CHAPTER 8

Color and Material

lolshythe lyed sort t1-inshyrreshy

lNTRODUCTION

All the conceptual elements of form-point line plane and volume-and their interrelationships constitute the mental blueprints that the deshysigner draws upon to shape material into form

The viewer responds to the volum es shapes and lines that have given the materi al its visual elegance and spatial structure But the viewer responds a lso to t he materials used to create a form a nd to the visual properties of the materials especially color and texture

Materials a re not just visual addenda to form in space but are the means to realize it Form is imposs ible without material substance Tbe physical properties of ma teria l determine its slluctural potent ia and-as seen in Chapshyter 3- new materia ls can determine new form s

In addition to color texture and structurshyal potential materials resonate with cultura l overtones These are the subtle at not so subtle reminders of the cultura l situations and uses asshysociated with a material Wood fo r example seems warmer and closer to nature than stainshyless steel which can emit a cool and technologshyical note These overtones sound the cultural symbolic meaning of these materia ls A materishyals meaning in tegrates both form and symbol Woods earthy browns and rippling grain comshybine with its rusti c references in a designers exshypressive statement Likewise stainless steels grayed whiteness and hard sheen join with its technological references to contribute to an obshyjects purpose

INHERENT AND APPLIED COLOR

Materia ls a re often chosen as much for their inherent color as for the physical prope rties they can contribu te to a th ree-dime ns iona l s tructure The pure wh ite of a Colorado marshyble the purplish cast to a tropical ha rdwood or the fi ery glow of polished copper are a ll exshyamples of strong colors inherent in the ir reshyspective ma terials

Color Applications

A color can also be an applied colol s llch as pain t that coats the ma ter ial Paint is a pshyplied to material whose phys ica l characte risshyti cs might be right for the design but whose inherent color is unexciting or incorrect for the artists aims

Sometimes artists use paint to hide the s tluctural ma terial in order to cancel out a ny psychological impact or cultural refenmces th at material might possess Instead the viewer sees the object as a congregation of lines planes and volumes shaped from chunlts of color only The form of such objects becomes thus more idealshyized or pure a nd less physica l tha n those in which the materia l plays a s t rong visua l role

Two types of applied co loration that can change a materials color without canceling out its physical appeal are patinas and stains iVhen a n applied cotor is created by the chemical treatshyment of a mate ria ls surface (usually meta l) rathe r than with a paint coating the coloration

R I

X2 C11 n HCr 8 Co lO1 U I)(I MOI(rj(Ji

bull

FIGURE 8-1 Color Solid Tne color solid is ltt thrce-dimensiOll il l scale OJ ill pmsible colm s The equator of Ihe sol id is ltl ring of pure colors or hues called the color wheel 1he hues (0I11pri~e 11 the colOl s of the spect rum As colors ncar Ihe center 01 Ihe color solid the amount 01 5illtJri1 l ion of hue decreases me the colors grow incH~ltlsillgl hlck gray or whi le By the lime the colols reach the ds 01 the solid they hwe 10s1 1ti of their hue lor corom1) and afe termed ltlchrOllJIIC colo r ~ Tho~e colors clesal urnt ing lowlrd while Me tints those dc~atural ing IOwuO gray ltIre Olles and those des~lu shyrrl ling IOWil rd black are shades The scale of colors between blad l l1d white is oilen refened to a ~ the vl ue sulil2 J ~ it is used to mC(lsur( the lighl v(l[ue or darkoesslligntoess 01 a color

ArtistS cun specify (lny 10[0 by stipu[illing its hue its degree of Sllurl lion lno its relaliv~ value These Jre the three dimcn5ion~ of color So(((n~ C QUrJ11 ot lh~ ~ulhor

is ca ll ed a patina The verd igris or gr eenish ILLUMINATION coloration of ancien t bronzes is a well -known patina The surface of steel too can oxidize into IL lumination from a colored light source or from browns r anging from near yellow to deep pmmiddot reflected ligh t can color the surf~ce of an object pies a nd blacks Theatrical set des igners a nd interior des igners

A stain or dye is a pplied to a porous mateshy make most obvious use of color il lumination but 1al to change its color wh ile maintaining its surshy scul ptors craftsmen architects and others will face characteri s tics Even certain low-dens ity sometimes select matelials for thei r reflective metals like altuninum are routinely dyed by a qualities or for their ability to accept refl ected method known as anodiz ing colora tion Polis hed copper for ins tance will

Tom ject ners but j will dive ~cted wi11

FIGURE 8-2 Jerry PeMt Splash 198() Peart is nOted for his Ktiv( planur comshyposit ions md hi ~ equll1y ltrctive colors He painls his welded aluminllnl forms w ith highly samaier colors and lrlnSshyforms them into solid slabs of COIOl$lhltl1 stem 10 hwe come 10 life The aluminum substrate is completely hidden It5 purshy1)QSe WilS to creale tl Sirong lightweight Structure ilnd a surflce highly rccept i ~e 10 p int The ltlltist 5 goIs 10 Khieve J scu lptu re seemin~l y ftlb riC ill~d from color itself

Source Cou rt e~y III Jerry Pean

Chapter H C(Iur ()( 1MUIfiul H ~

FIGU RE 8-3 Sruct Beasley Offspring 111995 Looking l ike J

cross betweer urban architecture locl desert mesas this sculpture h1$ strikshyingly eilpressiveuro surtaces Be1sley has exploited the reuroltlctivi l of bronze 10 1 wide variety or chemicals middotlo creale an earthy rainbow of plIrilliJs Since the pltinas Me chemic 1chmgpound5 in Ihe bronzt itself this type of Co1()(alion preserve-s the import ot the maleria ls lex t1lfl

$O(C( OIigtpmlB II Cl t bronze 1995 S h x i w x 7middot (I CfllHl(Sy-1 Gwen(1J JjyArldinglon Cll1tryISrucC BC~~llY

R4 UlOJ)Ilf A Color unci HW(fi(lJ

reflect flamelike co lors that will project dra shyma tically onto a white material

Transparent panes of s ta ined glass or col ored translucent plastics may also be employed within a des ign to cast colors on neighboring forms or to act as colored filte rs througb which other forms might be viewed

TEXTURE

Texture is both vis ua l and tactile Most visual responses t o t exture are through ta ctile assoshyciations re lying on pas t experiences of having touched other s imila rly tex tured s urfaces

Tactility elicits ve ry phys ical and dir ect reshys ponses the body and not jus t the eyes sense texture

A velvety surfa ce willikely lure the viewmiddot er and invite touch A splin tered surface will tend to repel touch Smoothness and roughness descJibe degtees of surface agitation in which smooth surfaces are ca lme r while rough surmiddot faces are more disturbed

The descriptive words in the last paragraph inviterepelca1m agitated and disturbed ass ign emotional responses to texture Texture touches emotions mOIe than logic and thus corshyrelates with the kind of psychological moods evoked by color Between blue and red the calmer

FICURE 8-4 Richard Wh iteley Blue Wedge Slawed sla ~5 is iHguably the most dramalic example of inherel1l color In the n1nds 01 a master craftsperson II tlkes on crysllt1 li ine lUCidity that mimics light itself l ight flher~1 th rough this glass is transshyfOrmed II tltlkes on a soft refrucive glow

Whiteley capitalizes on these quaitie~ with il sleek minimal form and punctuil ting detai ls Source Richard WllIrl y Glue Wldge The 3ullsec ConnClttion GJlcry

Clluplcr R COOf on( lu(Tilli 8 5

FI GU RE 8-1 ThomilS Skomski Interminable The lower tw lf of $komskj s sculplure i~ il blKkeneci sleel (lg iloorerl wi th a ~ hiny copper sheet th ~ t rellec $ il strong fi ery C010r onlO the wO 11 13) plJci ng shards of )11110 randomly over the (Op pe Iht sculptor breaks the reflecteurod light inlo fl1mes lick ing 11 the undershyside of a wax beam The ma~ 01 wax seems aboullO succumb to Ihe Hheal of his illusory fire Source Courtesy o Thom)~ Skomski

color blue con elates to smooth surfaces a nd red a more exciting color to agitated surfaces

TEXTURE AND VALUE

Unli ke point line plane and volume which co nshytribute more s tructured and quantitative aspects to form color aod tex tu re team up to add more qualitative emotiona l aspects Both the q uantishytative and the qualitative are needed for tru ly efshyfective form

The most visual-a nd measured-function of surface tex tures is the ir capacity for modushy

lat ing light uollle Ligh t va lue is the measure of reflected light from a s lirface t he da rkness or lightness of that sUiface A white sUIface that is perfect ly smooth will reflect its full whiteness The more textured the surface the more shadmiddot ow is created and the less light is r eflected Rougher surfaces yield darker grays

PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL

The cul tural associations and visual cha ractershyist ics of materials are clucial to the expressive ri chness of a form The physical properties of

FIGURE 8- 6 TexureVave Samples SUIace tektures modulate the light hillmg sculpture and this Can imp1rt colorisic eflects One diect is the darkening value th1 t the increilse in minute shilclow~

can cause A~llIf is the psychological difference between reliltively pllcid and elil tllely asitated surfKes SOlfel Courle-y 01 the iluthOf

FIGU RE 8-7 Rob lor~nson SJelfer Materials ddd both visual and J550clIive qua lit ies to J spJlial form TIle scrap tires from which this SCUlpUfl was W)vell arid dense teklufil l iayers to i1 relatively sim)le form The lire snaps llso act iva te associations 10 automobil e junkY1lds 1 shltlf) contrast to the temp lehke imuse they form SuIfee Courtesy of Roll Lo(~n50l1_

ChUp r( f H CI)ol (llld lultfi(J i 87

matedals though permit the a ct ua l realization of a form in space that is the ca pa city of mateshyrials to acqfttre and to maintain form in space

Acquiring Form

A number of terms describe the capaci ty of a material to acquire form Plasticity measures a materials ability to be worked inlo a new form elrtSlicity measures its te ndency to feturn to its original form Rubber bands are elastic beca use when stretched they will snap back into shape while clay is plastic because when st retched it will bold its new shape

Sculptors who a r e ca sting p las t e r a r e conshycerned with viscosity ie how resis tant to flow is the mixture vmiddotl ith which they are working A lower viscosity plaster mix will flow into areas of smaller detail Woodworkers on the other hand may favor high viscosity glue that can be applied without dri pping

Machineability is the ease with wh ich a material can be cut to shape Machining is a subshy

tractive process Dr illi ng planing sawing chisshyeling a brading and the like are all examples of machining All enta iJ the use of a harder mateshyrial whose edges to cut away a softer material

Ca sting

Some ma teria ls will easi ly change from a liquid to a solid state In t hat Hquid state they can be poured to fill a negati ve form Once soshylidified the material will have become a positive version of the negative This is the process of casting

The negative form may be bullt directly or i t may be a mold taken from a pos itive origshyina l called a p(lttern Expendable a nd ea sily sh aped materials lend themselves to pattern making

The liquid state of casting ma terials ca n harden by evaporating setting or cooling

Many natural and synthetic resins can beshycome liquid by dissolving When the solvent evaporates the material eturns to its original

FI GUR E8-8 Ri chard ReooK Veil Mltltcrials carry visua l and psyd1ological ill((510115 whICh can add strong levels lit experience to rel 1tively simple torms_ In thi Cltlse th~ d~ l)se in dust riltll over(one~ oi

cast iron Mid an obciufolte ltlggresgtiveness to its horn sh ltl pe Th E bi t of dt(1 ~ ilk is In complete ( onl(151 but genlly l lld eloquent ly completes the form The effect is bltl llnce and harmon y where opposi tes unite ltlnd lesolw one another Rezac drew his inspir(l tlon from warr ior figures rn Buddhist temples that worshippers had iestooned With l)right d oth

Source Court~) oi ~I hiHrl R~z I C

X2 C11 n HCr 8 Co lO1 U I)(I MOI(rj(Ji

bull

FIGURE 8-1 Color Solid Tne color solid is ltt thrce-dimensiOll il l scale OJ ill pmsible colm s The equator of Ihe sol id is ltl ring of pure colors or hues called the color wheel 1he hues (0I11pri~e 11 the colOl s of the spect rum As colors ncar Ihe center 01 Ihe color solid the amount 01 5illtJri1 l ion of hue decreases me the colors grow incH~ltlsillgl hlck gray or whi le By the lime the colols reach the ds 01 the solid they hwe 10s1 1ti of their hue lor corom1) and afe termed ltlchrOllJIIC colo r ~ Tho~e colors clesal urnt ing lowlrd while Me tints those dc~atural ing IOwuO gray ltIre Olles and those des~lu shyrrl ling IOWil rd black are shades The scale of colors between blad l l1d white is oilen refened to a ~ the vl ue sulil2 J ~ it is used to mC(lsur( the lighl v(l[ue or darkoesslligntoess 01 a color

ArtistS cun specify (lny 10[0 by stipu[illing its hue its degree of Sllurl lion lno its relaliv~ value These Jre the three dimcn5ion~ of color So(((n~ C QUrJ11 ot lh~ ~ulhor

is ca ll ed a patina The verd igris or gr eenish ILLUMINATION coloration of ancien t bronzes is a well -known patina The surface of steel too can oxidize into IL lumination from a colored light source or from browns r anging from near yellow to deep pmmiddot reflected ligh t can color the surf~ce of an object pies a nd blacks Theatrical set des igners a nd interior des igners

A stain or dye is a pplied to a porous mateshy make most obvious use of color il lumination but 1al to change its color wh ile maintaining its surshy scul ptors craftsmen architects and others will face characteri s tics Even certain low-dens ity sometimes select matelials for thei r reflective metals like altuninum are routinely dyed by a qualities or for their ability to accept refl ected method known as anodiz ing colora tion Polis hed copper for ins tance will

Tom ject ners but j will dive ~cted wi11

FIGURE 8-2 Jerry PeMt Splash 198() Peart is nOted for his Ktiv( planur comshyposit ions md hi ~ equll1y ltrctive colors He painls his welded aluminllnl forms w ith highly samaier colors and lrlnSshyforms them into solid slabs of COIOl$lhltl1 stem 10 hwe come 10 life The aluminum substrate is completely hidden It5 purshy1)QSe WilS to creale tl Sirong lightweight Structure ilnd a surflce highly rccept i ~e 10 p int The ltlltist 5 goIs 10 Khieve J scu lptu re seemin~l y ftlb riC ill~d from color itself

Source Cou rt e~y III Jerry Pean

Chapter H C(Iur ()( 1MUIfiul H ~

FIGU RE 8-3 Sruct Beasley Offspring 111995 Looking l ike J

cross betweer urban architecture locl desert mesas this sculpture h1$ strikshyingly eilpressiveuro surtaces Be1sley has exploited the reuroltlctivi l of bronze 10 1 wide variety or chemicals middotlo creale an earthy rainbow of plIrilliJs Since the pltinas Me chemic 1chmgpound5 in Ihe bronzt itself this type of Co1()(alion preserve-s the import ot the maleria ls lex t1lfl

$O(C( OIigtpmlB II Cl t bronze 1995 S h x i w x 7middot (I CfllHl(Sy-1 Gwen(1J JjyArldinglon Cll1tryISrucC BC~~llY

R4 UlOJ)Ilf A Color unci HW(fi(lJ

reflect flamelike co lors that will project dra shyma tically onto a white material

Transparent panes of s ta ined glass or col ored translucent plastics may also be employed within a des ign to cast colors on neighboring forms or to act as colored filte rs througb which other forms might be viewed

TEXTURE

Texture is both vis ua l and tactile Most visual responses t o t exture are through ta ctile assoshyciations re lying on pas t experiences of having touched other s imila rly tex tured s urfaces

Tactility elicits ve ry phys ical and dir ect reshys ponses the body and not jus t the eyes sense texture

A velvety surfa ce willikely lure the viewmiddot er and invite touch A splin tered surface will tend to repel touch Smoothness and roughness descJibe degtees of surface agitation in which smooth surfaces are ca lme r while rough surmiddot faces are more disturbed

The descriptive words in the last paragraph inviterepelca1m agitated and disturbed ass ign emotional responses to texture Texture touches emotions mOIe than logic and thus corshyrelates with the kind of psychological moods evoked by color Between blue and red the calmer

FICURE 8-4 Richard Wh iteley Blue Wedge Slawed sla ~5 is iHguably the most dramalic example of inherel1l color In the n1nds 01 a master craftsperson II tlkes on crysllt1 li ine lUCidity that mimics light itself l ight flher~1 th rough this glass is transshyfOrmed II tltlkes on a soft refrucive glow

Whiteley capitalizes on these quaitie~ with il sleek minimal form and punctuil ting detai ls Source Richard WllIrl y Glue Wldge The 3ullsec ConnClttion GJlcry

Clluplcr R COOf on( lu(Tilli 8 5

FI GU RE 8-1 ThomilS Skomski Interminable The lower tw lf of $komskj s sculplure i~ il blKkeneci sleel (lg iloorerl wi th a ~ hiny copper sheet th ~ t rellec $ il strong fi ery C010r onlO the wO 11 13) plJci ng shards of )11110 randomly over the (Op pe Iht sculptor breaks the reflecteurod light inlo fl1mes lick ing 11 the undershyside of a wax beam The ma~ 01 wax seems aboullO succumb to Ihe Hheal of his illusory fire Source Courtesy o Thom)~ Skomski

color blue con elates to smooth surfaces a nd red a more exciting color to agitated surfaces

TEXTURE AND VALUE

Unli ke point line plane and volume which co nshytribute more s tructured and quantitative aspects to form color aod tex tu re team up to add more qualitative emotiona l aspects Both the q uantishytative and the qualitative are needed for tru ly efshyfective form

The most visual-a nd measured-function of surface tex tures is the ir capacity for modushy

lat ing light uollle Ligh t va lue is the measure of reflected light from a s lirface t he da rkness or lightness of that sUiface A white sUIface that is perfect ly smooth will reflect its full whiteness The more textured the surface the more shadmiddot ow is created and the less light is r eflected Rougher surfaces yield darker grays

PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL

The cul tural associations and visual cha ractershyist ics of materials are clucial to the expressive ri chness of a form The physical properties of

FIGURE 8- 6 TexureVave Samples SUIace tektures modulate the light hillmg sculpture and this Can imp1rt colorisic eflects One diect is the darkening value th1 t the increilse in minute shilclow~

can cause A~llIf is the psychological difference between reliltively pllcid and elil tllely asitated surfKes SOlfel Courle-y 01 the iluthOf

FIGU RE 8-7 Rob lor~nson SJelfer Materials ddd both visual and J550clIive qua lit ies to J spJlial form TIle scrap tires from which this SCUlpUfl was W)vell arid dense teklufil l iayers to i1 relatively sim)le form The lire snaps llso act iva te associations 10 automobil e junkY1lds 1 shltlf) contrast to the temp lehke imuse they form SuIfee Courtesy of Roll Lo(~n50l1_

ChUp r( f H CI)ol (llld lultfi(J i 87

matedals though permit the a ct ua l realization of a form in space that is the ca pa city of mateshyrials to acqfttre and to maintain form in space

Acquiring Form

A number of terms describe the capaci ty of a material to acquire form Plasticity measures a materials ability to be worked inlo a new form elrtSlicity measures its te ndency to feturn to its original form Rubber bands are elastic beca use when stretched they will snap back into shape while clay is plastic because when st retched it will bold its new shape

Sculptors who a r e ca sting p las t e r a r e conshycerned with viscosity ie how resis tant to flow is the mixture vmiddotl ith which they are working A lower viscosity plaster mix will flow into areas of smaller detail Woodworkers on the other hand may favor high viscosity glue that can be applied without dri pping

Machineability is the ease with wh ich a material can be cut to shape Machining is a subshy

tractive process Dr illi ng planing sawing chisshyeling a brading and the like are all examples of machining All enta iJ the use of a harder mateshyrial whose edges to cut away a softer material

Ca sting

Some ma teria ls will easi ly change from a liquid to a solid state In t hat Hquid state they can be poured to fill a negati ve form Once soshylidified the material will have become a positive version of the negative This is the process of casting

The negative form may be bullt directly or i t may be a mold taken from a pos itive origshyina l called a p(lttern Expendable a nd ea sily sh aped materials lend themselves to pattern making

The liquid state of casting ma terials ca n harden by evaporating setting or cooling

Many natural and synthetic resins can beshycome liquid by dissolving When the solvent evaporates the material eturns to its original

FI GUR E8-8 Ri chard ReooK Veil Mltltcrials carry visua l and psyd1ological ill((510115 whICh can add strong levels lit experience to rel 1tively simple torms_ In thi Cltlse th~ d~ l)se in dust riltll over(one~ oi

cast iron Mid an obciufolte ltlggresgtiveness to its horn sh ltl pe Th E bi t of dt(1 ~ ilk is In complete ( onl(151 but genlly l lld eloquent ly completes the form The effect is bltl llnce and harmon y where opposi tes unite ltlnd lesolw one another Rezac drew his inspir(l tlon from warr ior figures rn Buddhist temples that worshippers had iestooned With l)right d oth

Source Court~) oi ~I hiHrl R~z I C

Tom ject ners but j will dive ~cted wi11

FIGURE 8-2 Jerry PeMt Splash 198() Peart is nOted for his Ktiv( planur comshyposit ions md hi ~ equll1y ltrctive colors He painls his welded aluminllnl forms w ith highly samaier colors and lrlnSshyforms them into solid slabs of COIOl$lhltl1 stem 10 hwe come 10 life The aluminum substrate is completely hidden It5 purshy1)QSe WilS to creale tl Sirong lightweight Structure ilnd a surflce highly rccept i ~e 10 p int The ltlltist 5 goIs 10 Khieve J scu lptu re seemin~l y ftlb riC ill~d from color itself

Source Cou rt e~y III Jerry Pean

Chapter H C(Iur ()( 1MUIfiul H ~

FIGU RE 8-3 Sruct Beasley Offspring 111995 Looking l ike J

cross betweer urban architecture locl desert mesas this sculpture h1$ strikshyingly eilpressiveuro surtaces Be1sley has exploited the reuroltlctivi l of bronze 10 1 wide variety or chemicals middotlo creale an earthy rainbow of plIrilliJs Since the pltinas Me chemic 1chmgpound5 in Ihe bronzt itself this type of Co1()(alion preserve-s the import ot the maleria ls lex t1lfl

$O(C( OIigtpmlB II Cl t bronze 1995 S h x i w x 7middot (I CfllHl(Sy-1 Gwen(1J JjyArldinglon Cll1tryISrucC BC~~llY

R4 UlOJ)Ilf A Color unci HW(fi(lJ

reflect flamelike co lors that will project dra shyma tically onto a white material

Transparent panes of s ta ined glass or col ored translucent plastics may also be employed within a des ign to cast colors on neighboring forms or to act as colored filte rs througb which other forms might be viewed

TEXTURE

Texture is both vis ua l and tactile Most visual responses t o t exture are through ta ctile assoshyciations re lying on pas t experiences of having touched other s imila rly tex tured s urfaces

Tactility elicits ve ry phys ical and dir ect reshys ponses the body and not jus t the eyes sense texture

A velvety surfa ce willikely lure the viewmiddot er and invite touch A splin tered surface will tend to repel touch Smoothness and roughness descJibe degtees of surface agitation in which smooth surfaces are ca lme r while rough surmiddot faces are more disturbed

The descriptive words in the last paragraph inviterepelca1m agitated and disturbed ass ign emotional responses to texture Texture touches emotions mOIe than logic and thus corshyrelates with the kind of psychological moods evoked by color Between blue and red the calmer

FICURE 8-4 Richard Wh iteley Blue Wedge Slawed sla ~5 is iHguably the most dramalic example of inherel1l color In the n1nds 01 a master craftsperson II tlkes on crysllt1 li ine lUCidity that mimics light itself l ight flher~1 th rough this glass is transshyfOrmed II tltlkes on a soft refrucive glow

Whiteley capitalizes on these quaitie~ with il sleek minimal form and punctuil ting detai ls Source Richard WllIrl y Glue Wldge The 3ullsec ConnClttion GJlcry

Clluplcr R COOf on( lu(Tilli 8 5

FI GU RE 8-1 ThomilS Skomski Interminable The lower tw lf of $komskj s sculplure i~ il blKkeneci sleel (lg iloorerl wi th a ~ hiny copper sheet th ~ t rellec $ il strong fi ery C010r onlO the wO 11 13) plJci ng shards of )11110 randomly over the (Op pe Iht sculptor breaks the reflecteurod light inlo fl1mes lick ing 11 the undershyside of a wax beam The ma~ 01 wax seems aboullO succumb to Ihe Hheal of his illusory fire Source Courtesy o Thom)~ Skomski

color blue con elates to smooth surfaces a nd red a more exciting color to agitated surfaces

TEXTURE AND VALUE

Unli ke point line plane and volume which co nshytribute more s tructured and quantitative aspects to form color aod tex tu re team up to add more qualitative emotiona l aspects Both the q uantishytative and the qualitative are needed for tru ly efshyfective form

The most visual-a nd measured-function of surface tex tures is the ir capacity for modushy

lat ing light uollle Ligh t va lue is the measure of reflected light from a s lirface t he da rkness or lightness of that sUiface A white sUIface that is perfect ly smooth will reflect its full whiteness The more textured the surface the more shadmiddot ow is created and the less light is r eflected Rougher surfaces yield darker grays

PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL

The cul tural associations and visual cha ractershyist ics of materials are clucial to the expressive ri chness of a form The physical properties of

FIGURE 8- 6 TexureVave Samples SUIace tektures modulate the light hillmg sculpture and this Can imp1rt colorisic eflects One diect is the darkening value th1 t the increilse in minute shilclow~

can cause A~llIf is the psychological difference between reliltively pllcid and elil tllely asitated surfKes SOlfel Courle-y 01 the iluthOf

FIGU RE 8-7 Rob lor~nson SJelfer Materials ddd both visual and J550clIive qua lit ies to J spJlial form TIle scrap tires from which this SCUlpUfl was W)vell arid dense teklufil l iayers to i1 relatively sim)le form The lire snaps llso act iva te associations 10 automobil e junkY1lds 1 shltlf) contrast to the temp lehke imuse they form SuIfee Courtesy of Roll Lo(~n50l1_

ChUp r( f H CI)ol (llld lultfi(J i 87

matedals though permit the a ct ua l realization of a form in space that is the ca pa city of mateshyrials to acqfttre and to maintain form in space

Acquiring Form

A number of terms describe the capaci ty of a material to acquire form Plasticity measures a materials ability to be worked inlo a new form elrtSlicity measures its te ndency to feturn to its original form Rubber bands are elastic beca use when stretched they will snap back into shape while clay is plastic because when st retched it will bold its new shape

Sculptors who a r e ca sting p las t e r a r e conshycerned with viscosity ie how resis tant to flow is the mixture vmiddotl ith which they are working A lower viscosity plaster mix will flow into areas of smaller detail Woodworkers on the other hand may favor high viscosity glue that can be applied without dri pping

Machineability is the ease with wh ich a material can be cut to shape Machining is a subshy

tractive process Dr illi ng planing sawing chisshyeling a brading and the like are all examples of machining All enta iJ the use of a harder mateshyrial whose edges to cut away a softer material

Ca sting

Some ma teria ls will easi ly change from a liquid to a solid state In t hat Hquid state they can be poured to fill a negati ve form Once soshylidified the material will have become a positive version of the negative This is the process of casting

The negative form may be bullt directly or i t may be a mold taken from a pos itive origshyina l called a p(lttern Expendable a nd ea sily sh aped materials lend themselves to pattern making

The liquid state of casting ma terials ca n harden by evaporating setting or cooling

Many natural and synthetic resins can beshycome liquid by dissolving When the solvent evaporates the material eturns to its original

FI GUR E8-8 Ri chard ReooK Veil Mltltcrials carry visua l and psyd1ological ill((510115 whICh can add strong levels lit experience to rel 1tively simple torms_ In thi Cltlse th~ d~ l)se in dust riltll over(one~ oi

cast iron Mid an obciufolte ltlggresgtiveness to its horn sh ltl pe Th E bi t of dt(1 ~ ilk is In complete ( onl(151 but genlly l lld eloquent ly completes the form The effect is bltl llnce and harmon y where opposi tes unite ltlnd lesolw one another Rezac drew his inspir(l tlon from warr ior figures rn Buddhist temples that worshippers had iestooned With l)right d oth

Source Court~) oi ~I hiHrl R~z I C

R4 UlOJ)Ilf A Color unci HW(fi(lJ

reflect flamelike co lors that will project dra shyma tically onto a white material

Transparent panes of s ta ined glass or col ored translucent plastics may also be employed within a des ign to cast colors on neighboring forms or to act as colored filte rs througb which other forms might be viewed

TEXTURE

Texture is both vis ua l and tactile Most visual responses t o t exture are through ta ctile assoshyciations re lying on pas t experiences of having touched other s imila rly tex tured s urfaces

Tactility elicits ve ry phys ical and dir ect reshys ponses the body and not jus t the eyes sense texture

A velvety surfa ce willikely lure the viewmiddot er and invite touch A splin tered surface will tend to repel touch Smoothness and roughness descJibe degtees of surface agitation in which smooth surfaces are ca lme r while rough surmiddot faces are more disturbed

The descriptive words in the last paragraph inviterepelca1m agitated and disturbed ass ign emotional responses to texture Texture touches emotions mOIe than logic and thus corshyrelates with the kind of psychological moods evoked by color Between blue and red the calmer

FICURE 8-4 Richard Wh iteley Blue Wedge Slawed sla ~5 is iHguably the most dramalic example of inherel1l color In the n1nds 01 a master craftsperson II tlkes on crysllt1 li ine lUCidity that mimics light itself l ight flher~1 th rough this glass is transshyfOrmed II tltlkes on a soft refrucive glow

Whiteley capitalizes on these quaitie~ with il sleek minimal form and punctuil ting detai ls Source Richard WllIrl y Glue Wldge The 3ullsec ConnClttion GJlcry

Clluplcr R COOf on( lu(Tilli 8 5

FI GU RE 8-1 ThomilS Skomski Interminable The lower tw lf of $komskj s sculplure i~ il blKkeneci sleel (lg iloorerl wi th a ~ hiny copper sheet th ~ t rellec $ il strong fi ery C010r onlO the wO 11 13) plJci ng shards of )11110 randomly over the (Op pe Iht sculptor breaks the reflecteurod light inlo fl1mes lick ing 11 the undershyside of a wax beam The ma~ 01 wax seems aboullO succumb to Ihe Hheal of his illusory fire Source Courtesy o Thom)~ Skomski

color blue con elates to smooth surfaces a nd red a more exciting color to agitated surfaces

TEXTURE AND VALUE

Unli ke point line plane and volume which co nshytribute more s tructured and quantitative aspects to form color aod tex tu re team up to add more qualitative emotiona l aspects Both the q uantishytative and the qualitative are needed for tru ly efshyfective form

The most visual-a nd measured-function of surface tex tures is the ir capacity for modushy

lat ing light uollle Ligh t va lue is the measure of reflected light from a s lirface t he da rkness or lightness of that sUiface A white sUIface that is perfect ly smooth will reflect its full whiteness The more textured the surface the more shadmiddot ow is created and the less light is r eflected Rougher surfaces yield darker grays

PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL

The cul tural associations and visual cha ractershyist ics of materials are clucial to the expressive ri chness of a form The physical properties of

FIGURE 8- 6 TexureVave Samples SUIace tektures modulate the light hillmg sculpture and this Can imp1rt colorisic eflects One diect is the darkening value th1 t the increilse in minute shilclow~

can cause A~llIf is the psychological difference between reliltively pllcid and elil tllely asitated surfKes SOlfel Courle-y 01 the iluthOf

FIGU RE 8-7 Rob lor~nson SJelfer Materials ddd both visual and J550clIive qua lit ies to J spJlial form TIle scrap tires from which this SCUlpUfl was W)vell arid dense teklufil l iayers to i1 relatively sim)le form The lire snaps llso act iva te associations 10 automobil e junkY1lds 1 shltlf) contrast to the temp lehke imuse they form SuIfee Courtesy of Roll Lo(~n50l1_

ChUp r( f H CI)ol (llld lultfi(J i 87

matedals though permit the a ct ua l realization of a form in space that is the ca pa city of mateshyrials to acqfttre and to maintain form in space

Acquiring Form

A number of terms describe the capaci ty of a material to acquire form Plasticity measures a materials ability to be worked inlo a new form elrtSlicity measures its te ndency to feturn to its original form Rubber bands are elastic beca use when stretched they will snap back into shape while clay is plastic because when st retched it will bold its new shape

Sculptors who a r e ca sting p las t e r a r e conshycerned with viscosity ie how resis tant to flow is the mixture vmiddotl ith which they are working A lower viscosity plaster mix will flow into areas of smaller detail Woodworkers on the other hand may favor high viscosity glue that can be applied without dri pping

Machineability is the ease with wh ich a material can be cut to shape Machining is a subshy

tractive process Dr illi ng planing sawing chisshyeling a brading and the like are all examples of machining All enta iJ the use of a harder mateshyrial whose edges to cut away a softer material

Ca sting

Some ma teria ls will easi ly change from a liquid to a solid state In t hat Hquid state they can be poured to fill a negati ve form Once soshylidified the material will have become a positive version of the negative This is the process of casting

The negative form may be bullt directly or i t may be a mold taken from a pos itive origshyina l called a p(lttern Expendable a nd ea sily sh aped materials lend themselves to pattern making

The liquid state of casting ma terials ca n harden by evaporating setting or cooling

Many natural and synthetic resins can beshycome liquid by dissolving When the solvent evaporates the material eturns to its original

FI GUR E8-8 Ri chard ReooK Veil Mltltcrials carry visua l and psyd1ological ill((510115 whICh can add strong levels lit experience to rel 1tively simple torms_ In thi Cltlse th~ d~ l)se in dust riltll over(one~ oi

cast iron Mid an obciufolte ltlggresgtiveness to its horn sh ltl pe Th E bi t of dt(1 ~ ilk is In complete ( onl(151 but genlly l lld eloquent ly completes the form The effect is bltl llnce and harmon y where opposi tes unite ltlnd lesolw one another Rezac drew his inspir(l tlon from warr ior figures rn Buddhist temples that worshippers had iestooned With l)right d oth

Source Court~) oi ~I hiHrl R~z I C

Clluplcr R COOf on( lu(Tilli 8 5

FI GU RE 8-1 ThomilS Skomski Interminable The lower tw lf of $komskj s sculplure i~ il blKkeneci sleel (lg iloorerl wi th a ~ hiny copper sheet th ~ t rellec $ il strong fi ery C010r onlO the wO 11 13) plJci ng shards of )11110 randomly over the (Op pe Iht sculptor breaks the reflecteurod light inlo fl1mes lick ing 11 the undershyside of a wax beam The ma~ 01 wax seems aboullO succumb to Ihe Hheal of his illusory fire Source Courtesy o Thom)~ Skomski

color blue con elates to smooth surfaces a nd red a more exciting color to agitated surfaces

TEXTURE AND VALUE

Unli ke point line plane and volume which co nshytribute more s tructured and quantitative aspects to form color aod tex tu re team up to add more qualitative emotiona l aspects Both the q uantishytative and the qualitative are needed for tru ly efshyfective form

The most visual-a nd measured-function of surface tex tures is the ir capacity for modushy

lat ing light uollle Ligh t va lue is the measure of reflected light from a s lirface t he da rkness or lightness of that sUiface A white sUIface that is perfect ly smooth will reflect its full whiteness The more textured the surface the more shadmiddot ow is created and the less light is r eflected Rougher surfaces yield darker grays

PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL

The cul tural associations and visual cha ractershyist ics of materials are clucial to the expressive ri chness of a form The physical properties of

FIGURE 8- 6 TexureVave Samples SUIace tektures modulate the light hillmg sculpture and this Can imp1rt colorisic eflects One diect is the darkening value th1 t the increilse in minute shilclow~

can cause A~llIf is the psychological difference between reliltively pllcid and elil tllely asitated surfKes SOlfel Courle-y 01 the iluthOf

FIGU RE 8-7 Rob lor~nson SJelfer Materials ddd both visual and J550clIive qua lit ies to J spJlial form TIle scrap tires from which this SCUlpUfl was W)vell arid dense teklufil l iayers to i1 relatively sim)le form The lire snaps llso act iva te associations 10 automobil e junkY1lds 1 shltlf) contrast to the temp lehke imuse they form SuIfee Courtesy of Roll Lo(~n50l1_

ChUp r( f H CI)ol (llld lultfi(J i 87

matedals though permit the a ct ua l realization of a form in space that is the ca pa city of mateshyrials to acqfttre and to maintain form in space

Acquiring Form

A number of terms describe the capaci ty of a material to acquire form Plasticity measures a materials ability to be worked inlo a new form elrtSlicity measures its te ndency to feturn to its original form Rubber bands are elastic beca use when stretched they will snap back into shape while clay is plastic because when st retched it will bold its new shape

Sculptors who a r e ca sting p las t e r a r e conshycerned with viscosity ie how resis tant to flow is the mixture vmiddotl ith which they are working A lower viscosity plaster mix will flow into areas of smaller detail Woodworkers on the other hand may favor high viscosity glue that can be applied without dri pping

Machineability is the ease with wh ich a material can be cut to shape Machining is a subshy

tractive process Dr illi ng planing sawing chisshyeling a brading and the like are all examples of machining All enta iJ the use of a harder mateshyrial whose edges to cut away a softer material

Ca sting

Some ma teria ls will easi ly change from a liquid to a solid state In t hat Hquid state they can be poured to fill a negati ve form Once soshylidified the material will have become a positive version of the negative This is the process of casting

The negative form may be bullt directly or i t may be a mold taken from a pos itive origshyina l called a p(lttern Expendable a nd ea sily sh aped materials lend themselves to pattern making

The liquid state of casting ma terials ca n harden by evaporating setting or cooling

Many natural and synthetic resins can beshycome liquid by dissolving When the solvent evaporates the material eturns to its original

FI GUR E8-8 Ri chard ReooK Veil Mltltcrials carry visua l and psyd1ological ill((510115 whICh can add strong levels lit experience to rel 1tively simple torms_ In thi Cltlse th~ d~ l)se in dust riltll over(one~ oi

cast iron Mid an obciufolte ltlggresgtiveness to its horn sh ltl pe Th E bi t of dt(1 ~ ilk is In complete ( onl(151 but genlly l lld eloquent ly completes the form The effect is bltl llnce and harmon y where opposi tes unite ltlnd lesolw one another Rezac drew his inspir(l tlon from warr ior figures rn Buddhist temples that worshippers had iestooned With l)right d oth

Source Court~) oi ~I hiHrl R~z I C

FIGURE 8- 6 TexureVave Samples SUIace tektures modulate the light hillmg sculpture and this Can imp1rt colorisic eflects One diect is the darkening value th1 t the increilse in minute shilclow~

can cause A~llIf is the psychological difference between reliltively pllcid and elil tllely asitated surfKes SOlfel Courle-y 01 the iluthOf

FIGU RE 8-7 Rob lor~nson SJelfer Materials ddd both visual and J550clIive qua lit ies to J spJlial form TIle scrap tires from which this SCUlpUfl was W)vell arid dense teklufil l iayers to i1 relatively sim)le form The lire snaps llso act iva te associations 10 automobil e junkY1lds 1 shltlf) contrast to the temp lehke imuse they form SuIfee Courtesy of Roll Lo(~n50l1_

ChUp r( f H CI)ol (llld lultfi(J i 87

matedals though permit the a ct ua l realization of a form in space that is the ca pa city of mateshyrials to acqfttre and to maintain form in space

Acquiring Form

A number of terms describe the capaci ty of a material to acquire form Plasticity measures a materials ability to be worked inlo a new form elrtSlicity measures its te ndency to feturn to its original form Rubber bands are elastic beca use when stretched they will snap back into shape while clay is plastic because when st retched it will bold its new shape

Sculptors who a r e ca sting p las t e r a r e conshycerned with viscosity ie how resis tant to flow is the mixture vmiddotl ith which they are working A lower viscosity plaster mix will flow into areas of smaller detail Woodworkers on the other hand may favor high viscosity glue that can be applied without dri pping

Machineability is the ease with wh ich a material can be cut to shape Machining is a subshy

tractive process Dr illi ng planing sawing chisshyeling a brading and the like are all examples of machining All enta iJ the use of a harder mateshyrial whose edges to cut away a softer material

Ca sting

Some ma teria ls will easi ly change from a liquid to a solid state In t hat Hquid state they can be poured to fill a negati ve form Once soshylidified the material will have become a positive version of the negative This is the process of casting

The negative form may be bullt directly or i t may be a mold taken from a pos itive origshyina l called a p(lttern Expendable a nd ea sily sh aped materials lend themselves to pattern making

The liquid state of casting ma terials ca n harden by evaporating setting or cooling

Many natural and synthetic resins can beshycome liquid by dissolving When the solvent evaporates the material eturns to its original

FI GUR E8-8 Ri chard ReooK Veil Mltltcrials carry visua l and psyd1ological ill((510115 whICh can add strong levels lit experience to rel 1tively simple torms_ In thi Cltlse th~ d~ l)se in dust riltll over(one~ oi

cast iron Mid an obciufolte ltlggresgtiveness to its horn sh ltl pe Th E bi t of dt(1 ~ ilk is In complete ( onl(151 but genlly l lld eloquent ly completes the form The effect is bltl llnce and harmon y where opposi tes unite ltlnd lesolw one another Rezac drew his inspir(l tlon from warr ior figures rn Buddhist temples that worshippers had iestooned With l)right d oth

Source Court~) oi ~I hiHrl R~z I C

ChUp r( f H CI)ol (llld lultfi(J i 87

matedals though permit the a ct ua l realization of a form in space that is the ca pa city of mateshyrials to acqfttre and to maintain form in space

Acquiring Form

A number of terms describe the capaci ty of a material to acquire form Plasticity measures a materials ability to be worked inlo a new form elrtSlicity measures its te ndency to feturn to its original form Rubber bands are elastic beca use when stretched they will snap back into shape while clay is plastic because when st retched it will bold its new shape

Sculptors who a r e ca sting p las t e r a r e conshycerned with viscosity ie how resis tant to flow is the mixture vmiddotl ith which they are working A lower viscosity plaster mix will flow into areas of smaller detail Woodworkers on the other hand may favor high viscosity glue that can be applied without dri pping

Machineability is the ease with wh ich a material can be cut to shape Machining is a subshy

tractive process Dr illi ng planing sawing chisshyeling a brading and the like are all examples of machining All enta iJ the use of a harder mateshyrial whose edges to cut away a softer material

Ca sting

Some ma teria ls will easi ly change from a liquid to a solid state In t hat Hquid state they can be poured to fill a negati ve form Once soshylidified the material will have become a positive version of the negative This is the process of casting

The negative form may be bullt directly or i t may be a mold taken from a pos itive origshyina l called a p(lttern Expendable a nd ea sily sh aped materials lend themselves to pattern making

The liquid state of casting ma terials ca n harden by evaporating setting or cooling

Many natural and synthetic resins can beshycome liquid by dissolving When the solvent evaporates the material eturns to its original

FI GUR E8-8 Ri chard ReooK Veil Mltltcrials carry visua l and psyd1ological ill((510115 whICh can add strong levels lit experience to rel 1tively simple torms_ In thi Cltlse th~ d~ l)se in dust riltll over(one~ oi

cast iron Mid an obciufolte ltlggresgtiveness to its horn sh ltl pe Th E bi t of dt(1 ~ ilk is In complete ( onl(151 but genlly l lld eloquent ly completes the form The effect is bltl llnce and harmon y where opposi tes unite ltlnd lesolw one another Rezac drew his inspir(l tlon from warr ior figures rn Buddhist temples that worshippers had iestooned With l)right d oth

Source Court~) oi ~I hiHrl R~z I C

H~ C)upf(( - Cr (In( werloJ

FIGURE 8-9 Casting Patl(m Ncgali~e and Positive Casting is l common ly used process lor makmg ever r~pllcalions 01 1 SilglC form Its most imfXIrtant sctr lplur l ilpplicalion however is 10 tralls Wi

forrlll rom ltIn easilr workld nd les l1oble ~ millerial ((g plaster) to a more durlble 1I1dor expressiveshyly aprgtmlJri 1tc Ollterial ((g bronze) In 1he ilrsl C1SE J ourahle mold which will hold mult iple ( st ings IS nllt~SiH y In the lJller Cdse iI rl iposll)le mold (ntendd (or onl ue mar be su(iicienL

S O (lr( Coul(es~ oi thC Juhur

solid state Because the solven t is leaving the solu t ion the cas ting will shrink somewhat

During setting a liquid mixture undergoes a chemical reaction usually catalyzing as with many plas tics or hydration as with plaster and concrete When plaster hydrates wa ter reacts chemica lly with the plaster powder to return it to its natural state as gyps um a soft white rock Sett ing gives off heat which can ca use burns when in contact with the skin

Metal s and some plastics melt when heatshyed and harden when cooled This process is also call ed thermo-setting

STRENGTH

If a material is to maintain its form it must withshystand the forces to which it wi ll be subject Strength measures thi s resistance to force

The two majOio types of strengths of mateshyri a ls are compressive strength and tensile strength which measures a materials resistance to compres ion and tension Compression is a pushing fOAoce whjle tension is a pulling force

A material like s teel with great compresshysive and tensile strength can be strong in virtushy

aHy any geometrically stable pattem Nicknamed the mathema ticians material steel and its alshyloys are the materials most responsible fol the inshycredible array offonns in modern art and design

Steel boasts 70000 to 130000 lb per square inch of both compressive and tensile strength By contrast limes tone the most comshymon building stone commands a compressive strength of 2000 to 14000 lb per square inch against a tensile strength of about 50 to 400 lb per square inch Manufactured from limestone concrete features these same strengths Masonshyry s tructures must therefore exploit structural form s that maximize compression and minimize tension The most common device for this is the arch_Invented in the ancient MiddJe East the arch re-distributes the compress ive force inshyduced by grav ity to eithe r side thus permitting wide spans ofspace Prior to the invention of the arch s tones pOOl tensile strength prevented all but very narrow spans

COMPOSITES

Two or more substances of differing s trengths may merge to form composite m ate rial s with

(JlUpler 8 Color (111( I(II(rjul tN

FICURE 8-10 Structural failure in stone Sotfee Courlcsy oj the ~ulhor

FIGU RE 8--11 Tfilithons Stonehenge The eadiest nrchitecture like these stone sJXlns from 1800 SCE used ltl simple posi-and-imel construction This met hod was limited to very narrow spans beshy(i1U$euro the linte l or spmning stone lended to crack under its own weight A$lhe spitn increilsed so did the stones tcm lency to Sltlg Eventually the sag caused the stone to pull aparl and CflCk (rom lIs underside

Source Courte~y of the lulhor

d 1shy)shy

n

Ie n shyve ch lb oe )nshyral lize the the inshy

~ing the l all

Igtbs with

(1(1 l ief 8 COOf (111(1 Jowriu

FI GURE 8--12 Arch The l rch pound- lim inltl les tile Tension cau5ed by Sl g ilnd coniLgures the ~1one to d istribshyute it s w eight llong lines (j( commiddot pression A~ weiSht presselt onto the ceneroi Ill arch the topmost stone or k~)s(one acts a~ ) wed IV d irect till weight to tht side EilCh HK cessive ~ tone picks up the compression and continues to deshyHee it Sidways until it meets the ~uppor t i ng wall Th iS wall is ord ishynlr i ly fairly massive as Lt must supmiddot port all of the weight diverted by the archs geometry

5ource COurlesy or th(middot author

FIGURE 8-13 Highway Overpass Concrete beams maniiest the S(1me strength as ~ t n l1e but rt1ilybc l ast with Sleel ro(b embedded in them This 1dds tenSi le rcn(orcemtmt Clnd enl bles Ih( (OI1Cl cle to cOtlnter the tension brOllght 011 by sag The resu lt IS the bilily to Sj)lt1n 1m greater cli $til llce~ li ke thosl requiled of thi s hi glwilY overpil5S_

Source uurtcv or the author

CiJUJ)ltf - Cr lIlld lu(rioJ 9 1

FIGURE 8- 14 Mark Kld~~en Support Structure Miltcriill~ (an combine tor both tructUIll md symbolic cnd~ (onshycrete bon and wood afe all slrLlctLl rll rnlleri1I but can sPJrk very drfferent 1~SOCIltlon~ H lr( concrete providC5 1

sturdy yenchitecturll toundltron whll the IVQod I~ crrttcd like fine church furniture Th dtltf ~pim~ retrieved from lt1

rOleSI flool revivlts It okl r(l le l~ 1 SPJllnllig ~tructlU t Ihi~

time in lt1 more geometric IIKJmll lon

5oxrce (0(1$ I Mor I(L

characteristics of both of the original subshystances

The most common method of creating comshyposites is reinforcing Reinforcing introduces a material known for its tensile strength into a material chalacte ri zed by compressive strength

FICURE 8- 15 Ioredo TJ(t Time (rom Fountain of Tfme Tah~ illnoUS sculpturt WlS fabrrltatcd in ferromiddotconcrete a technical i nuvatioll for sltulpturc at dlill ti le An Mrna middot twe or den~f ~leellne$h Wl~ IlIlpr~gllJrcd lt11ld SUrfaced wilh iI fille AweglIe concrele The resultlllg sculpture was light sillce it gtrnered gr(~lt Strenfth IrOIll 1 thill_ composmiddot illt shltll After iO yelr~ thi$ ~Clrlptl re IS In dire need of ren shy(Nation

(lure (middotOfI ) the ~IJ

to produce a composite with hoth s trengths Classic examples ale horseh a ir or sisal fibers mixed into plaster or ferro -concrete concrete imshypregnated with wire mesh

One of the most dra matic examples of comshyposite construction is the reinforced shell very

(JlUpler 8 Color (111( I(II(rjul tN

FICURE 8-10 Structural failure in stone Sotfee Courlcsy oj the ~ulhor

FIGU RE 8--11 Tfilithons Stonehenge The eadiest nrchitecture like these stone sJXlns from 1800 SCE used ltl simple posi-and-imel construction This met hod was limited to very narrow spans beshy(i1U$euro the linte l or spmning stone lended to crack under its own weight A$lhe spitn increilsed so did the stones tcm lency to Sltlg Eventually the sag caused the stone to pull aparl and CflCk (rom lIs underside

Source Courte~y of the lulhor

d 1shy)shy

n

Ie n shyve ch lb oe )nshyral lize the the inshy

~ing the l all

Igtbs with

(1(1 l ief 8 COOf (111(1 Jowriu

FI GURE 8--12 Arch The l rch pound- lim inltl les tile Tension cau5ed by Sl g ilnd coniLgures the ~1one to d istribshyute it s w eight llong lines (j( commiddot pression A~ weiSht presselt onto the ceneroi Ill arch the topmost stone or k~)s(one acts a~ ) wed IV d irect till weight to tht side EilCh HK cessive ~ tone picks up the compression and continues to deshyHee it Sidways until it meets the ~uppor t i ng wall Th iS wall is ord ishynlr i ly fairly massive as Lt must supmiddot port all of the weight diverted by the archs geometry

5ource COurlesy or th(middot author

FIGURE 8-13 Highway Overpass Concrete beams maniiest the S(1me strength as ~ t n l1e but rt1ilybc l ast with Sleel ro(b embedded in them This 1dds tenSi le rcn(orcemtmt Clnd enl bles Ih( (OI1Cl cle to cOtlnter the tension brOllght 011 by sag The resu lt IS the bilily to Sj)lt1n 1m greater cli $til llce~ li ke thosl requiled of thi s hi glwilY overpil5S_

Source uurtcv or the author

CiJUJ)ltf - Cr lIlld lu(rioJ 9 1

FIGURE 8- 14 Mark Kld~~en Support Structure Miltcriill~ (an combine tor both tructUIll md symbolic cnd~ (onshycrete bon and wood afe all slrLlctLl rll rnlleri1I but can sPJrk very drfferent 1~SOCIltlon~ H lr( concrete providC5 1

sturdy yenchitecturll toundltron whll the IVQod I~ crrttcd like fine church furniture Th dtltf ~pim~ retrieved from lt1

rOleSI flool revivlts It okl r(l le l~ 1 SPJllnllig ~tructlU t Ihi~

time in lt1 more geometric IIKJmll lon

5oxrce (0(1$ I Mor I(L

characteristics of both of the original subshystances

The most common method of creating comshyposites is reinforcing Reinforcing introduces a material known for its tensile strength into a material chalacte ri zed by compressive strength

FICURE 8- 15 Ioredo TJ(t Time (rom Fountain of Tfme Tah~ illnoUS sculpturt WlS fabrrltatcd in ferromiddotconcrete a technical i nuvatioll for sltulpturc at dlill ti le An Mrna middot twe or den~f ~leellne$h Wl~ IlIlpr~gllJrcd lt11ld SUrfaced wilh iI fille AweglIe concrele The resultlllg sculpture was light sillce it gtrnered gr(~lt Strenfth IrOIll 1 thill_ composmiddot illt shltll After iO yelr~ thi$ ~Clrlptl re IS In dire need of ren shy(Nation

(lure (middotOfI ) the ~IJ

to produce a composite with hoth s trengths Classic examples ale horseh a ir or sisal fibers mixed into plaster or ferro -concrete concrete imshypregnated with wire mesh

One of the most dra matic examples of comshyposite construction is the reinforced shell very

(1(1 l ief 8 COOf (111(1 Jowriu

FI GURE 8--12 Arch The l rch pound- lim inltl les tile Tension cau5ed by Sl g ilnd coniLgures the ~1one to d istribshyute it s w eight llong lines (j( commiddot pression A~ weiSht presselt onto the ceneroi Ill arch the topmost stone or k~)s(one acts a~ ) wed IV d irect till weight to tht side EilCh HK cessive ~ tone picks up the compression and continues to deshyHee it Sidways until it meets the ~uppor t i ng wall Th iS wall is ord ishynlr i ly fairly massive as Lt must supmiddot port all of the weight diverted by the archs geometry

5ource COurlesy or th(middot author

FIGURE 8-13 Highway Overpass Concrete beams maniiest the S(1me strength as ~ t n l1e but rt1ilybc l ast with Sleel ro(b embedded in them This 1dds tenSi le rcn(orcemtmt Clnd enl bles Ih( (OI1Cl cle to cOtlnter the tension brOllght 011 by sag The resu lt IS the bilily to Sj)lt1n 1m greater cli $til llce~ li ke thosl requiled of thi s hi glwilY overpil5S_

Source uurtcv or the author

CiJUJ)ltf - Cr lIlld lu(rioJ 9 1

FIGURE 8- 14 Mark Kld~~en Support Structure Miltcriill~ (an combine tor both tructUIll md symbolic cnd~ (onshycrete bon and wood afe all slrLlctLl rll rnlleri1I but can sPJrk very drfferent 1~SOCIltlon~ H lr( concrete providC5 1

sturdy yenchitecturll toundltron whll the IVQod I~ crrttcd like fine church furniture Th dtltf ~pim~ retrieved from lt1

rOleSI flool revivlts It okl r(l le l~ 1 SPJllnllig ~tructlU t Ihi~

time in lt1 more geometric IIKJmll lon

5oxrce (0(1$ I Mor I(L

characteristics of both of the original subshystances

The most common method of creating comshyposites is reinforcing Reinforcing introduces a material known for its tensile strength into a material chalacte ri zed by compressive strength

FICURE 8- 15 Ioredo TJ(t Time (rom Fountain of Tfme Tah~ illnoUS sculpturt WlS fabrrltatcd in ferromiddotconcrete a technical i nuvatioll for sltulpturc at dlill ti le An Mrna middot twe or den~f ~leellne$h Wl~ IlIlpr~gllJrcd lt11ld SUrfaced wilh iI fille AweglIe concrele The resultlllg sculpture was light sillce it gtrnered gr(~lt Strenfth IrOIll 1 thill_ composmiddot illt shltll After iO yelr~ thi$ ~Clrlptl re IS In dire need of ren shy(Nation

(lure (middotOfI ) the ~IJ

to produce a composite with hoth s trengths Classic examples ale horseh a ir or sisal fibers mixed into plaster or ferro -concrete concrete imshypregnated with wire mesh

One of the most dra matic examples of comshyposite construction is the reinforced shell very

CiJUJ)ltf - Cr lIlld lu(rioJ 9 1

FIGURE 8- 14 Mark Kld~~en Support Structure Miltcriill~ (an combine tor both tructUIll md symbolic cnd~ (onshycrete bon and wood afe all slrLlctLl rll rnlleri1I but can sPJrk very drfferent 1~SOCIltlon~ H lr( concrete providC5 1

sturdy yenchitecturll toundltron whll the IVQod I~ crrttcd like fine church furniture Th dtltf ~pim~ retrieved from lt1

rOleSI flool revivlts It okl r(l le l~ 1 SPJllnllig ~tructlU t Ihi~

time in lt1 more geometric IIKJmll lon

5oxrce (0(1$ I Mor I(L

characteristics of both of the original subshystances

The most common method of creating comshyposites is reinforcing Reinforcing introduces a material known for its tensile strength into a material chalacte ri zed by compressive strength

FICURE 8- 15 Ioredo TJ(t Time (rom Fountain of Tfme Tah~ illnoUS sculpturt WlS fabrrltatcd in ferromiddotconcrete a technical i nuvatioll for sltulpturc at dlill ti le An Mrna middot twe or den~f ~leellne$h Wl~ IlIlpr~gllJrcd lt11ld SUrfaced wilh iI fille AweglIe concrele The resultlllg sculpture was light sillce it gtrnered gr(~lt Strenfth IrOIll 1 thill_ composmiddot illt shltll After iO yelr~ thi$ ~Clrlptl re IS In dire need of ren shy(Nation

(lure (middotOfI ) the ~IJ

to produce a composite with hoth s trengths Classic examples ale horseh a ir or sisal fibers mixed into plaster or ferro -concrete concrete imshypregnated with wire mesh

One of the most dra matic examples of comshyposite construction is the reinforced shell very

2

J2 CJOp lltf L v o r (11(1 lule riol

FI GURE 8-16 Jom living ~ l ()ne Dyads In Livingstones work indll$trI lt11 fe lt provided the tensile fiber and epoxy resin contributes rigidIty and compressive stlenglh The hollow half archi teltl ural half organic chnltlcter of the two-pM sculp ture comes to the [ore due to its unusual cOnllJosilion of mMel ials These are like swn sepulchers

Source Counclty 01 the private colieci ()n (If loon l lvingta ne

strong thin curving spans that can enclose large interior volumes During World War II Italy conshystructed ferro-concrete battleships Cannon proshyjectiles reportedly bounced off their huBs

A major purpose of composites is to devel op materials with a high s trength-to-weight ratio Fiberglass canoes graphite golfclubs and even the foam board used in white models are composites Today materials scientis ts are workshying at the molecular leve l to create an entirely new generation of composites