Cognition and Cognition and Intelligence Intelligence

Find the answer to the questionsFind the answer to the questions

In the Thompson family there are five In the Thompson family there are five brothers. Each brother has one sister. brothers. Each brother has one sister. Counting the mother, how many females Counting the mother, how many females are there in the family? are there in the family?

Fifteen percent of the people in Topeka Fifteen percent of the people in Topeka (the capital of Kansas) have unlisted (the capital of Kansas) have unlisted phone numbers. You select 200 names at phone numbers. You select 200 names at random from the phone book. How many random from the phone book. How many of these people can be expected to have of these people can be expected to have unlisted phone numbers? unlisted phone numbers?

Types of ProblemsTypes of Problems Problem Solving refers to active efforts to Problem Solving refers to active efforts to

discover what must be done to achieve a goal discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable.that is not readily attainable.

Three basic types (p.225):Three basic types (p.225):

1.1. Problems of inducing structure (A & F) -Problems of inducing structure (A & F) -

--series completion and analogy problems--series completion and analogy problems

2.2. Problems of arrangement (B & E)-Problems of arrangement (B & E)-

--string problems and anagrams (burst of insight)--string problems and anagrams (burst of insight)

3.3. Problems of tranformation (C & D)-Problems of tranformation (C & D)-

--hobbits and orcs (water jar)--hobbits and orcs (water jar)

The TOWER of Hanoi!The TOWER of Hanoi!

Goal: Get all the rings on the 3Goal: Get all the rings on the 3rdrd pole in pole in size order (largest on the bottom)size order (largest on the bottom)

Only move 1 ring at a time.Only move 1 ring at a time. A larger ring can not be on top of a smaller A larger ring can not be on top of a smaller

ring.ring.

Barriers to Effective Problem Barriers to Effective Problem SolvingSolving

Functional FixednessFunctional Fixedness: the tendency to : the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most perceive an item only in terms of its most common use. Young children are less common use. Young children are less vulnerable to this trait due to less experience.vulnerable to this trait due to less experience.

What else can you What else can you use a headband for?use a headband for?

Barriers to Effective Problem Barriers to Effective Problem Solving: continuedSolving: continued

Irrelevant InformationIrrelevant Information: Often problems include : Often problems include information that is not necessary to the solving information that is not necessary to the solving of the problem. It is distracting to the solver. of the problem. It is distracting to the solver. You must figure out what information is relevant You must figure out what information is relevant BEFORE solving.BEFORE solving.

Mental SetMental Set: Also a rigid thinking problem, : Also a rigid thinking problem, mental set is when people continue to use old mental set is when people continue to use old previously successful patterns to solve new previously successful patterns to solve new problems.problems.

Barriers to Effective Problem Barriers to Effective Problem SolvingSolving

Unnecessary ConstraintsUnnecessary Constraints: Occurs when the : Occurs when the solver places unnecessary boundaries on the solver places unnecessary boundaries on the problem. Sometimes you must be innovative problem. Sometimes you must be innovative to be able to solve the problem by thinking to be able to solve the problem by thinking without boundaries.without boundaries.

Approaches to Problem SolvingApproaches to Problem Solving People employ a variety of strategies to solve People employ a variety of strategies to solve

problems.problems.

Trial and ErrorTrial and Error: Involves trying possible : Involves trying possible solutions sequentially and discarding those that solutions sequentially and discarding those that are in error until one works.are in error until one works.

Example: Example: It’s dark, and a man is trying to figure out which It’s dark, and a man is trying to figure out which

button on the dashboard of his newly rented car button on the dashboard of his newly rented car switches on the headlights. He might press all switches on the headlights. He might press all the available buttons until he finds the right one.the available buttons until he finds the right one.

Approaches to Problem SolvingApproaches to Problem Solving Algorithms-Algorithms- fixed set of rules fixed set of rules

HeuristicHeuristic:: A shortcut; a guiding principle or A shortcut; a guiding principle or “rule of thumb” used in solving problems or “rule of thumb” used in solving problems or making decisions. They can be:making decisions. They can be:

---forming sub goals, searching for analogies, ---forming sub goals, searching for analogies, and changing the representations of the and changing the representations of the problemproblem

Algorithms

Algorithms exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution. They take a long time. Computers use algorithms.

S P L O Y O C H Y G

If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word, using an algorithm approach would take 907,208 possibilities.

Heuristics Are strategies that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. Speedier but more Error prone than algorithms.

S P L O Y O C H G Y P S L O Y O C H G Y P S Y C H O L O G Y

Try putting Y at the end and see if the word starts to make sense.

Culture, Cognitive style and Problem Culture, Cognitive style and Problem SolvingSolving

Cross cultural differences impact on Cross cultural differences impact on people’s ability to solve problems.people’s ability to solve problems.

Witkin’s discovery of dimensions in cognitive Witkin’s discovery of dimensions in cognitive style include:style include:

Field dependence-independence refers to Field dependence-independence refers to individuals’ tendency to rely primarily on individuals’ tendency to rely primarily on external versus internal frames of reference external versus internal frames of reference when orienting themselves in space.when orienting themselves in space.

Field DependenceField Dependence External frame of referencesExternal frame of references Holistic cognitive style-Holistic cognitive style- focuses on focuses on

context and relationships among context and relationships among elements.elements.

Accepts physical environment; won’t Accepts physical environment; won’t change itchange it

Agricultural societies, strict child rearing, Agricultural societies, strict child rearing, conformityconformity

Field IndependenceField Independence Internal frame of referenceInternal frame of reference Analytical Cognitive Style-Analytical Cognitive Style- focuses on focuses on

objects and their properties rather than objects and their properties rather than contextcontext

Tend to analyze and try to restructure the Tend to analyze and try to restructure the environmentenvironment

Common in western societiesCommon in western societies Better at problem solving?Better at problem solving?

AvailabilityAvailability v. v. Representative Representative HeuristicHeuristic

AvailabilityAvailability- we rely on info that is more - we rely on info that is more prominent & overlook information that is prominent & overlook information that is available but less prominent.available but less prominent. Ex: murder rate & media coverageEx: murder rate & media coverage

RepresentativeRepresentative- making judgments about - making judgments about samples according to he populations they samples according to he populations they representrepresent Ex: Which is more likely in a coin toss?Ex: Which is more likely in a coin toss? HHHHHH or THHTHTHHHHHH or THHTHT

Availability Heuristic

Availability Heuristic: Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray? Whatever increases the ease of retrieving information increases its perceived availability.

How is retrieval facilitated? 1. How recently we have heard about the event. 2. How distinct it is. 3. How correct it is.

Representativeness Heuristic

Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match a particular prototype.

If you meet a man glasses and likes poetry. What do you think would his profession would be?

Representative Con’t

Probability that that person is a truck driver is far greater than an ivy league professor just because there are more truck drivers than such professors.

Decision MakingDecision Making

Herbert Simon’s Theory of Bounded Herbert Simon’s Theory of Bounded Rationality-Rationality- ppl have limited ability to ppl have limited ability to process & evaluate information with many process & evaluate information with many alternatives.alternatives.

EliminationElimination v. v. Additive StrategyAdditive Strategy

Risky DecisionsRisky Decisions Conjunction Fallacy-Conjunction Fallacy-

people estimate the people estimate the odds of 2 events odds of 2 events happening together happening together are greater than are greater than either event alone (p. either event alone (p. 234 example)234 example)

FramingFraming- wording of - wording of choices can change choices can change your responseyour response

Gambler’s Fallacy-Gambler’s Fallacy- belief that the odds of belief that the odds of chance increase if the chance increase if the event hasn’t occurred event hasn’t occurred recentlyrecently

Framing Decisions

How an issue is framed can significantly affect

decisions and judgments.

Example: What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?

Overconfidence EffectOverconfidence Effect Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs,

and knack of explaining failures increases our overconfidence. It is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments. At a stock market, both the seller and the

buyer may be confident about their decisions on a stock.

Overconfidence EffectOverconfidence Effect

Why does this happen?Why does this happen?

1.1. Confirmation Bias-Confirmation Bias- we focus on info we focus on info that confirms our beliefs and ignore that confirms our beliefs and ignore those that do notthose that do not

2.2. We tend to forget info that runs counter We tend to forget info that runs counter to our beliefsto our beliefs

3.3. We can sometimes work to bring about We can sometimes work to bring about the events we believe in (self-fulfilling the events we believe in (self-fulfilling prophecies)prophecies)

Belief Bias

The tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning sometimes by making

invalid conclusions.

God is love.Love is blind

Ray Charles is blind.Ray Charles is God.

Anonymous graffiti

Belief Perseverance

Our tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face

of contrary evidence is called belief

perseverance.

Once you see a country as hostile, you are likely

to interpret ambiguous actions on their part as

signifying their hostility (Jervis, 1985).

RAT TEST!!!!RAT TEST!!!!

CreativityCreativity- perceive things in an unusual - perceive things in an unusual wayway

Correlation between intelligence & Correlation between intelligence & creativity?creativity?

Correlation between creativity and mental Correlation between creativity and mental disorders?disorders?

Convergent Convergent v. v. DivergentDivergent Thinking Thinking