LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENTSocial and Emotional Development

- often harder to pinpoint than signs of physical development

- Emphasizes many skills that increase self-awareness and self-regulation

- Research shows that social skills and emotional development (reflected in the ability to pay attention, make transitions from one activity to another, and cooperate with others) are a very important part of school readiness

ATTACHMENT AND SOCIALISATIONIN THE FIRST TWO YEARS

Attachment is a strong emotional tie a person feels toward special people

Socialization is the process by which a person’s behaviours, values, skills, plans, and attitudes conform to and are adapted to those desired by society

ATTACHMENT IN RHESUS MONKEYS

Harlow found that monkeys raised from birth in isolated bare-wire cages did not always survive

Other monkeys raised in the same conditions with scraps of terry cloth survived

Monkeys raised with a terry-cloth mother surrogate clung to that surrogate whether or not the surrogate could provide milk

BONDING

Bonding is a special process of emotional attachment that may occur between parents and babies in the minutes and hours immediately after birth

ATTACHMENT IN INFANTS

John Bowlby was one of the first modern psychologists to study attachment

Bowlby argued that an emotional tie to the caregiver evolved because it promotes survival

ATTACHMENT IN INFANTS (CONT’D)By 7 or 8 months of age, separation anxiety may develop in an

infant

This is a fear response in which the infant protests the departure of the caregiver

The strange situation technique, used to study attachment, capitalises on separation anxiety

ATTACHMENT IN INFANTS (CONT’D)

About 60% of children show secure attachment

About 20% show avoidant attachment

About 15% are resistant

About 5% are disoriented

ATTACHMENT IN INFANTS (CONT’D)

Time spent with babies promotes secure attachment

“Secure” babies have caregivers who are affectionate and especially responsive

Some researchers argue that secure attachment makes cognitive and social development smoother

ATTACHMENT AND CHILD CARE

Children who participate in daycare experience minimal negative effects

Longitudinal research suggests daycare does not have significant negative effects if the quality of care is high

TEMPERAMENT

Temperament refers to long-lasting individual differences in disposition, the intensity and quality of emotional reactions

A major study of temperament is the New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS) performed by Thomas and Chess

THOMAS AND CHESS (1977) DIMENSIONS

Dimension DescriptionActivity level Ratio of active periods to inactive periods

Rhythmicity Regularity of bodily functions (sleep, hunger, etc)

Distractibility Degree to which stimulation from the envt alters behaviour

Approach/

withdrawal

Response to new object, person or food item

Adaptability Ease with which child adapts to changes in envt

Attention span Amount of time devoted to an activity

Reaction Intensity

Energy level of response

Responsiveness threshhold

Intensity of friendly, joyful behaviour required to evoke a response

Quality of mood Amount of friendly, joyful behaviour as opposed to unfriendly, unpleasant behaviour

TEMPERAMENT (CONT’D)

The study found four types of infants:

The easy child (40% of children)

The slow-to-warm-up child (15%)

The difficult child (10%)

The unique child (35%)

TEMPERAMENT IN THE FIRST TWO YEARS

Kagan found that extremely inhibited (shy) 2- and 3-year-olds tended to remain so for four or more years

Biological factors may play a role in shyness and temperament

EARLY SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHILD REARING

Family is the first social environment

Although cultural differences exist, parents worldwide respond to their children in similar ways

THE ROLE OF FATHERS

Research shows a father’s affection is as important as love from a mother

In general, fathers are affectionate and responsive caregivers

Some fathers spend significant time with children but many do not

The quality of the time the father spends with children is affected by mother’s attitude

EMOTIONAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTInfancy and toddlers

ERIKSON’S PERSONALITY THEORY

NeoFruedian; Psychosocial theory

Importance of the parent-infant relationship- Quality must be sufficiently well balanced - Through each stage the individual faces important events

and experiences conflict - Conflict that has to be negotiated- Successful negotiation of conflict leads to gaining

strength

ERIKSON’S STAGES

Infancy trust Vs mistrust Feeding

2 – 3 years autonomy Vs doubt Toileting

3 – 5 years initiative Vs guilt Exploration

6 – 11 years industry/competence Vs inferiority

School

12 – 18 years identity Vs role confusion Social relationships

19 – 40 years intimacy Vs isolation Relationships

40 – 65 years generativity Vs stagnation Work, parenthood

65ys to death ego-integrity Vs despair Reflection on life

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 1Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust Chronologically, this is the period of infancy through the

first one or two years of life.  The child, well-handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and security and a basic optimism. 

Badly handled, he becomes insecure and mistrustful. 

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 2Learning Autonomy Versus Shame The second psychosocial crisis, Erikson believes,

occurs during early childhood, probably between about 18 months or 2 years and 3½ to 4 years of age.  The "well - parented" child emerges from this stage sure of himself, elated with his new found control, and proud rather than ashamed. 

Autonomy is not entirely synonymous with assured self-possession, initiative, and independence but, at least for children in the early part of this psychosocial crisis, includes stormy self-will, tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism. 

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 3Learning Initiative Versus Guilt Erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis

occurs during what he calls the "play age," or the later preschool years (from about 3½ to, in the United States culture, entry into formal school).  During it, the healthily developing child learns: (1) to imagine, to broaden his skills through active play of all sorts, including fantasy (2) to cooperate with others (3) to lead as well as to follow. 

Immobilized by guilt, he is: (1) fearful (2) hangs on the fringes of groups (3) continues to depend unduly on adults and (4) is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination.  

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 4

Industry Versus Inferiority Erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis is

handled, for better or worse, during what he calls the "school age“. Here the child learns to master the more formal skills of life: (1) relating with peers according to rules (2) progressing from free play to play that may be elaborately structured by rules and may demand formal teamwork, such as baseball and (3) mastering social studies, reading, arithmetic.  Homework is a necessity, and the need for self-discipline increases yearly.  The child who, because of his successive and successful resolutions of earlier psychosocial crisis, is trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative will learn easily enough to be industrious.

However, the mistrusting child will doubt the future. The shame - and guilt-filled child will experience defeat and inferiority. 

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 5Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion During the fifth psychosocial crisis

(adolescence, from about 13 or 14 to about 20) the child, now an adolescent, learns how to answer satisfactorily and happily the question of "Who am I?" 

But even the best-adjusted of adolescents experiences some role identity diffusion: most boys and probably most girls experiment with minor delinquency; rebellion flourishes; self-doubts flood the youngster, and so on

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 6Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation

The successful young adult, for the first time, can experience true intimacy - the sort of intimacy that makes possible good marriage or a genuine and enduring friendship

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 7Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption

In adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands generativity, both in the sense of marriage and parenthood, and in the sense of working productively and creatively.

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE 8Integrity Versus Despair If the other seven psychosocial crisis have

been successfully resolved, the mature adult develops the peak of adjustment; integrity.  He trusts, he is independent and dares the new.  He works hard, has found a well-defined role in life, and has developed a self-concept with which he is happy.  He can be intimate without strain, guilt, regret, or lack of realism; and he is proud of what he creates - his children, his work, or his hobbies. 

If one or more of the earlier psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he may view himself and his life with disgust and despair.

ERIKSON’S STAGES

trust Vs mistrust Hope Dependency or Paranoia

autonomy Vs doubt Will Obsessive/Impulsive or Avoidant

initiative Vs guilt Purpose Constricted or Antisocial/Narcissistic

industry/competence Vs inferiority

Competency Helplessness or Shallowness

identity Vs role confusion Fidelity Identity Diffusion or Fanaticism

intimacy Vs isolation Love Promiscuity or Exclusion

generativity Vs stagnation Care Stagnation or Overextension

ego-integrity Vs despair Wisdom Presumption or Disdain

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Basic emotions: emotions that are universal in humans and possibly other primates. They have a long (evolutionary) history of promoting survival, can be directly inferred from facial expressions

The basic emotions are

happiness

interest

surprise

sadness

angerfear

disgust

By nature, humans are aggressive..

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Evolutionary history

ApproxAge milestone

Birth Attraction to pleasant, withdrawal from unpleasant

2-3mth Social smiling, response to adults’ facial expression

3-5mth Organised patterns of behaviour, matching emotions to voice

6-8mth Basic emotions organised, fear and suspicion are present. Stranger anxiety, separation anxiety

8-12mth Social referencing appears, respond to subtlety

18-24mth Self conscious emotions of shame, guilt. Empathy. Self regulation

BASIC EMOTION: HAPPINESSSmiles followed by laughterFrom basic satisfaction – having a satisfying meal,

affection/attention from mother, to interesting stimuliBetween 6 to 10 weeks – development of social smile

Quality of smile changes as they age – broader towards familiar peopleChanges in smiles is a related to the babies’ increasing sensitivity to visual patterns and the human face

BASIC EMOTION: ANGER & SADNESS

Anger is a common reaction between the age of 4mth to 2yrs

Wide range of situations that infants react in anger towards

Anger is purposeful – control own actions, defence or overcome obstacles, control caregiver who wants to relieve infant’s distress

Sadness occurs when infant-caregiver communication is disrupted → impairs development

BASIC EMOTIONS: FEAROnly activated around 6mthStranger anxiety: Toddlers show wariness of strangersFear of strangers can easily be overcome if stranger interaction

gives reassurance – show warmth, play familiar games, approaching slowly rather than abruptly

Fear and anxiety is dependent on upbringingToddlers treat caregiver as a secure base that gives emotional

support, from which exploration is conducted

UNDERSTANDING AND RESPONDING TO OTHERS’ EMOTIONSInfants’ emotions are tied to their ability to interpret

emotional cues from othersAutomatic process of emotional contagion during earlier

monthsAround 5mths infants are able to respond to facial cuesSocial referencing – where the infant actively seeks

emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation

EMERGENCE OF SELF CONSCIOUS EMOTIONSEmotions other than the six basic emotionsSecond-order, higher-order emotions such as guilt,

embarrassment, envy, prideInvolving injury or enhancement of sense of selfDevelops around 18-24mths, when toddlers are fully aware

of themselves – can distinguish that the person in the mirror is their reflection

BEGINNINGS OF EMOTIONAL SELF-REGULATION

Emotional self-regulation involves voluntary effortful management of emotions

It is practiced so that we can accomplish our goalsThis is the root to group differences in expression of emotion –

gender, cultural – suppression and encouragement of certain expressions and emotions are discouraged / encouraged by the process of emotional self-regulation

SELF DEVELOPMENT Awareness of self, self recognition self control

SELF AWARENESS

Young infants can distinguish themselves from the environment – gauged by the differential reaction to stimuli

They respond to videos of unfamiliar people than to video of self by 3mths suggesting they can differentiate others and self

By second year, toddlers are conscious of self (consistently) and display self recognition skills

SELF-AWARENESS

Self awareness → self consciousness → appreciating others’ perspectives i.e. development of empathy

By age 2yrs, language plays important part in self development

Learn to categorise themselves – by age, gender, physical characteristics etc.

Self awareness brings effortful control

SELF CONTROL, DELAY OF GRATIFICATIONExtent to which inhibition of impulses, management of

negative emotions, behaving in socially acceptable ways is practiced

Compliance = when child is aware of caregiver’s wishes and gives in to expectations, obeys simple commands

(p208 table)

TEMPERAMENT AND DEVELOPMENTRelatively stable characteristics of reaction and self-

regulation with relation to emotional arousal

Easy child: generally cheerful, adaptive, establishes regular routines rapidly (40%)

Difficult child: irregular in daily routines, slow to accept new situations and tends to react intensely and negatively (10%)

Slow-to-warm-up child: mild low-key reactions, negative in mood, adjusts slowly to new experiences (15%)

IMPORTANCE OF TEMPERAMENT

A difficult child faces more challenges growing up

As such, weathering the difficulties, this adolescent has a larger likelihood of being awkward and suspicious, and withdrawn and antisocial as an adult.

Importance of parenting – helps reduce the negative impact of temperament

STABILITY OF TEMPERAMENT

Overall stability of temperament is low to moderate, with irritability & shyness persisting.

Temperament develops with age, early predictions based on new born may change; predictions made around 2yrs are more accurate of adult temperament

Difficulty children handled correctly can improve significantly due to parenting styles

INFLUENCES ON TEMPERAMENT

Genetics- Daring & active – xy- Anxious & timid – xx- Japanese, Chinese – less

active, more easily soothed than their western counterparts

Environment- Deprivation results in

maladaptive reactivity- Malnutrition related to

distractibility, fearfulness and easily overwhelmed by stress

Perception of differences between sons and daughters happens within hours of birth – leading to different handling styles – girls are more sociable and boys more active etc.

ATTACHMENT

Strong affectionate ties one has with significant others, where interaction brings pleasure and their nearness brings comfortable feelings

Theories – psychoanalytic, ethological

Research – strange person situation

ATTACHMENT THEORY

personalityresearch.org

DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENT

Pre-attachment phase (birth – 6weeks)

Attachment in the making phase (6weeks – 6 or 8mths)

Clear-cut attachment phase (6 or 8mths – 18mths)

Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18mths – 2yrs)

FACTORS THAT AFFECT ATTACHMENT SECURITYOpportunity for attachment

Infants and toddlers given opportunity of exclusive attention thrived and were more securely attached

EQ: DANIEL GOLEMANknowing one's emotions: People who know their

feelings are better pilots of their lives.managing emotions: people who are effective in

managing their emotions can cope better with life's adversities and can bounce back faster than those who are poor in managing their feelings.

motivating oneself: people without emotional intelligence lack self-restraint and would just do whatever their impulses suggest. Emotional self-control, delaying gratification and stifling impulsiveness underlies accomplishment of every sort.

recognizing emotions in others: emotional self-awareness is the first step to empathic sensitivity. If we are in touch with our own feelings, then we can empathise with others and sense their needs.

handling relationships: the art of relating to others includes the skill in managing emotions in others.

CULTIVATING EQ

Be in touch with your own feelings: find time to be alone, know yourself and write down your thoughts.

Do not deny your feelings: recognise that feelings are not sins. Where needed, share your feelings with others.

Know the maturity of your potential confidant: can he or she handle what you will be sharing?

Exercise caution in revealing feelings or facts that may hurt others

Do not allow your feelings to dictate your behaviour: set your own criteria on what you should and should not do. It is important to establish principles beforehand as to what to do when caught in such situations because emotions may dominate your being and rational thoughts go out the window!