cog5 lecppt chapter05
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© 2010 by W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.
The Acquisition of Memories andthe Working-Memory System
Chapter 5Lecture Outline
Chapter 5: Working Memory
Lecture OutlineThe Modal ModelWorking MemoryEntering Long-term StorageElaborate EncodingOrganizing and MemorizingLinks Among Acquisition, Storage, and
Retrieval
Chapter 5: Working Memory
One way to frame learning and memoryAcquisitionStorageRetrieval
Analogy to creating, storing, and opening a computer file
Chapter 5: Working Memory
This view is problematic for at least two reasonsNew learning is grounded in previously
learned (stored) knowledgeEffective learning depends on how the
information will be later retrieved
The Modal Model
Information processing
Each of these systems is separate
Sperling (1960) Iconic Memory Research
Whole report procedureFlash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds Identify as many letters as possibleParticipants typically remember 4 letters
Partial report procedureFlash a matrix of letters for 50 millisecondsParticipants are told to report bottom rowParticipants were able to report any row
requested
Sperling Sensory Memory Demonstration
A matrix of 12 letters and numbers briefly flash on the next few slides
As soon as you see the information, write down everything you can remember in its proper location
記憶大考驗 I
人究竟能記得多少呢?請隨手拿個筆和紙,我們準備開始!
X X X XX X X XX X X X
Whole Report
B 5 Q T2 H S 9O 4 M Y
X
請寫出剛剛畫面中呈現的所有字母
B 5 Q T2 H S 9O 4 M Y
X X X XX X X XX X X X
Partial Report – No Delay
X
2 V 9 RQ M 7 L
> K H 5 F <
> <
2 V 9 RQ M 7 L
> K H 5 F <
請寫出剛剛畫面中 ><所指到的字母
Sperling’s Results
Sensory Stores
Iconic store or visual sensory registerHolds visual information for 250 msec
longer Information held is pre-categoricalCapacity: up to 12 items Information fades quickly
Econ or auditory sensory register Holds auditory information for 2-3 seconds
longer to enable processing
The Modal Model
The modal model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Waugh & Norman, 1965)Short-term memory (STM)Long-term memory (LTM)
The Modal Model
Working memory (WM)—a dynamic form of short-term memory
Vogel, Woodman, & Luck Results (2001)
Can retain 3-4 colors or orientations Store integrated objects, not just
features
Long-Term Memory
CapacityThus far limitless
DurationPotentially permanent
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
The Modal Model
Experiments supporting the modal modelPresented a long series of words (e.g., 30)Perform free-recall afterwardLook at the position in the list (serial recall)
The Modal Model
Primacy effect Better memory for first
few items Long-term memory Memory rehearsal
allows transfer from WM to LTM
The Modal Model
Recency effect Better memory for the
last few items Based on working
memory
The Modal Model
30 seconds not enough to wipe out recency
Another task is needed to do so
The Modal Model
Recency effect the same
Memory for the rest of the list is better
Slow presentation aids pre-recency items
The Modal Model
Primacy associated with hippocampus
Working memory associated with perirhinal cortex
Working Memory
Virtually all mental activities require working memory (WM)ReadingGoal-driven behavior
Some tasks demand more WM resources than others
Individual differences in WM capacity predict some cognitive abilities
Working Memory
Digit-span taskParticipant asked to remember digits
List is increased until memory fails Maximum number is the digit span
Working Memory
ChunkingThe ability to condense informationRequires effortReduces load Does not increase WM
記憶大考驗 II
人究竟能記得多少呢?請隨手拿個筆和紙,我們準備開始!
1. 英文題
準備好了嗎……
DADNCKUMITANTFBIETORNBA
請依序寫出剛剛畫面中的所有字母
2. 數字題
準備好了嗎……
77088088252521314520
請依序寫出剛剛畫面中的所有數字
1. 英文題DADNCKUMITANTFBIETORNBADAD NCKU MIT ANT FBI ET OR NBA
2. 數字題77088088252521314520770 880 8825252 1314 520 親親你 抱抱你 爸爸餓我餓我餓 一生一世 我愛你
解答時間 !!!!!
Working Memory
One metaphor for working memory is a loading dock Mechanically transfers input to and from long-term
memory A better metaphor is a librarian
Actively categorizes, catalogs, and cross-references new material
Working Memory
Reading span Captures active nature of working memory Participant reads sentences and remembers
the last word in each sentence The number of words remembered is the
reading span
Working Memory
Operation span Another measure of working memory Is equation true or false? Remember a word Number of words remembered is the operation
span
Working Memory
Reading span and operation span correlate strongly with Test performance Reasoning Reading ability
Working Memory
Working memory is often divided into three componentsCentral executive Visuospatial buffer Articulatory rehearsal loop
Working Memory
Executive control Control sequences of
thought and action Select and launch
responses Plan and set goals Break habit or routine
Working Memory
WM is an update to the modal model It is a dynamic form of STM
Working Memory
Working memory
Long-Term Memory
Time Temporary Long-lasting
Capacity Limited Large
Access Relatively easy
Relatively hard
Entering Long-Term Storage
Two Types of RehearsalMaintenance rehearsal—recitingRelational or elaborative rehearsal—linking
Entering Long-Term Storage
Relational or elaborative rehearsal is superior
Repeated exposure does not guarantee memoryFor example, try to remember the design
details of a pennyRecite a phone number
Entering Long-Term Storage
Remembered greater than forgotten
Frontal areas
Hippocampus and adjacent areas
Entering Long-Term Storage
Shallow processing—superficial Deep processing—meaningful
Entering Long-Term Storage
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Deeper processing ensures better recall
Entering Long-Term Storage
Incidental learning—unintentional Intentional learning—intentional
Entering Long-Term Storage
Imagine an experiment in which you cross depth of processing (three levels)Typeface task (shallow)Phonological task (intermediate)Semantic task (deep)
And intention to learn (two levels) Incidental learning Intentional learning
Entering Long-Term Storage
Entering Long-Term Storage
Depth of processing strong Intention to learn has no effect Intention to learn can lead you to choose a
deeper strategy
Elaborate Encoding
Very hard to find info
Very easy to find info
Elaborate Encoding
Depth of processing promotes recall by facilitating later retrievalConsider learning as a way to establish
indexing, a path to the informationConnections between to-be-remembered
items facilitates retrieval
Elaborate Encoding
Craik & Tulving (1975)
Example Result
Elaborate “The great bird swooped down and carried off the struggling chicken.”
Better memory
Simple “She cooked the chicken.”
Worse memory
Elaborate Encoding
Craik & Tulving (1975)
Elaborate Encoding
Elaborate sentences result in richer retrieval paths
Organizing and Memorizing
Katona (1940) argued that the key to creating connections in the to-be-remembered material is organization
We memorize well when we find order in the material
Organizing and Memorizing
Mnemonics improve memory through organization
Organizing and Memorizing
Peg-word systems: items are “hung” on a system of already well known “pegs” “One is a bun, two is a shoe…”
First-letter mnemonicsRoy G. BivKing Phillip Crossed the Ocean to Find Gold
and Silver
Organizing and Memorizing
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Mnemonics Help
Organizing and Memorizing
The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange items into different groups. Of course one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step; otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run, this may not seem important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first, the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then, one never can tell. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life.
Organizing and Memorizing
What is the pattern?
Organizing and Memorizing
Ambiguous pictures are understood and remembered better if they are identified (Wiseman & Neisser, 1974)
Links Among Acquisition, Storage, and Retrieval
Memory facilitated by organizing and understandingWhat the memorizer was doing at the time of
exposure mattersThe background knowledge of the memorizer
matters
How to train your memory
What strategies do you use for remembering?
Why do they work? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pyVxD1zE7H4 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V8S8V9VEFyI
聯覺
What color is Tuesday?
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Links Among Acquisition, Storage, and Retrieval
Acquisition, storage, and retrieval are not easily separableNew learning is grounded in previously
learned (stored) knowledgeEffective learning depends on how the
information will later be retrieved
Chapter 5 Questions
Which group would perform the WORST on a memory test?
a) Participants engaged in shallow processing without previous warning of a memory test.
b) Participants engaged in medium processing with previous warning of a memory test.
c) Participants engaged in deep processing without previous warning of a memory test.
d) Participants engaged in deep processing with previous warning of a memory test.
Someone with a larger working memory capacity is likely to perform better than someone with a smaller working memory capacity on which of the following tasks
a) following directions
b) efficient reading
c) learning a computer language
d) all of the above
Which statement about working memory is TRUE?
a) It has unlimited storage capacity.
b) It functions as a storage container.
c) Information in it is fragile and easily lost.
d) It refers mainly to the resources that are retained over long intervals.
Which of the following statements applies to stimulus-based priming but not to expectation-based priming?
a) It has an immediate effect on attention.
b) It has a cost attached.
c) It leads to faster recognition of subsequent related stimuli.
d) It is bottom-up.
Which of the following would help improve recall of a difficult-to-understand paragraph the LEAST?
a) quizzing yourself in order to improve comprehension of the paragraph
b) chunking the sentences in the paragraph into smaller, meaningful groups
c) repeating the paragraph aloud many times
d) giving the paragraph a meaningful title
Veronica wanted to go to the grocery store but was out of paper for writing a shopping list. She came up with several possible ways to remember what she needed to buy (listed below). Which of her ideas is a simple mnemonic strategy?
a) Using the peg-word system to associate different items on the shopping list with words in an easy-to-remember rhyme.
b) Imagining what she can cook with all of the items on the list and imagining what all the food would taste like.
c) Composing a long story with all the items on her list.
d) Repeating all the items on her list multiple times.
What causes the recency effect?
a) The last words heard are still in working memory at testing.
b) The first words heard are also the first words to leave working memory.
c) Words that get more attention are better encoded into long-term memory.
d) Experimenters tend to give easier words first as warm-up.