Any design-submission deliverables may include, but are not limited to:• cost estimates and reports• market survey• cost growth reports• space-type cost analysis• life-cycle cost analysis• value engineering studies• independent estimate reviews• budget analysis• construction award bid analysis• database information preparation• construction modifications & claims analysis• value engineering change proposals analysis (VECPS)• risk analysis reportsThe purpose is to establish a cost management system that tracks budgets established basedon the prospectus in a Uniformat Level II, comparing cost growth and cost modificationsfor all Uniformat Level II elements through design, procurement, construction and projectcompletion.

For new construction projects, the first study at concept design is intended to review basicdesign decisions that pertain to areas such as:• Siting and building orientation• Building form, shape, and massing• Layout• Proportion of occupiable area to gross area• Design criteria• Building systems selection options• Space program options• Building space/volume parameters• Vertical and horizontal circulation• Major mechanical-electrical-plumbing (MEP) considerations• Overall energy considerations• Site access/egress• Overall phasing/scheduling plans• Subsoil conditions and geological data• Utility availability

Design EstimatesIn the planning and design stages of a project, various design estimates reflect the progress of the design. At the very early stage, thescreening estimate or order of magnitude estimate is usually made before the facility is designed, and must therefore rely on the costdata of similar facilities built in the past. A preliminary estimate or conceptual estimate is based on the conceptual design of thefacility at the state when the basic technologies for the design are known. The detailed estimate or definitive estimate is made whenthe scope of work is clearly defined and the detailed design is in progress so that the essential features of the facility are identifiable.The engineer's estimate is based on the completed plans and specifications when they are ready for the owner to solicit bids from

construction contractors. In preparing these estimates, the design professional will include expected amounts for contractors' overheadand profits.The costs associated with a facility may be decomposed into a hierarchy of levels that are appropriate for the purpose of costestimation. The level of detail in decomposing the facility into tasks depends on the type of cost estimate to be prepared. Forconceptual estimates, for example, the level of detail in defining tasks is quite coarse; for detailed estimates, the level of detail can bequite fine.As an example, consider the cost estimates for a proposed bridge across a river. A screening estimate is made for each of the potentialalternatives, such as a tied arch bridge or a cantilever truss bridge. As the bridge type is selected, e.g. the technology is chosen to be atied arch bridge instead of some new bridge form, a preliminary estimate is made on the basis of the layout of the selected bridge formon the basis of the preliminary or conceptual design. When the detailed design has progressed to a point when the essential details areknown, a detailed estimate is made on the basis of the well defined scope of the project. When the detailed plans and specifications arecompleted, an engineer's estimate can be made on the basis of items and quantities of work.

Structural design is the methodical investigation of thestability, strength and rigidity of structures. The basicobjective in structural analysis and design is to producea structure capable of resisting all applied loads withoutfailure during its intended life. The primary purposeof a structure is to transmit or support loads. If thestructure is improperly designed or fabricated, or if theactual applied loads exceed the design specifications,the device will probably fail to perform its intendedfunction, with possible serious consequences. A wellengineeredstructure greatly minimizes the possibilityof costly failures.

Structural design processA structural design project may be divided into threephases, i.e. planning, design and construction.Planning: This phase involves consideration of thevarious requirements and factors affecting the generallayout and dimensions of the structure and results inthe choice of one or perhaps several alternative typesof structure, which offer the best general solution. Theprimary consideration is the function of the structure.Secondary considerations such as aesthetics, sociology,law, economics and the environment may also betaken into account. In addition there are structural andconstructional requirements and limitations, whichmay affect the type of structure to be designed.Design: This phase involves a detailed considerationof the alternative solutions defined in the planning phase

and results in the determination of the most suitableproportions, dimensions and details of the structuralelements and connections for constructing eachalternative structural arrangement being considered.Construction: This phase involves mobilization ofpersonnel; procurement of materials and equipment,including their transportation to the site, and actualon-site erection. During this phase, some redesignmay be required if unforeseen difficulties occur, suchas unavailability of specified materials or foundationproblems.

Philosophy of designingThe structural design of any structure first involvesestablishing the loading and other design conditions,which must be supported by the structure and thereforemust be considered in its design. This is followed by theanalysis and computation of internal gross forces, (i.e. thrust, shear, bending moments and twisting moments),as well as stress intensities, strain, deflection andreactions produced by loads, changes in temperature,shrinkage, creep and other design conditions. Finallycomes the proportioning and selection of materials forthe members and connections to respond adequately tothe effects produced by the design conditions.The criteria used to judge whether particularproportions will result in the desired behavior reflectaccumulated knowledge based on field and model tests,and practical experience. Intuition and judgment arealso important to this process.The traditional basis of design called elastic design isbased on allowable stress intensities which are chosenin accordance with the concept that stress or straincorresponds to the yield point of the material and shouldnot be exceeded at the most highly stressed points ofthe structure, the selection of failure due to fatigue,buckling or brittle fracture or by consideration of thepermissible deflection of the structure. The allowable– stress method has the important disadvantage in thatit does not provide a uniform overload capacity for allparts and all types of structures.The newer approach of design is called the strengthdesign in reinforced concrete literature and plastic designin steel-design literature. The anticipated service loadingis first multiplied by a suitable load factor, the magnitudeof which depends upon uncertainty of the loading, thepossibility of it changing during the life of the structureand for a combination of loadings, the likelihood,frequency, and duration of the particular combination. Inthis approach for reinforced-concrete design, theoreticalcapacity of a structural element is reduced by a capacityreduction

factor to provide for small adverse variationsin material strengths, workmanship and dimensions.The structure is then proportioned so that dependingon the governing conditions, the increased load causefatigue or buckling or a brittle-facture or just produceyielding at one internal section or sections or causeelastic-plastic displacement of the structure or cause theentire structure to be on the point of collapse.

It is an established fact that uncertainties are associated with loading, material properties, geometry and otheraspects of design of structure. These uncertainties must be taken into account in order to achieve a design that cantake care of the inadequacies associated with the code provisions. Reliability-based design approach was thereforeadopted for the design of a pitched portal frame.

There are many sources of uncertainties inherent in structural design. Despite whatdesigners often think, the parameters of the loading and load-carrying capacities of structuralmembers are not deterministic quantities (quantities which are perfectly known). They arerandom variables, and thus absolute safety (or zero probability of failure) cannot be achieved.Consequently, structures must be designed to serve their function with a finite probability offailure [2].Society expects engineering structures to be designed with a reasonable safety level. Inpractice, these expectations are achieved by specifying design values for minimum strengths,maximum allowable deflections, and so on. Code requirements have evolved to include designcriteria that take into account some of the sources of uncertainties in design. Such criteria areoften referred to as reliability-based design criteria.The resistance of a structural member and the loadings applied are functions of variousvariables, most of which are random [3]. Therefore, the use of reliability-based approach in thedesign of structures enables the structural safety to be treated in a more rational manner.The study of structural reliability is therefore concerned with the calculation andprediction of the probability of limit state violation for engineered structures at any stage duringtheir life. In particular, the study of structural safety is concerned with the violation of theultimate or serviceability limit states for the structure [4].

Cold formed steel section are extensively used in industrial and many other non-Industrial constructions worldwide. The design of industrial building is governed mainly by functional requirements and the need for economy of construction. In cross-sections these buildings will range from single or multibay structures of larger span when intended for use as warehouses or aircraft hangers to smaller span buildings as required for factories, assembly plants, maintenance facilities, packing plants etc. The main dimensions will nearly always be dictated by the particular operational activities involved, but the structural designer’s input on optimum spans and the selection of suitable cross-sections profile can have an important bearing on achieving overall economy. An aspect where the structural designer can make a more direct contribution is in lengthwise dimensions i.e. the bay lengths of the building. Here a balance must be struck between larger bays involving fewer, heavier main components such as columns, trusses, purlins, crane beams, etc. and smaller bays with a large number of these items at lower unit mass. An important consideration in this regard is the cost of foundations, since a reduction in number of columns will always result in lower foundation costs.

ORIGIN OF COLD-FORM STEEL CONCEPTCold-Form Steel buildings are a predetermined assembly of structural members that has proven overtime to meet a wide range of structural and aesthetic requirements. Cold-Form Steel building concept originatedduring World War II in 1960’s in the United States and made available in India in late 90’s.During World War II, best known Pre-fabricated building i.e. Which became a household word wasmass produced by hundreds of thousands to meet a need for inexpensive and standardized shelter. Requiring nospecial skills, these structures are assembled with only hand tools and with no greater effort could be readilydismantled and moved and re-erected somewhere else. The scientific term Cold-Form Steel buildings came intobeing in the 1960’s. The buildings were “Cold- Form Steel” because like their ancestors, they relief uponstandard engineering designs for a limited number of off the shelf configurations. As long as the purchaserstandard designs the buildings could be properly called Cold-Form Steel.1.5 COMPONENTS OF COLD-FORM STEEL BUILDING Main frame Secondary framing Wind bracing Exterior Cladding

The planning of an Industrial building is based on functional requirements i.e. on the operations to be performed inside the building. In the planning of an Industrial building, due Consideration should be given to factors such as wide area of primary frames, large height, large doors and openings, large span of primary frames , consistent to give minimum weight of primary frames, purlins, girts , eave struts etc. and lighting and sanitary arrangement. The site for a proposed plant is in general, pre-selected before it comes for design. But it is better to discuss with the designer the preliminary plans in advance. This gives the designer an opportunity to choose a suitable site giving due consideration to future developments. Some of the factors governing the site selection are as listed below: The site should be located on an arterial road. Facilities like water, electricity, telephone, etc. Topography and water drainage. Soil condition with reference to foundation design. Sufficient space should be available for storage of raw materials and finished products.

Sufficient space should be available for transportation facilities to deliver raw materials and collect the finished products. Water disposal facilities.2.2 PRIMARY COLD-FROM STEEL FRAME Assuming that a Cold-From Steel building system is selected for the project at hand, the next milestone is choosing among the available types of Cold-From Steel primary frame. Proper selection of the primary framing, the backbone of Cold-from Steel buildings, goes a long way toward a successful implementation of the design steps to follow. Some of the factors that influence the choice of main framing include: Dimensions of the building: width, length, and height. Roof slope. Required column-free clear spans. Occupancy of the building and acceptability of exposed steel columns. Proposed roof and wall materials.At present five basic types of Cold-From Steel frame are currently in the market:

Tapered beam. Single-span rigid frame. Multi-span rigid frame. Lean-to frame. Single span and continuous trusses.“Frame width” is measured between the outside surfaces of girts and eave struts. “Clear span” is the distance between the inside faces of the columns. “Eave height” is measured between the bottom of the column base plate and eave strut. “Clear height” is the distance between the floor and the lowest point of the structure.

A portal frame consists of vertical member called Columns and top member whichmay be horizontal, curved or pitched. The vertical and top members builtmonolithically are considered as rigidly connected. They are used in the constructionof large sheds, bridges and viaducts.The base of portal frame may be hinged or fixed. The portal frames are spaced atsuitable distance and it supports the slab above the top members. The portal frames have high stability against lateral forces such as wind andearthquake and the moments in the top beam are also reduced. But at the same time,large moments are induced in the columns which become more costly. A portal frameis a statically indeterminate structure.In the case of buildings, the portal frames are generally spaced at intervals of 3 to 4mwith a reinforced concrete slab cast monolithically between the frames. Frames usedfor ware house sheds and workshop structures are provided with sloping of purlinsand asbestos sheet roofing between the portal frames. The base of the columns of theportal frames are either fixed or hinged. Generally the columns having raft or pilesare considered as fixed for analysis purpose.