cognitive style and related educational issues: new directions for research in art education

E N I D Z I M M E R M A N Cognitive Style and Related Educational Issues: New Directions for Research in Art Education

3ourna1 of Art &Design Educution

Vol 2, No 1, 1983

It is now more than twenty years since June King McFee [ 11 first formulated the Perception-Delineation (P-D) Theory. Later, in Preparation For Art (1970), McFee stressed student cognitive style and perceptual learning as areas in the P-D Theory that were important in effecting individual differences in information handling in areas related to art education 121. McWhinnie wrote, in A Review of Recent Literature in Perceptual Cognitive Style with Implications for Theory and Research in Art Education (1970), that McFee was the first art educator to point to the utility of Witkin's work in perceptual and cognitive style for research and theory in art education [ 3 ] . McFee believed that perceptual behaviour in art is learned, and that the quality of student information handling reflected the character of the student environment. Her view challenged Lowenfeld's (1964) then dominant theory of constitutional art learning. Lowenfeld

Dr Enid Zimmerman and Dr Gil- bert 'lark with interns, art teachers, and talented 11-1 5-year-olds looking at, and about, art in the Indiana University Art Museum-summer 1982.

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E N I D Z I M M E R M A N Cognitive Style etc

cognitive style on an articulated-global

had assumed that differences in perception were innately ac- quired and that teachers should not try to alter them [4]. McFee drew hypotheses about learned perceptual behaviour in art and individual differences in perceptual and cognitive style from studies done by Witkin (1954, 1962) and Kagan (1964) [S, 6 & 71. Her research has continued to influence contempo- rary art education research and theory.

Since McFee formulated her P-D Theory, much subsequent empirical research in cognitive style has been done by Witkin and his associates as well as by many other psychologists and educators. Some of the more recent research is concerned with studying the relationship between variables related to cognitive style and resultant educational implications. A review of current research of cognitive style and its implications for the field of art education reveals that there are several areas of study in which research has been undertaken. This research has explored the relationship between student differences in cognitive style that result in differences in understandings, knowledges, and skills in the visual arts. It has also explored teacher differences in cognitive style that result in differences in perceptual training programmes and teaching strategies that affect student understand- ing, knowledge, and skills in the visual arts. The relationships between student and teacher cognitive styles and their resultant relevance for art education, as examined by current research, can be expressed in three questions:

1. Do student differences in cognitive style on an articulated- global continuum, as described by Witkin (1954, 1962, and

- differences in: 1 social behaviour 2 body concept

f - Student differences in information processing in respect to: 1 social materials 2 effect of reinforcement 3 use of mediators 4 scanning visual arrays 5 cue salience 6 symbolic representation -

-

- - Student differences in understandings, knowledges, and skills in the visual arts in respect to: 1 aesthetic preferences 2 graphic representation 3 creative abilities - -

FIGURE 1. Student differences in cognitive style (Witkin) as related to student behaviours in the visual arts.

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1977), result in student psychological differences (in social behaviour, body concept, and defences), student differences in information processing (in respect to social material, effect of reinforcement, use of mediators, scanning visual arrays, cue salience, and symbolic representation), student differences in psychomotor behaviour, and students differences in physiological behaviours? Do these differences result in student differences in understandings, knowledges, and skills in the visual arts in respect to aesthetic preferences, graphic representation, and creative abilities? These student differences in cognitive style and resultant student behaviours are shown on Figure 1.

2. Do student differences in cognitive style and conceptual tempo, as described by Kagan [7, 8 & 91, lead to student differences in information processing in analysing visual arrays and reflecting on alternative solution hypotheses? Do these differences lead to student differences in understandings, knowledges, and skills in the visual arts in respect to aesthetic preferences, graphic representation, and creative abilities? These student differences in cognitive style and conceptual tempo and resultant student behaviours are shown on Figure 2. A secondary part of this question, asks whether student differences in cognitive style and conceptual tempo, as described by Kagan, are related to student differences in cognitive style, as described by Witkin.

- information Student differences in

in: 1 analysing visual arrays 2 reflecting on alternate solution hypotheses -

F I G U R E 2. Student differences in cognitive style and conceptual tempo (Kagan) as related to student behaviours in the visual arts.

3. Do teacher differences in cognitive style on an articulated- global continuum, as described by Witkin, lead to teacher personality differences in social orientation, sense of separate identity, and ability to adjust cognitive style to students with differing cognitive styles? Do these differences result in perceptual training programmes and teaching strategies that help students use appropriate response modes in art activities, help students focus on appropriate art tasks, and foster creative information processing? These teacher differences in cognitive style and resultant student and teacher behaviours are shown on Figure 3.

In this review of research about cognitive style and its implications for art education, current research will be reported as it relates to these three questions. First, research about student differences in cognitive style and related student behaviours, reported by Witkin, will be reviewed. Then, research about dimensions of cognitive style and conceptual tempo reported by Kagan will be presented and compared with research by Witkin.

ENID Z I M M E R M A N Cognitive Style etc

- I Student differences in understandings knowledges, and skills in the visual arts in respect to 1 aesthetic preferences 2 graphic representation 3 creative abilities -

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E X I D Z I M M E R M A N Cognitive Style etc

Next, research about teacher cognitive style and its effect on student learning behaviours, as reported by Witkin, will be set forth, Finally, recent studies relating cognitive style research to problems in art education will be summarised. This review of research will conclude with clarification of needed research about cognitive style and its implications for art education.

cognitive style on an articulated-global teaching strategies that:

training programmes and

1 help students use

modes in art activities 2 help students focus on appropriate art tasks 3 foster creative information processing

3 ability to adjust cognitive style to students with differ-

F I G U R E 3. Teacher differences in cognitive style (Witkin) as related to differences in perceptual training programmes and teaching strategies.

Witkin’s research about student differences in cognitive style and related student behaviours Witkin’s ( 1962) original concept of psychological differentiation examined the degree to which an individual relied on an external frame of reference for spatial orientation and figure-ground discrimination 16). A relatively developed body concept and a sense of separate identity were reflected in the development of differentiation; development toward differentiation was associated with an ability to maintain analytic attitudes toward stimuli. An analytic perceptual attitude, in contrast to a global perceptual attitude, entailed a tendency to experience items as discrete from their backgrounds and reflected an ability to overcome the influence of an embedding context. People were found to differ in the extent to which their perception is analytical. This dimension of differences was termed field-independence-dependence. These differences ranged on a continuum from field- independence to field-dependence. Field-independence was defined as the capacity to differentiate objects as discrete from their background; whereas, field-dependency was defined as the individual’s inability to separate an item from its surroundings in the visual field. Witkin devised tests of perceptual field-independency-dependency as measured by a subject’s ability to separate embedded items from the surrounding visual field.

Research by Witkin ( 1962) into field-independence-dependence identified a tendency toward an analytic, or a global, way of perceiving that characterized a person’s perceptual style in performing in a self consistent manner on a wide variety of situations and activities. Perceptual style was interpreted as meaning the characteristic ways on individual related to his or her environment as a result of individual differences in perception under the same stimulus conditions. These preferred ways

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of perceiving, according to Witkin, are an integral part of the E N I D Z I M M E R M A N individual’s psychological make-up.

A review of research about field-independent-dependent cognitive styles and their educational implications, by Witkin, Moore, Goodenough, and Cox (1977), represents a comprehensive survey of current empirical research in field-independent- dependent dimension of cognitive style [ 101. Witkin et al. ( 1977), cite evidence that suggests a cognitive-style approach may be applied to a variety of educational issues. Current research in field-independency-dependency and educational implications of cognitive style, as reported by these authors, con- firmed some of Witkin’s original hypotheses and modified and added others. Evidence linking structuring tendencies to analytical tendencies suggests that individual differences in field-independency-dependency are best conceived as an articulated-global continuum. Witkin et al. (1977) explain that:

The articulated-global concept is applicable to the processing of information both from an immediately present stimulus configuration, as in perception, or from symbolic material, as in intellectual functioning.. . we were dealing with a broad dimension of individual differences that ex- tends across both perceptual and intellectual activities. Be- cause what is at issue is the characteristic approach the person brings with him to a wide range of situations, we call it his ‘style’-and because the approach encompasses both his perceptual and intellectual activities-we spoke of it as his ‘cognitive style’ (p. lo).

The author’s conclusions are based upon research findings that demonstrate that scores from tests of field-independence-dependence form a continuous distribution. These labels reflect a tendency, in varying degrees of strength, toward one mode of perception or another; they do not imply two distinct types of human beings. People are likely to be quite stable in their preferred mode of perceiving even over many years. The styles first identified in perception also manifest themselves when an individual is dealing with symbolic representations, as in thinking and problem solving.

Relatively field-independent persons are more likely to impose structure spontaneously on perceptual and verbal stimulus materials that lack structure and relatively field-dependent persons are likely to leave the stimulus material as is. Studies have also demonstrated that there are small but persistent sex differences, beginning in adolescence, in field-independence-dependence in Western societies and that the role of early socialization in the development of sex differences is important in relation to field- independence-dependence. Boys have been shown to be more field-independent than girls on a variety of tasks.

Self-consistency on the articulated-global continuum is found in perceptual-intellectual domains as well as domains subsumed under personality (these include social behaviours, body concept, and defences). Studies show that relatively field-dependent per-

Cognitive Style etc

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sons, in contrast to relatively field-dependent persons, are likely to be attentive to, and make use of, prevailing social frames of reference, just as they rely on prevailing perceptual frames of reference as demonstrated in perceptual studies. Relatively field- dependent persons look more at other’s faces as the primary source of determining what others are thinking and feeling and attend more to verbal messages with social content. Relatively field-dependent persons like to be with other people and have greater social skills than field-independents.

Studies show that relatively field-independent persons have a more impersonal orientation and are more likely to be interested in the abstract and theoretical. Field-independents, in their career choices, favour areas that are more solitary and more abstract in content. In contrast, field-dependents favour educational-vocational areas in which involvement with others is central and the subject matter features human content. Studies also demonstrate that relatively field-independent persons are more likely to be aware of their own experiences of needs and feelings as distinct from the experiences of others. Such people may be said to have a self that is experienced as segregated and structured. For relatively field-dependent persons, in their sepa- rateness of self from non-self, there is less segregation and less internal structure.

The articulated-global dimension has been shown to extend into the domains of body concept and defences as well as into the domain of social behaviour. Relatively field-independents experience their bodies as having definite limits or boundaries and the parts within as discrete yet interrelated and formed into a structural whole; relatively field-dependent persons have a more global body concept. Relatively field-independent persons use specialised defence mechanisms such as intellectualisation; relatively field-dependent persons favour non-specific defences such as repression.

In summarising the essential characteristics of cognitive styles in general, the authors state that cognitive styles are:

concerned with form rather than the content of cognitive activity. They refer to individual differences in how we perceive, think, solve problems, learn, relate to others, etc. The definition of cognitive styles is thus cast in process terms.. . suggestions are emerging.. . for ways of teaching students to use problem-solving strategies most appropriate to their styles, and even to shift to strategies more suitable for the task at hand than their preferred strategies (p. 15).

Studies have shown that students’ cognitive styles may influence the way they learn social material and how their learning is reinforced. Relatively field-dependent students tend to be better at learning and remembering social material than persons who are relatively field-independent. It has been demonstrated that field-independency-dependency may provide a useful basis for predicting which students are likely to be effected by various types of reinforcement. Under conditions of intrinsic motivation,

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relatively field-independent students tend to learn more than relatively field-dependent persons. Studies show that relatively field-dependent students are more affected by criticism than relatively field-independent students. Studies also demonstrate that relatively field-independents, as compared to relatively field- dependents, have less difficulty organising learning materials that lack clear, inherent structure. Evidence demonstrates that relatively field-dependent students may be at a disadvantage when material to be learned is not clearly organised; they need more explicit instruction in problem solving strategies or more exact definitions of performance outcomes. It has been shown that relatively field-independent students perform better when allowed to use their own strategies. Relatively field-dependents learn more rapidly than field-independents when cues are sa- lient; relatively field-independents tend to sample an array more extensively than relatively field-dependents.

From studies of the influence of cognitive style on student learning behaviours, it is apparent that relatively field-independent students and relatively field-dependent students tend to favour different learning approaches. Witkin et al. (1977) suggest that teachers can adapt instructional procedures by taking into account the needs of different children and by helping students diversify their learning styles [ lo ] . The authors state that, from the evidence available, ‘The apparent malleability of learning strategies flowing from cognitive styles gives some encouragement that teachers will be able to adapt their instructional approaches with successful results’ (p. 27). Whether one approach lends to better learning outcomes than others seems to depend on the specific tasks and the particular circumstances under which learning takes place.

In a comprehensive review of the field-independent-dependent dimension of cognitive style, Long (1974) concentrated on research done by Witkin and his associates. Long discussed problems related to using particular tests developed by Witkin to determine an individual’s degree of field articulation. He de- scribes the relationship between these perceptual tests and other measures, such as perceptual, psychomotor, personality, and physiological variables [ 11 ] . Studies demonstrate that these perceptual tasks are related to behavioural phenomena such as memory for various types of information, problem solving abilities, body stability and balance, and psychomotor, personality, and physiological variables. Evidence demonstrates that under rapid reversal conditions, field-independents do better than field- dependents and that they are less susceptible to certain types of visual illusions. Field-independents do better on tactile form discrimination tasks than field-dependents. Field-independents were found to be better at memory tasks related to colours and words and had better immediate and delayed recall of stimuli than field-dependents. On the other hand, field-dependents had better incidental memory for social words and recall for faces than did field-independents. On other tasks, field-independents

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relatively field-independent students tend to learn more than relatively field-dependent persons. Studies show that relatively field-dependent students are more affected by criticism than relatively field-independent students. Studies also demonstrate that relatively field-independents, as compared to relatively field- dependents, have less difficulty organising learning materials that lack clear, inherent structure. Evidence demonstrates that relatively field-dependent students may be at a disadvantage when material to be learned is not clearly organised; they need more explicit instruction in problem solving strategies or more exact definitions of performance outcomes. It has been shown that relatively field-independent students perform better when allowed to use their own strategies. Relatively field-dependents learn more rapidly than field-independents when cues are sa- lient; relatively field-independents tend to sample an array more extensively than relatively field-dependents.

From studies of the influence of cognitive style on student learning behaviours, it is apparent that relatively field-independent students and relatively field-dependent students tend to favour different learning approaches. Witkin et al. (1977) suggest that teachers can adapt instructional procedures by taking into account the needs of different children and by helping students diversify their learning styles [ lo] . The authors state that, from the evidence available, ‘The apparent malleability of learning strategies flowing from cognitive styles gives some encouragement that teachers will be able to adapt their instructional approaches with successful results’ (p. 27). Whether one approach lends to better learning outcomes than others seems to depend on the specific tasks and the particular circumstances under which learning takes place.

In a comprehensive review of the field-independent-dependent dimension of cognitive style, Long (1974) concentrated on research done by Witkin and his associates. Long discussed problems related to using particular tests developed by Witkin to determine an individual’s degree of field articulation. He de- scribes the relationship between these perceptual tests and other measures, such as perceptual, psychomotor, personality, and physiological variables [ 111 . Studies demonstrate that these perceptual tasks are related to behavioural phenomena such as memory for various types of information, problem solving abilities, body stability and balance, and psychomotor, personality, and physiological variables. Evidence demonstrates that under rapid reversal conditions, field-independents do better than field- dependents and that they are less susceptible to certain types of visual illusions. Field-independents do better on tactile form discrimination tasks than field-dependents. Field-independents were found to be better at memory tasks related to colours and words and had better immediate and delayed recall of stimuli than field-dependents. On the other hand, field-dependents had better incidental memory for social words and recall for faces than did field-independents. On other tasks, field-independents


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were better able than field-dependents to identify specific musi- cal notes, identify specific parts of a design, break a set to solve problems, solve boundary-breaking problems, and solve twelve of Guilford’s insight problems.

After reviewing research in the area of the field-independent- dependent dimension and correlates of perceptual style, Long concludes

that research shows there is a relative invariance of scores of perceptual style under a variety of conditions. Most researchers have reported improvement on these measures with specific training and immediate feedback.. . . It is doubtful that any concomitant shift in the individual’s mode of perception occurred (p. 28).

This conclusion appears to differ from that of Witkin et al. (1977) who are of the opinion (also based on empirical evidence) that individuals can rather easily be made to use learning approaches other than those associated with their cognitive style [ lo ] . This may be explained by the fact that Witkin et al. (1977) did not claim a shift in an individual’s mode of perception, but that individuals could learn alternate strategies other than their preferred strategies. These changes in learning strategies, related to cognitive styles, are reported to relate to specific tasks and have not been studied over long periods of time. The topic of change in learning strategies as related to cognitive style would appear to be a fruitful area for further educational research.

Kagan’s research about the dimensions of cognitive style and conceptual tempo One of McFee’s (1970) hypotheses, upon which she builds part of her P-D theory, is that ‘both Witkin and Kagan have identified what seems to be a consistent cognitive style-analytical, reflective, and differentiating, (p. 94). Current research related to cognitive style can be examined to determine what components of the dimension of cognitive style -Kagan and others have studied and how these components are related to Witkin’s dimension of cognitive style.

In 1964; Kagan, Rosman, Day, Albert, and Phillips 171 first presented data relating two dimensions of individual differences in modes of cognitive functioning; these dimensions were termed cognitive style and conceptual tempo. Cognitive style is defined as the tendency to analyse a stimulus into its differentiated components. Conceptual tempo is defined as the degree to which the child reflects on the validity of his or her solution hypotheses in problems and is measured in response time and correctness of response.

Some individuals exhibit a conceptual preference in their abilities to reflect upon alternative classification hypotheses and analyse visual arrays. This conceptual preference was termed an analytic attitude. Those who did not exhibit this analytic attitude

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were termed non-analytic. Individuals who performed above the median on latency (took longer to respond) and above the median on accuracy (made few errors) were designated as reflective or slow-accurate; those who responded rapidly and made many errors were designated as impulsive, or fast-inaccurate.

Later research by Kagan and Messer (1975) differentiates between subjects whose fast response times are associated with many errors, those whose fast response times are accompanied by errorless performance, those whose slow response times are associated with many errors, and those whose slow response times are accompanied by errorless performance [ 91 . Recent studies by other researchers, Hartley 1121 and Reynolds [ 13) , have suggested that conceptual tempo differences may occur because low error subjects use flexible response times and high error subjects use low, invariant response times in reflecting on solutions to problems.

In subsequent studies of cognitive style and creative tempo, Kagan and Messer ( 1975) caution that reflection-impulsivity should not be considered in its popular meaning, nor should this disposition be generalised to broad aspects of a child’s spontane- ous behaviour in natural settings 191. In their research, Kagan et al. (1964) have been careful to restrict the context of testing and generalities about reflection-impulsivity to problem-solving situations that contain response uncertainty [ 71 .

Greer and Blank (1977), reviewing current research in cognitive style, conceptual tempo, and problem solving, state that the results of many studies in this area demonstrate that both impulse and non-analytic modes of cognitive functioning affect the efficiency of problem solving at each stage in the search for solutions [ 141 . Impulsive and non-analytic children can be characterised by their use of inadequate problem-solving strategies. Greer and Blank cite a variety of laboratory training procedures that have been successful in modifying response in non-analytic and impulsive children. They contend that these training procedures have limited usefulness in the typical classroom setting. The authors suggest that much additional research in actual classroom situations is needed to determine relationships between teaching strategies and students’ cognitive styles, conceptual tempos, and problem-solving abilities.

It might appear, from the research reviewed thus far, that Witkin’s articulated-global dimension can be equated with Ka- gan’s dimensions of cognitive style and conceptual tempo. In 1964, Kagan et al. cautioned against making this kind of relationship [7 ] . They stated that:

Witkin and his associates have used phrases analytic and field-independent in somewhat similar ways and have demonstrated that the tendency to analyze complex stimulus situations and detect patterns embedded in a distract- ing context increases with age and predicts basic beha- vioral characteristics of the individual. A central problem in discussing this dimension is the existence of behaviors


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E N I D ZIMMERMAN Cognitive Style etc

marked by different sets of measurement operations, each of which has been labeled as an index of an analytic tendency. These varied test procedures are probably not assessing identical constructs, and it is necessary to restrict statements about analytic tendencies to the operators used in any particular study (p. 2).

Kagan et al. (1964) explain that studies showed the construct of reflection differed in meaning from Witkin’s concept of field- independence. Kagan and Kogan (1970) contend that the available data indicates no strong relation beween the dimensions of field-independence-dependence and reflection-impulsivity [ 81 . Although a few research studies have showed some relationship between field-independence-dependence and reflection-irnpulsiv- ity (Willoughby, 1967 [15] and Bloomberg, 1965 [16] ) it appears that much more research needs to be done before connections between these two dimensions can be established.

Witkin’s research about teacher cognitive style and its effect on student learning behaviour Relationships between teachers’ cognitive styles and their approach to teaching have also been studied by Witkin, Moore, Goodenough, and Cox (1977). Studies have used social orientation to investigate teachers’ contrasting cognitive styles and their classroom behaviour. Evidence shows that teacher preferences and teacher behaviours, in simulated teaching situations, provide evidence of differences between teachers who are more field- independent and those who are more field-dependent. Relatively field-dependent teachers favour teaching situations that allow for interaction with students; relatively field-independent teachers prefer teaching situations that are impersonal in nature and oriented toward more cognitive aspects of teaching. Teacher preferences for reinforcement seem consistent with teacher direc- tedness. More field-independent teachers, in contrast to more field-dependent teachers, tend to favour corrective feedback and negative evaluation as effective teaching techniques.

In summarising the relation between teachers’ cognitive styles and their approach to teaching, Witkin et al. express the point of view that more research is needed to identify differences between actual classroom teaching of more field-independent and more field-dependent teachers [ lo] . They state:

Whatever differences there may be between teachers’ contrasting cognitive styles, such teachers do not seem to differ in sheer teaching competence. Differences between relatively field-independent and more field-dependent teachers seem to lie in their approach to a teaching situa- tion. . . The evidence considered.. . people can rather easily be made to use learning approaches other than those fostered by their cognitive styles. . . with appropriate training methods, teaching approaches may also be diversified (P. 32).

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Another aspect of research in the area of teachers’ cognitive style is how teachers and students, with similar and different cognitive styles, interact. Combinatory effects of teacher-student cognitive styles have been shown in interaction studies of match-mismatch of cognitive styles. When there is a teacher-student match in cognitive styles, there is a greater interpersonal attraction than for a mismatch. Teachers give students high evaluations who are similar to themselves in cognitive style. The authors caution that although a match of cognitive styles may make for a more congenial atmosphere for teaching, heterogeneity makes for greater diversity in learning and points of view. Witkin et al. suggest that there should be more research done on how teachers may adapt their teaching strategies to match the needs of students who have differing cognitive styles than their own.

Research about Witkin’s cognitive style as related to art education Research in cognitive style as described by Witkin, related to areas of creativity, aesthetic preference, graphic representation, and perceptual training has direct implications for the field of art education. Bieri, Bradburn, and Galinsky (1958) [ 171, Getzels and Jackson (1962) [ 181, and Rouse [ 191 have reported tendencies for field-independents to score as creative on a variety of test measures. Spotts and Mackler 1201 found a significant relationship between field-independency and higher scores on creativity tests developed by Torrence, Guilford, and Merrifield. Bloom- berg ( 1967), summarizing literature on the relationship between field-independence-dependence and creativity, found that ‘field- independence is a necessary, but not sufficient characteristic of creativity [ 21 ] . Perhaps all creative persons are field-independent, but not all field-independent persons are creative’ (p, 140).

Rouse ( 1965) compared Lowenfeld’s haptic-visual types with Witkin’s measures of field-independence-dependence using a painting test she devised and several of Witkin’s original tests 1221. She reported that both extreme haptics and visuals, as scored on the painting test, were field-independent on Witkin’s measures; the middle, indefinitely-typed group, as scored on the painting test, was field-dependent on Witkin’s measures. These findings may indicate that measures of haptic-visual types, designed by Rouse, are not directly related to measures of field- independency-dependency described by Witkin. Grossman ( 1970) investigated relationships among kindergarten childrens’ perceptual styles and drawing skills [23] . He concluded that the analytically-oriented child is better able to represent accurate perceptions in drawings than the more globally-oriented child.

Lovano (1970) found a developmental trend for elementary school children from an initial global mode of processing information to a more differentiated or analytic mode using measures of field-independence-dependence, a drawing test, and a body concept test [ 241 . Lovano concluded that differences in graphic

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expression of children of the same age reflect differences in modes of processing information. When processing visual or cognitive information, most children perform in a self-consistent manner when making graphic representations. It should be noted that Lovano, who studied with McFee, hypothesised that ‘Kagan’s behavior correlates seem to fit with Witkin’s analytic dimension’ (p. 40). In Lovano’s study, one of Kagan’s tests for cognitive style showed a decrease in analytic responses as children advanced in their grade level. This Kagan test also elicited more non-analytic responses than the other measures Lovano used. Such inconsistency of results may lead one to question the fit of Kagan’s behaviour correlates with Witkin’s analytic dimension.

Packard (1973) attempted to identify a creative tempo personality dimension as measured by the time taken by a child to solve creative art problems 1251. Findings from this study show that children are consistent in the rate of their art production on tasks of varying complexity and their use of art skills. Creative tempo was found to correlate positively with the aesthetic quality of children’s art products; children who take longer to solve art problems produce more aesthetic products than those who take a shorter time. Although this latter conclusion has relevance for art education, it should be noted that Packard found the dimension of reflexivity-impulsivity and the dimension of creative tempo are not the same, though Packard claimed they may be related.

McWhinnie ( 1972) explored relationships between performance on three perceptual variables and active and passive behaviours [ 261 . Active, studio-oriented variables of drawing and seeing and passive variables of appreciation and aesthetic preference were tested for relationship to three perceptual variables. McWhinnie found there was a negative relation between aesthetic preference for complexity-asymmetry, field-independence scores, and drawing test scores. He found no relationship between the active, studio-oriented variables of drawing and seeing and the passive variables of appreciation and aesthetic preference. It should be noted that Witkin (1962) found that children’s perception orientations influence their abilities to accurately perceive environmental details; he found a correlation between the accuracy of representation and amount of detail in children’s drawings and field-independency.

In a recent study by Savarese and Miller (1979), field- independent male subjects were found to have a greater preference for painterly art work than for linear art work [27] . This study represents one of the first attempts to compare the linear/ painterly preference dimension with cognitive perceptual style characteristics.

In the P-D Theory, McFee hypothesised that learned perception contributes to individual differences in cognitive style and that these differences might be modified by perceptual training in art education. Several studies in perceptual learning, done at

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Stanford University during the 1960s, were based upon McFee’s hypothesis that visual perception is a learned process. Efland [ 28 J , Kensler [29], Rouse [30], Salome [31] , Silverman [32], and McWhinnie [ 331 investigated various relationships between perceptual training and perceptual discrimination.

In his study of the effect of perceptual training on children’s drawings, Salome (1962) concluded that an increase in ability to handle visual information may be achieved if specific perceptual training tasks are identified and taught. Kensler (1965) found that gains in perspective drawing abilities were significantly different between a group that received perceptual training and a group that did not [34] . He did find that relatively field- independent students performed at a higher level of skill on specific perspective drawing tasks than relatively field-dependent students. Silverman (1962) found that high school students who participated in general art activities or three dimensional art experiences did not show significant improvement in post- test performance on two and three dimension, spatial relation tests.

Based in part upon his work ,done at Stanford with McFee, McWhinnie (1969) investigated the effects of a specific method of perceptual training upon aesthetic preference for complexity and asymmetry, select variables of perceptual field-independence, select variables of creative thinking, and ability to handle visual information [ 351 . Significant treatment effects were achieved on variables of aesthetic preference for complexity- asymmetry, creativity, and drawing behaviour. There were no significant treatment effects achieved on variables of field-independence and a negative relationship was found between drawing measures and field-independence measures. In a more recent study, McCord [36] found that concentrating upon certain aspects of drawing may not necessarily enable sixth grade students to observe and record their observations with greater clarity or influence their visual perception as measured by selected cognitive style tests.

Areas in need of research in cognitive style and implications for art education From the studies presented about cognitive style as related to art education, it appears that more research needs to be done to determine the direction and strength of relationships among creativity, aesthetic preference, graphic representation, and student differences in cognitive style on an articulated-global continuum. Student psychological differences, differences in information processing, differences in psychomotor behaviours, and differences in physiological behaviours should be studied as variables in such research.

Studies of perceptual training and effects on variables of field- independence-dependence as related to art education have demonstrated a variety of degrees of correlation and effectiveness.

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Art educators, as visual perception research indicates, have not reached any final conclusions in respect to selected areas of perceptual training and students’ ability to handle visual information.

From studies cited by Witkin et al. (1977), on the influence of cognitive style on student learning behaviours, it is apparent that students with different cognitive styles use different approaches to process information. Research has not yet determined how far it is possible to progress in educating students to use approaches other than those that are more natural to them and directed by their cognitive styles. Witkin, like McFee, is of the opinion that development of diverse student behaviour on a variety of tasks, in the context of many different circumstances, is an important educational objective. These hypotheses have not been researched in the field of art education.

The relationship between teacher and student cognitive styles and perceptual training programmes should be further explored. Since perceptual training programmes have usually emphasised the development of field-independent and analytic methods of analysing visual stimuli, programmes aimed at developing field- dependent and more global methods of analysing visual stimuli should also be researched. Research is needed to develop perceptual training programme and teacher strategies based on differences in teacher and student cognitive style. These programmes and strategies, as they may affect students use of appropriate response modes in art activities, could help students focus on appropriate art learning tasks and foster creative information processing in the art classroom. Such programmes are greatly needed areas of art education research.

New instruments need to be developed that are specifically designed to measure differences in cognitive style (as related to visual analysis tasks and behaviours) as they relate to curriculum and instruction probIems in art education. McWhinnie’s (1969) conclusions about the relevancy of research in cognitive style and development of art education programmes, as a direct outgrowth of this research, may have as much relevance today as when he stated them ten years ago [35]. At that time he wrote:

based on our work in perceptual learning in art over the past four years, we advise that future research in art education take a new direction which should consider the nature of the discipline of art itself. Learning experiences should have their origins in the discipline of art itself, and the instruments used should be designed specifically to assess the behaviors under study (p. 96).

The problems and concerns, that McWhinnie identified, relative to cognitive style and related educational issues, are still not resolved. Many suggestions for research in art education have been identified. In order to solve some instructional problems that face art educators today, more research needs to be done to clarify the relationships between teacher and student differences

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in cognitive style and teaching programmes and strategies that will help develop improved student knowledge, skills, and understandings in the visual arts.

Notes and references 1 MCFEE, J.K. Perception-delineation theory. Unpublished doctoral dis-

sertation, Stanford University, 1957. 2 MCFEE, J.K. Preparation for Art. Belmont, California: Wadsworth

Publishing Co Inc, 1961, revised edition, 1970. 3 MCWHINNIE, H.J. A review of recent literature in perceptual/cogni-

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