfor audiences to attend. Trailers can commu-nicate performer reputation by emphasizingsuch elements as former successful roles,critical acclaim, awards, and other achieve-ments (e.g., audio recordings). Particular

4Selected video offerings bear some relationship to Zan-ger’s (1998) other film trailer formats. For example,‘‘Conductor Interview’’ may intersect with ‘‘Meta-text’’when referencing elements outside the performance.Also, to the extent that trailers present a chronologicalsequence to the concert, Kernan’s ‘‘Summary’’ formatmay also apply somewhat. On the whole, however, thelinks are tenuous for direct analysis and systematic appli-cation of this typology to performing arts web-videoapplications.


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talents can also be touted (e.g., the openingsegment of this paper pronouncing thesingular ability of Yefim Bronfman to performthe Rachmaninoff 3rd Piano Concerto).Beyond the public persona, trailers can alsocommunicate the personal, human side ofperformers—enabling the feeling of a moreintimate connection. As an example, theMilwaukee Symphony routinely begins itsconcert previews with intimate portrayalsand interviews of its orchestra players (Mil-waukee Symphony Website, 2008).

Works

Works can be illuminated by focusing on theoriginating artist (i.e., composer, writer, libret-tist), with material ranging from the verypersonal to the broader societal influencesshaping the genesis of the work. It can alsofocus on aspects of the work itself, includingits form or genre, or even its relative difficultyor reasons for its significance or particularbeauty. Many trailers both tell and illustratetheir ideas—often at the same time—voice-over and illustrative segments workingtogether. For example, the St. Louis Symphonyproduced a preview of El Nino (John Adams)with narrated text focusing on its tonalqualities, Hispanic roots, difficulty to perform,its contemporary relevance, and the compo-ser, as well as the association with the holidaytradition of Handel’s Messiah, all interspersedwith illustrative video clips of the choir,conductor, composer, and other images (i.e.,stained-glass window) (Saint Louis SymphonyWebsite, 2008).

Context

Context includes the broader rationale for whya particular concert is compelling at a specifictime. This gives the artistic director a chance toilluminate artistic choices, such as thematicconnections within a performance. St. Louisdisplays a trailer entitled the ‘‘Beat Movement’’including references to a contemporary workfeaturing both electric and acoustic bass(written specifically for virtuoso, and upcom-

ing guest soloist, John Patitucci), in addition toa classic rendition of Stravinsky’s Rite of Springwhich is—conductor David Robertsonexplains—‘‘. . . the closest the St. LouisSymphony comes to being a rock star’’ (SaintLouis Symphony Website, 2008). The overalleffect is to weave together a creative concep-tualization resulting in an intriguing one-of-a-kind program.

The discussion of artistic choices may alsoinclude the performance as part of a series withinterconnected parts. The emphasis here is onbroadening the meaning of a particular work,to a setting within an overall performance orseries which may also include importantelements of the organization, the performancehall, or other contextual factors that influencethe uniqueness of the overall performanceexperience.

In sum, each of these three elements—performers, works, and context—are woventogether into a short trailer which helps tocreate meaning, while also promoting it as asingular performance opportunity not to bemissed.

Why?

In his paper ‘‘The Marketing of Performance,’’Bouissac (1987) emphasizes the use of narra-tive, with a critical component missing,thereby causing tension—the resolution ofwhich comes only through attending therelevant performance. This fits well with theparatextual emphasis on meaning while alsoserving to promote (Genette, 1987). Followinga similar line of thinking, Kernan (2004) seesfilm trailers as a kind of enthymemes (fromAristotle’s rhetorical tradition). Enthymemesare abbreviated syllogisms which omit one ofthe logical steps in a rhetorical argument,proposing the conclusions to stand based onimplicit assumptions. The audience is invited(or enticed) to fill in the missing part as ameans of engaging them into the work. Kernanuses the example of genre in film trailers (e.g.,Western) which suggest that the film will dealwith something that the audience has famili-arity with, and at the same time will be new


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and different from anything they have seen.The missing term in the enthymeme is that theaudience wants to enjoy both familiarity andnovelty at the same time (Kernan, 2004: 43).This logical process has been described as the‘‘audience in the text’’ emphasizing theprocess by which the audience inserts them-selves into the space between the segments ofthe trailer.A similar application can apply to perform-

ing arts trailers. Performers are presented asbeing talented and skillful at what they do(e.g., sing, act, dance), while at the sametime, they are human just like everybody else.An example is the Milwaukee Symphonytradition of starting their trailers in thepersonal space of one of the musicians inthe orchestra (i.e., on the backyard deck,playing with their kids), as well as showingthem in full concert regalia (MilwaukeeSymphony Website, 2008). The missing termin this enthymeme is that the audience wantsto both admire the performer for theirextraordinary ability, but also to relate on apersonal level. Similarly, the backgroundprovided around a work will place it withinknown references and markers (i.e., histori-cal time periods), while at the same timepromoting the fact that it will be fresh andnew (e.g., St. Louis’ references to El Nino’ssimilarity to the well-known holiday Messiah)(Saint Louis Symphony Website, 2008).Finally, the context provides a rationale forwhy the performance is essential at this time,for this audience, and what specifically drovethe artistic choices particular to this concert.The message is that the performance will goon (and be uniquely exceptional); theunresolved tension is whether the viewerwill be in attendance. For example, St. LouisSymphony’s trailers continually emphasizethe unique nature of the conductor, the hall,the musicians, and the soloists. The implicitassumption is that this is a singular event inhistory—not to be missed.Utilizing the paratext frame, it is useful to

distinguish the purpose of performing artstrailers versus other uses of video. With thesimultaneous and dual purpose of meaning

creation and promotion, performing artstrailers have the potential to inherit the well-entrenched practice from the film trailertradition. Video clips not within this formatserve different functions. For example, ‘‘Pro-cessed Edutainment’’ (see Exhibit A) providesits own self-contained entertainment experi-ence, as opposed to trying to entice towardattendance at a specific live performance.Similarly, ‘‘Composite Infomercials’’ provide amuch deeper understanding and education of awork or composer (e.g., 60 minute documen-tary), though are arguably not to be concep-tualized as a vestibule inviting the potentialaudience member in. This is not to say thatthese other video applications don’t contributemeaningfully to the performing arts; the pointis that they arguably lack the targeted androbust characteristics inherited from the para-textual trailer tradition.

Discussion

Rapid technological change for both Internetcapabilities and digital media has quicklymade sophisticated video transmission com-monplace. With a strong connection to theperformance experience—rich in sound andimage aesthetics—as well as the prevalenceof web-video use within the population, thepossibility for video to dramatically impactmarketing and communication practicesamongst performing arts organizations isundeniable. While this kind of disruptivetransition can prove frustrating as norms andexpectations remain in flux for a period oftime, and the return on resource commit-ments can be unpredictable, these develop-ments potentially bode well for the future. Asopposed to being held hostage to the vagariesof critical media attention and/or payingsubstantial sums in broad-based and poten-tially scattered marketing and promotionalefforts in order to ‘‘resist invisibility’’(Wyszomirski et al., 1997), performing artsgroups have the potential to take matters moreinto their own hands addressing substantialefforts toward much more focused and directweb-based communications.


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With easily accessible video creation andtransmission available, the immediate questionbecomes what kind of content should best beportrayed to meet the needs of the performingarts organization. Looking at just one perform-ing arts field (symphony orchestras), the style,content, variety, and format of web-video clipsremains substantially heterogeneous (see Exhi-bit A). While it is too early to derive empiricalevidence around which kind of video presen-tation is superior, a small number of orchestrasare producing a kind of preview after thelongstanding movie trailer tradition. Despitethe early stages, this emerging practice has acompelling conceptual interest in that arelatively new and chaotic media form (web-video transmission) can arguably piggy-backon a well-established format, harnessing thepower of historical experience and theoreticalevaluation.Film trailers have received substantial atten-

tion for their paratextual importance—guidingthe viewer into the theatre and influencingtheir interpretation of the film (Kernan, 2004).Similarly, performing arts trailers serve as athreshold, guiding the viewer toward perform-ance and also playing an important interpretiverole. With the potential to shape the audi-ence’s performance experience, the paratextframe places important emphasis on theinteraction with the medium itself, therebynecessarily addressing the fundamental ques-tions of: who, when, where, what, and why.Each of these addresses the basic paratextrationale which invites the participant to stepinside the experience, both promoting theperformance, as well as contributing to itsmeaning creation.

Conclusion

Despite the fact that performing arts websitesare ubiquitous, the notion of web-deliveredpreviews is still in its infancy. Given thechaotic nature and very early stages of web-based video transmission, some importantlimitations are necessary to consider with thispaper.

Making observations at a point in timewithin a context of rapid change makesobsolescence a distinct hazard. There is astrong likelihood that the use of video by anyparticular orchestra will have changed sub-stantially by the time this paper goes to press,and it is likely the practice amongst theseorganizations will keep evolving over thecoming months and years, particularly as theystart to adopt ideas from one-another. Sim-ilarly, the relative infancy (and small numbers)of performing arts previews adds a preliminaryand speculative element to these insights. Assuch, this paper has tried to root currentpractices (however new and evolving) withinlonger-running conceptual frames (i.e., para-texts, movie trailers) in order to try and makesense of what is happening now and begin toformulate ideas about what is in store for thefuture. Nevertheless, caution is advised ininterpreting this paper as much more sugges-tive and exploratory, than conclusive orresolved.

This research has been limited to symph-ony orchestras as a means to focus and definethe discussion. As such, the results should benecessarily bounded to that sector. Never-theless, it is argued that other types ofperforming arts organizations should be ableto adapt as necessary the broader principlesor ideas to their own specific practice,recognizing the obvious limitations fordoing so.

While this paper has addressed official videoproductions (produced by the performing artsorganizations), there are also many unofficialvideo clips which also circulate (e.g.,unauthorized performance footage) easilyaccessed through applications such as You-Tube—what should be made of these?Other questions hover around the appropriatecombination of video, photographic stills,audio (i.e., music clips), and written/text applications (i.e., program notes)—allin the service of animating upcomingperformances. Another emerging practice isthe use of blogs with their multiplicity offeatures and applications, including video.New definitions for word-of-mouth through


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posting and sharing videos through socialnetworking sites and practices (i.e., Facebook,Myspace) are another avenue with greatpotential as newly initiated audiences takeshape. Clearly, the practice of using videotrailers needs to be appropriately set withinan overall web marketing strategy which will

Exhibit A

Exhibit B

St. Louis SymphonySneak Peek 1, Opening Weekend 2008, St.Louis Symphony

0:00–0:15 (Generic Introduction to alltrailers)� Image from the inside of a car drivingtoward Powel Theatre (performancespace).

� Close ups of a St. Louis Symphony musicfolder, and instruments (with orchestratuning sounds)

� Very brief image of orchestra dressrehearsal (casual clothes)

0:15–0:45Slide: Rachmaninoff Piano Concerto No. 3

John Adams Guide to Strange

Places

Bartok Concerto for Orchestra

—Season Kick-off—September 26,27

� David Robertson (conductor) discussingthe program with the Rachmaninoff ascenterpiece (voice over with slide, thenimage with white background). Emphasisis on the composer, the context and thedifficulty of the piece (still picture ofRachmaninoff).

0:45–1:05� Bjorn Ranheim (cello), animated discus-sion (white background) about the com-poser’s large hands and the difficulty ofthe piece.

1:05–1:28Slide: Guest Pianist

Yefim Bronfman

Video type Orchestra examples Description Length

Performance St. Louis (Saint Louis Symphony Website, 2008) � Emphasize specific performance program 2–3 minutesTrailer Baltimore (Baltimore Symphony Website, 2008) � Multiple perspectives (e.g., conductor,

performers, audience)Milwaukee (Milwaukee Symphony Website, 2008) � ‘‘Quote-quilt’’ format using video, stills and audio

� Incorporate elements of work, performers, context

� Follow a defined format (i.e., intro, ending, style)

Conductor Austin (Austin Symphony Website, 2008) � Emphasize specific performance program 2–3 minutesInterview Cincinnati (Cincinnati Symphony Website, 2008) � Conductor interview format

Oregon (Oregon Symphony Website, 2008) � Limited use of music and images

Syracuse (Syracuse Symphony Website, 2008)

Composite Boston (Boston Symphony Website, 2008) � Multiple videos (and/or audio) for eachperformance

3–6þ minutes

Infomercials Minnesota (Minnesota Symphony Website, 2008) � Focus on individual works (vs. program)

New York (New York Philharmonic Website,2008)

� Additional topics (e.g., conductor, commissions)

Random andEclectic

Atlanta (Atlanta Symphony Website, 2008) � No apparent organization 1–7 minutes

Edmonton (Edmonton Symphony Website, 2008) � Wide range of production values

� Wide range of subject matter

Processed Chicago (Chicago Symphony Website, 2008) � Emphasis on work 8–60 minutesEdutainment San Diego (San Diego Symphony Website, 2008) � Entertaining narrative element

� Enduring appeal (i.e, beyond thisperformance)

incorporate many other tools and technol-ogies.That said, the emergent use of web-video, withall its attendant frustrations and challenges,arguably holds significant promise in theengagement of emergent and future gener-ations of performing arts audiences.


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� Robertson (voice-over then video), dis-cussing why this piano soloist is so criticaland unique (stills of Bronfman).

1:28–2:00� Cally Banham (English Horn), discussing thedifficulty of the work (white background)for the orchestra (practice clip of orchestraand conductor in rehearsal), description ofthe piece (practice clip of Banham inrehearsal), and why Powel Hall is soimportant for romantic-era music (‘‘it won’tsound the same anywhere else’’).

2:00–2:10� Robertson (with still of John Adams)

talking about first work on the program(Guide to Strange Places).

2:10–2:42� Banham discussing the unique relationshipthe orchestra has with Adams, the diffi-culty and beauty of the work, as well aswhy Robertson is so important as musicdirector (clips of orchestra and conduc-tor).

2:42–3:30� Robertson voice-over about final piece

(Bartok still)—beautiful music writtenduring a period of darkness in humanhistory. The whole program is about thedanger, excitement and ultimate comfortwe find in music.

Slide: (repeat from first, outlining theconcert offering)Slide: Music that Moves You—Saint Louis Symphony Website (2008).

Biographical notes

Dr Preece is an Associate Professor at theSchool of Business & Economics at WilfridLaurier University, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada(PhD Ohio State University). His researchfocuses on strategic management in the artsand culture sector. Recent projects havefocused on: performing arts approaches tonew media, arts entrepreneurship, unique

partnerships in the performing arts, private-sector arts sponsorship programs, and per-forming arts audience patterns.

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coming soon to a live theater near you: performing arts trailers as paratexts

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