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LOW SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS AND READING COMPREHENSION

Courtney B. Roberson

B.S., Kennesaw State University, 2011

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the

Bagwell College of Education in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Education in Elementary and Early Childhood.

Kennesaw State University

2016

Low SES and Reading Comprehension 2

Table of Contents

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………3

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………..4

CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review

Literature Review……………………………………………………………………………….6

CHAPTER THREE: Methodology

Methodology……………………………………………………………………………………23

Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………………………...26

Results…………………………………………………………………………………………..32

CHAPTER FOUR: Conclusions

Limitations……………………………………………………………………………………...33

Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………....34

References………………………………………………………………………………………37

APPENDICES

Appendix A (Comprehension Pre/Post)………………………………………………………...40

Appendix B (Attitude Pre/Post)…………………………………………………………………41


Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the implementation of a reading comprehension journal in a kindergarten classroom specifically addressing the needs of students living in lower socioeconomic status circumstances. The goal of the study was to monitor reading comprehension scores, reading attitudes and acquisition of strategy based knowledge as students worked through a weekly passage followed by five weekly activities to improve comprehension. Participants were given a pre and post assessment to determine reading attitude and strategy understanding. Participants were also given a pre and post comprehension assessment on a weekly basis specific to the passage being read throughout the week. The researcher tracked the comprehension scores over a period of six weeks. Results prove, though the implementation of a reading comprehension journal did not directly improve reading attitudes, it did have a positive impact on both strategy understanding and reading comprehension.


CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Context of the Study

The written word is meant to be read and understood as it is crucial to the functioning of

society as well as the world as an entity. “Understanding what we read is an essential aspect of

good literacy and, consequently, a strong influence on an individual’s wider educational and

economic success” (Silva, 2014). Regardless, children are failing to meet the standard in relation

to reading comprehension across the grade levels. Children being raised in homes representing a

lower socioeconomic status, are directly impacted by such significant disadvantage in home

assistance, lack of medical care, family struggles and sub-par education which thereby results in

deficits concerning reading comprehension. Because I am currently teaching in a school in which

94% of the population qualifies to receive assistance through the Free and Reduced Lunch

program, I am experiencing this hardship first hand. Many of our students are struggling to

maintain an age appropriate reading level therefore, Milford Elementary has established a goal

for the school strategic plan to increase the percentage of students reading on grade level based

upon the low reading scores filed through the 2014 CCRPI report. Research supports the

negative correlation between lower socioeconomic statuses and reading scores however, rarely

does the research provide a means by which to intervene effectively. This article aims to provide

information in regards to the correlation between reading comprehension scores, specifically for

students identified as living in lower-income housing, and an intervention referred to as a

“comprehension notebook”.


Purpose and Importance of the Study

According to Silva’s study (2014) concerning comprehension in 4 to 6 years-olds,

“Across a range of countries, school literacy skills predict subsequent vocational and academic

training, and as advanced countries see a decrease in low-skill jobs, an individual’s literacy skills

are more important than ever for employment choice and success”. Therefore, though this

research was conducted with young Kindergarten students, the implication far surpasses their

academic careers and further impacts their future professional career. The reality is an

achievement gap exists and only becomes a cataclysmic chasm of separation when not addressed

in the elementary grades as children begin to be identified as “struggling readers” or even ELL.

This study aimed to investigate the statistical correlation between low SES and reading

comprehension scores while implementing key strategies through the following research

question: “Given that SES affects reading comprehension, would the creation of a student journal

help to increase reading skills in the Kindergarten setting?” According to the National Reading

Panel (2000), strategy implementation results in the positive acquisition of reading

comprehension skills. However, the reality is that most elementary-aged children have no idea

how to use these strategies while actually reading through a text. This study helped students to

explore the strategies in a fluid and linear manner while already creating a comprehension

notebook by which to refer for study of these strategies. Through the compilation of the

comprehension journal, students work through the process of analyzing a text thereby creating

and deepening their understanding of the content. Students will grow as they learn to walk

through strategies and understand what is being read both individually and in large group

settings.


Research Question

The purpose of this study is to analyze the findings in regards to the following research

question: Given that SES affects reading comprehension, would the creation of a student journal

help to increase reading skills in the Kindergarten setting? Additionally, will the implementation

of a reading comprehension journal affect the students’ attitude toward reading as well as their

confidence levels?

CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

Introduction

Many theorists have established complex studies by which to justify and disprove

strategies which either increase or have no effect upon the reading comprehension skills of

students in the elementary grades reaching to the high school classes as well. However, there is a

lack of study concerning the reading comprehension skills of those students specifically residing

in homes labeled as “lower-income” homes. Many of the schools in the greater Atlanta area

function within a community representing greatly impoverished areas and therefore, the idea of

reading comprehension results and scores directly being related to socioeconomic status is worth

the exploration. This study is designed to close the achievement gap shown through statistics

specifically related to schools reflecting a high percentage of students being served through the

Free and Reduced Lunch program in the reading domain as it relates to comprehension in a

Kindergarten setting. The researcher will specifically explore the use of comprehension journals

as a strategy by which to address the represented deficits. The results of this study will show the


effects of early intervention in the form of the composition of a comprehension notebook,

specifically for those students representing an impoverished home-life, in the domain of reading

comprehension in Kindergarten.

Literacy Statistics

Ninety-three million adults in the U.S. read at or below the basic level needed to

contribute successfully to society. The lack of reading skills is an area of concern for those who

are already living in impoverished areas as it significantly impacts their path for their future.

Begin to Read summarizes the results of the National Assessment of Adult Literacy stating “2/3

of students who cannot read by the end of 4th grade will end up in jail or on welfare” (2014). The

National Center for Education Statistics reports 65 percent of fourth graders read at or below the

basic level (2003). Additionally, statistics show illiteracy or the lack of reading in general and

crime are directly related to one another (National Assessment of Adult Literacy, 2014). The

Department of Justice notes, “The link between academic failure and delinquency, violence and

crime is welded to reading failure” which directly results in over 70% of America’s inmates not

having the reading skills nor the ability to read above a fourth grade level (National Assessment

of Adult Literacy, 2014). It is important to note that these families are already at a disadvantage

in their medical history as various conditions result in a lack of adequate nutrition as well as,

often times, a lack of prenatal care. Alarmingly, Begin to Read also cites that one out of four

children will grow up not knowing how to read while also living in homes with parents whom

also lack the ability to read. Many of the statistics being collected are mind boggling and require

an intervention in some form or shape as the world is being impacted by these negative

outcomes.


Sub-Par Schooling

These conditions previously mentioned (i.e. Lack of nutrition, prenatal care) may also

serve as “risk factors” for struggles pertaining to reading (Snow, 2015). Typically, students in

low SES homes attend schools which are considered to be sub-par. It is also researched to be

very likely that these students are not only receiving sub-par schooling but also sub-par support

in the home as their parents and guardians are popularly uneducated themselves. Because this is

the likelihood, scores tallied as a result of standardized testing in these schools reflect the overall

reading achievement and comprehension scores for that of lower SES students. Snow notes these

consistencies occur in both the United States as well as other English speaking countries (2015).

As these students age, they tend to perform adequately and often times on grade level during the

school year but lose significant ground during the summer months as support is lacking and aid

is not readily available as it is during the school months. Research supports the theory that “the

correlation between SES and low achievement is probably mediated, in large part, by differences

in the quality of school experiences” (Snow, 2015). “The analysis of new data on 2008-09

school-level expenditures shows that many high-poverty schools receive less than their fair share

of state and local funding, leaving students in high-poverty schools with fewer resources than

schools attended by their wealthier peers” (U.S. Department of Education, 2011). Given this

understanding, schools functioning in impoverished areas are typically going to display lower

standardized testing scores resulting in criticism, judgement and an unwanted and somewhat

undeserved reputation. While the socioeconomic status clearly impacts the academic success of a

student and is clearly an identifiable risk factor, a large population of these students also

negatively impacts the school, community and in some instances, the district. “A low-status child


in a generally moderate or upper-status school or community is far less at risk than that same

child in a whole school or community of low-status children” (Snow, 2015). As this data

becomes more readily available, “at-risk” schools must learn to intervene and impact these

students for the good of the child as well as the good of the school, community and district.

Theories and Strategies

Just as Casper noted in his study Comprehension: Theories and Strategies,

comprehension strategies must be studied so teachers may effectively learn how to increase

reading comprehension within the classroom (Casper, 1998). According to Casper’s study, there

are three main theories of reading comprehension. First noted, the Schema Theory which is the

connection between the reader’s personal knowledge and the text. This allows the reader to “file”

away information which becomes personal in a sense and therefore, may be used in the future.

The second theory is that of the Mental Model Theory. According to Casper, this model is

described as “a mind movie created in one’s head, based on the reading content” (Casper, 1998).

This allows the reader to focus on the main character while also walking through the

circumstances he or she encounters throughout the plot of the proposed text. Additionally, this

type of thinking may allow the reader to manipulate the story and explore the potential outcomes

as if the story itself were altered in any way. As noted throughout the summary of the theory,

teachers must be cautious as they encourage the use of this theory by continuously asking the

student questions to maintain focus and consistency with the text (Casper, 1998). The

Propositional Theory explores the idea of the reader constructing a “macrostructure” as they

read. This, in turn, results in the memorization of the most influential facts dwindling down to

the lower priority facts. As a result of each one of the proposed theories, educators have learned

the importance of implementing strategies which allow students to independently process texts


while also increasing reading comprehension. Casper references Gunning’s study which

proposed four strategies by which to improve comprehension: Preparation, Organization,

Elaboration and Monitoring (Casper, 1998). Students should prepare to explore a text by being

courage to explore their prior experiences concerning the topic being taught through the text.

Student retain information which is familiar to them. Students should be taught to organize their

thoughts as they navigate through a particular text. Through the organization strategy, students

are encouraged to identify key concepts such as the main idea and other relevant information.

Educators help students in increasing reading comprehension by elaborating on the given text.

For example, teachers may ask questions, help students make inferences or even through the use

of a K-W-L chart (Casper, 1998). Lastly, educators should be encouraging student to be aware of

their own “mental process” concerning the text. Monitoring directly relates to those students

whom are struggling to comprehend what they have read. This strategy aims to aid children in

finding a technique by which to reread the text and understand the topic. Each theory and

strategy work hand-in-hand to increase comprehension for a variety of learners. The overall

understanding of Casper’s study is that teachers should learn to shy away from the use of a

typical worksheet in which students are simply regurgitating the information which has been

emphasized and rather determine for themselves, through open ended responses of various

forms, what information is pertinent to the text and reader alike.

Two Types of Reading Comprehension Approaches in Low-Income Schools

Garcia, along with four additional authors, explored two types of reading comprehension

strategies implemented specifically in low-income schools. He notes, “Based on the National

Reading Pantel’s (2000) finding that strategy instruction leads to improved reading

comprehension, many researchers recommend that teachers instruct elementary-age children on


how to use strategies while they read” (Garcia, 2011). Conversely, evidence shows these younger

students do not use these strategies as they read. As defined by this study, socio-constructivism

implies that knowledge is acquired as readers share their interpretations of the text being

discussed; that is, much as Vygotsky stated, learners create their own learning through

collaboration. Garcia and team propose the hypothesis that socio-constructive ways of teaching

are ineffective when used in lower-income schools. Specifically, the team proposed three

implementation issues which may occur in these settings. When this type of strategy is already

implemented under other various literary aspects of instruction, there seems to be a more narrow

chance for negative impact. However, for those educators whom are attempting to implement a

socio-constructive way of teaching in a setting which does not openly foster the concept,

attention becomes divided therefore a chasm of intention leaves students wanting for content and

understanding. School and district initiatives often contradict thereby hurting the students rather

than helping them. Teachers whom are accustomed to a teaching style which is strictly led by

direct instruction from the educator, often struggle to implement a student-centered technique.

This is often a result of teacher’s struggling in previous classes to effectively implement student-

led instruction (Garcia, 2011). However, as learners become more responsible for and invested

in their own education, they value the content and retain the information. Garcia and team report,

“…as the teachers saw their students benefit from discussing text in student-led small groups,

they were more willing to relinquish teacher control of the discussion groups to the students”

(Garcia, 2011). Lastly, a socio-constructive approach may be a struggle to implement in the

classroom because teachers struggle to select appropriate texts for instruction. “Teachers

implementing cognitive strategy instruction need texts challenging enough to warrant the

authentic and flexible use of strategies, whereas teachers implementing responsive engagement


instruction need texts with complex themes or issues that facilitate the use of “big, juicy”

questions to enhance students’ comprehension and discussion” (Garcia, 2011). The study goes on

to describe the importance of educator’s selecting texts which explore multiculturalism so as to

approach the topics most relevant to those of the students within a lower-income school setting.

Teachers must consciously select texts students can read and comprehend independently as texts

should be read in multiple facets including large-group settings, small group settings, individual

settings and pair settings. For example, guided reading texts being read through the first semester

of school rarely explore the more complex side of comprehension as they are designed to meet

the specific needs of a specific leveled student. However, as the more complex texts come into

being, responsive engagement becomes more readily explored. However, when the texts are too

simple, teachers are encouraged to continue to read narrative texts aloud, however, teachers are

encouraged to include a copy of the text for the students to follow along and read along. This, in

turn, allows students to learn how to navigate more complex narratives which would not be

presented through guided reading groups otherwise. Student exposure to a variety of texts is a

key component to the overall process of improving reading comprehension in elementary aged

students. Overall, Garcia’s study supports the belief that professional learning is important to the

growth of reading comprehension in all students. Garcia notes, “…it is important to remember

that reading comprehension is a dynamic construct that requires readers to personally and

socially transact with texts” (Garcia, 2011). Educators must learn the importance of being

intentional in their teaching including, but not limited to, the inclusion and introduction of

complex, multicultural texts in the classroom which result in a high level of student-led

discussion as well as the acquisition of critical content and self-knowledge.


Reading Comprehension and Children in Poverty

The US Census Bureau Poverty (as cited by Yoon, 2011), “In 2009, the U. S.

government estimated that 43.6 million people, or roughly 14 percent of the

population, had an income below the poverty threshold. Among the poor,

children were disproportionately represented with 15.5 million or 20.7

percent under the age of 18 living in poverty.” Yoon’s study, like so many

others, agree comprehension is comprised of two specific components:

decoding the written word and language comprehension skills to understand

that which is written. Consequently, these studies (as cited in Yoon, 2011)

also reveal students living in poverty will struggle with reading due to high

risk factors such as , “Reduced cognitive stimulation, less parental

involvement in academics, a limited home literacy environment represented

by the absence of books, limited shared-book reading with parents, and low

expectations for academic achievement.” Additionally, it is likely these

students have been exposed to inadequate nutrition, substance abuse,

material depression, environmental toxins, abuse and inadequate daily care

(National Center for Children in Poverty, 1999). A recently published study

found “children who live in neighborhoods with higher rates of poverty show reduced scores on

standardized tests seven years later -- regardless of the child's place of residence in Grade 7”

(University of British Columbia, 2010). Given the environmental factors these

children are already facing in the home setting, schools must be quick to

identify these students and even more quick to intervene. While educating


the students, schools must work toward the ultimate goal of educating the

family, including the parents and guardians. In order to create a difference in

the life of the child and close the achievement gap, educators and schools

must strive to work to penetrate the family unit rather than just the student.

Yoon’s study aims to investigate the correlation between low SES, reading

comprehension and processes of reading comprehension such as decoding,

receptive and expressive language, cognitive skills and working memory

from the perspective of a speech pathologist. Yoon proctored various tests

concerning these topics with 26 typically developing participants. As a result

of the research, Yoon discovered previous studies were accurate as they

depicted students from lower-income homes perform poorly in comparison to

national standardized testing samples. “Children from low SES families are

more likely to experience limited language and cognitive stimulation from

home environment, support with reading or academic attainment, and fewer

material resources such as pencils and books. As the result of an inadequate

language learning environment, school-age children from low SES homes

tend to have small vocabulary sizes, less complex syntactic knowledge and

less sophisticated knowledge of story structure” (Yoon, 2011). Based upon

the results, the study suggests that, along with reading early intervention,

language interventions may also decrease achievement gaps between

children from low SES families and middle to high SES students.

Poverty as a Composite


According to Harwell and LeBeau (as cited in Ransdell, 2012) “free and

reduced lunch (FRL) status was originally designed as a measure of nutrition, not SES per se,

although composites of socioeconomic status (SES) using FRL and other measures have been

developed.” Ransdell conducted a study to “research is to determine the unique contributions of

poverty, bilingualism, ethnicity, teacher and school resources, and child risk behaviors to

aggregated school-level performance scores in standardized reading comprehension in Grades 3

through 10 in a large public school system in South Florida” (Ransdell, 2012). Of the 259

schools participating in the study, 153 were elementary schools, 59 were middle schools and 47

were high schools. The criterion referenced throughout the study ae reading scores resulting from

the FCAT and acquired through the Florida Department of Education. The reading scores are

measured by decoding and comprehension scores. Among using FRL to indicate students living

in poverty, other child risk behaviors serve as indicators as well such as absences, crime,

suspension, etc. This study serves as a simple reminder that policies must be altered in order to

meet the needs of students living in poverty. “Policy will have to address and measure the

amount of social deficit a school might be expected to experience” (Ransdell, 2012). In these

regards, this study urges schools to provide social workers for students whom are potentially at

risk and low cost after school activities. Additionally, schools should not assume ELL students

are living in poverty but rather analyze the whole student in relation to the characteristics of the

child and other variables. Overall, this study reveals there is a significant need for more

“longitudinal and experimental studies” focusing more on the positive characteristics of students

living in poverty rather than the negative. Though poverty is clearly an obstacle for many

students, it also serves as a constant indicator that we as educators should be searching for as we

are keenly aware of the areas in which we are working. Additionally, the study notes that


“children and school will require extra educational resources to counteract poverty” (Ransdell,

2012). This requires states to take action in funding in an equal manner throughout districts.

Ransdell’s study works to make districts and schools aware of the need to adjust policy in order

to meet the needs of students clearly living in poverty.

A Longitudinal Study

Multiple studies have come to develop facts depicting the consistent belief that decoding

and listening comprehension are two domains which affect reading comprehension as a whole.

According to Gentaz’s study, “Despite a large body of sociological and psychological literature

confirming the significant role of SES factors on reading achievement, there are very few studies

on reading comprehension in children from low SES families, especially in languages with a less

deep orthography than English” (Gentaz, 2012). However, many of these studies have revolved

about a population of only English speaking students which leaves much to ponder for speakers

of other languages including students identified as requiring ESOL services. In order to assess

the relationship between reading comprehension and the correlating predictors (i.e. decoding,

vocabulary and listening comprehension), Gentaz et al. studied 394 French students, specifically

from the low socioeconomic status, from the beginning to the end of first grade. This allowed the

study to be longitudinal in nature thus allowing for the investigation of many predictors over

time. The study findings revealed students identified as living in low SES circumstances

displayed “impairments” in both reading and spoken language. In comparison to the norms, these

students’ scores were sub-par. Subsequently, in relation to the predictor skills, the study proved

to contrast previous studies conducted in this realm as it revealed decoding to be more heavily

weighted when using short utterances rather than narrative texts. Overall, the study revealed,

“comprehension is a complex cognitive construct, and successful reading comprehension is the


result of a confluence of skills: decoding and listening comprehension, as predicted by the simple

view of reading [5], plus (but with a lesser weight and a lesser consistency) oral vocabulary. The

present results also indicate that the relationship between these predictors and reading

comprehension could vary as a function of the specific task used to assess comprehension”

(Gentaz, 2012). The findings of this study impact the “at risk” populations in showing students

desperately need to make progress in component skills in order to grow in reading

comprehension skills. Skills such as decoding, vocabulary and listening comprehension should

be taught during reading segments in order to further a child’s reading success.

Project Muse

There is a very real struggle concerning reading comprehension as students grow and

move throughout their educational careers. Students whom struggle with reading comprehension

in lower grades often continue the struggle as they mature. Nonie Lesaux was puzzled by this

very reality and begin research with students identified as living in low-income homes and non-

English-speaking homes. “The latest government statistics reveal that child poverty rates

increased from 16.2 percent in 2000 to 21.6 percent in 2010. With immigration rates also on the

rise, children of immigrants now make up 24 percent of the school-age population” (Lesaux,

2012). These students are entering schools with a disadvantage from the start as they enter with

very limited English proficiency, if any at all. Poverty, without any influence of a language

struggle, independently puts these children at a disadvantage as more privileged students are

exposed to more experiences and opportunities. Susan B. Neuman and Donna C. Celano depict

in their book Giving Children a Fighting Chance, in a neighborhood of poverty, they found a

total of 358 reading resources available for a child population of approximately 7,000 children;


in a neighborhood of privilege, 16,453 reading resources for a child population of 1,200 (2009).

While the schools serving these students are valiantly riding in as heroes, these schools still lack

the equipment needed to meet the needs of their ever growing populations.

“Becoming an effective reader is a dynamic and complex proceses” (Lesaux, 2012).

Reading evolves with maturity, age and grade level thus it involves constant change and

adjustment. If students are unable to get up with the pace at an age appropriate level, students

will struggle to catch up in future grades. This poses as a struggle as noted by Lesaux (2012)

when she writes, “To read effectively, readers not only decipher words on a page, but also use

accumulating knowledge to assess, evaluate, and synthesize the presented information.”

Consequently, reading is required to establish foundations across the curriculum thereby

resulting a spiral downfall for the already struggling students.

To intensify the already growing struggle, assessments pose as an obstacle for these

students as well. “To better support these children, the distinction should inform the design of

both assessment and instructional practices in order to target both the smaller (skills) and larger

(knowledge) reading problem spaces” (Lesaux, 2012). We, as educators, must become well-

versed in screening young readers as it is plausible to predict the struggles which await a child.

Until the world is screening students effectively, many “at-risk” readers will continue to move

through the system with a future of struggles. Reading comprehension in correlating with

suffering academics becomes cyclical in nature as a result.

The study proves, similarly to assessment, instruction must become more comprehensive

in approach. In order to achieve this shift, school systems must make two major changes. “First,

reading must be conceptualized in practice as it is in theory and research-as a developmental,

dynamic process that depends heavily on knowledge-based reading competencies” (Lesaux,


2012). Students must be able to master concepts relating to print thus making way to understand

meaning. Secondly, reading instruction must take into account all grade levels, PreK-to-12. This

instructional model will provide a cohesive plan for at risk reading students.

Background Modulates Cognition

Many studies address a low SES and phonological awareness as separate factors affecting

the reading comprehension skills and scores of students, however, few have examined the

potential that the two concepts are interrelated in nature. Perhaps a child’s social background

effects his or her phonological abilities. Noble et al. propose this very relationship exists

predicting the relationship between phonological awareness and reading achievement are

systemically impacted and created by socioeconomic status. One hundred sixty-eight first

graders participated in the study concerning neurocognitive performance. Participants were

tested concerning word attack, word ID, passage comprehension, phonological awareness,

blending words, elision, receptive vocabulary and a parent questionnaire.

The combination of tests revealed socioeconomic status clearly serves as an important

predictor pertaining to early reading ability and consequently, phonological awareness skills.

While multiple factors certainly play a role in the prediction process, it is accurate to state that

children coming from lower income homes will likely struggle with reading comprehension and

reading achievement with a specific emphasis on phonological awareness. In the summary of

their findings, Noble et al states, “The present results underscore this relationship,

as PA is a robust predictor of all reading measures investigated. However, it

is imperative that the effects of such cognitive variables be examined in the

context of a child’s socioeconomic background, if we are to formulate well-

grounded education policies that are generalizable to many different


populations” (Noble, 2006). Educators should use this pattern to better

predict which students may require earlier interventions in regards to

reading. Teachers should be in constant contact with parents and families in

order to better assess the background of the student.

Lower and Higher Comprehension

When addressing deficits shown throughout reading comprehension in the lower grades,

educators must target interventions which prevent literacy failure while simultaneously

benefiting the student. According to Hogan, Bridges, Justice and Cain (as cited in Silva, 2015),

“Comprehension of discourse goes beyond word- and sentence level

understanding and thus draws on both lower level and higher level skills.”

Lower level skills include comprehension skills such as vocabulary and

grammar. Conversely, higher level reading comprehension skills are

recognized as inference and literal comprehension. Silva’s study

hypothesized that grammar would benefit inference skills and that inference

and literal comprehension would predict reading comprehension levels 1

year later. When testing these hypotheses, Silva assessed eighty-two 4-to-6

year olds via standardized scores addressing the following domains: general

cognitive ability, verbal memory, receptive vocabulary, knowledge of

grammar and inference making and literal comprehension. One year after

these tests were completed and assessed, the same participants were

assessed by a standardized measure of reading comprehension to either

prove or disprove the proposed hypothesis.


Once the data was collected and assessed, three specific outcomes

were analyzed. Firstly, the data exposed language measures to be correlated

with one another. “Of note, the correlation between vocabulary and

inference was large, but the correlation between grammar and inference was

small. Further, inference and literal comprehension shared only a moderate

correlation” (Silva, 2015). Additionally, these statistics also showed a

correlation one year later. Secondly, the research aimed to analyze

inferential and literal comprehension. This portion of the study revealed the

vocabulary component of reading comprehension skills greatly impacted

both inferential and literal comprehension when using age and nonverbal IQ

as controlled variables. Lastly, this study aimed to discover and reveal which

comprehension path, either inference or literal comprehension, would help to

predict future reading comprehension levels. The study successful showed

both inference and literal comprehension predict “unique variances” (Silva,

2015) in reading comprehension. Overall, this study revealed vocabulary to

be an essential component in the prediction of inference skills as opposed to

grammar or verbal memory. Also, grammar, inference making and literal

comprehension influence reading comprehension overtime as opposed to

vocabulary. In conclusion, the study revealed though skills are identified as

being higher or lower level skills, they are all impactful on reading

comprehension as a whole.

Intervention Required


It is clear, as defined through the collection of aforementioned articles

and dissertations, socioeconomic status has a negative impact on reading

comprehension as a whole. Knowing and digesting this information will affect

the way educators identify students in regards to reading comprehension.

Children living in poverty are earning the right to be recognized as “red flag”

students whom are “at risk” concerning not only reading comprehension but

their academic careers as a whole. Because this conclusion is supported by

various studies, teachers should be intervening in an immediate fashion to

address the needs of these students. However, though these studies support

the belief that lower socioeconomic status impacts reading comprehension,

they leave much to want in relation to appropriate and effective

interventions being put in place to address the discovered deficits.

“Although there are many factors that contribute to students’ success in learning to read

with understanding, including genetics, home literacy environment, health, poverty, stress,

preschool experiences, parenting, and peers (Bronfenbrenner and Morris 2006; Duncan et al.

2008; Pianta et al. 2007; Skibbe et al. 2012; Taylor et al. 2010), how we teach students to read

for understanding and what we teach them impacts their learning” (Connor, 2014). It is

imperative that strategies be reflective in nature. Shana-han et al. (as cited

in McCartney, 2014) define reflective strategies “as ‘intentional mental

actions’ undertaken b children during reading to improve reading

comprehension, requiring deliberate efforts by a reader to understand better

or remember what is being read.” The most beneficial aspect of McCartney’s

study (2014) was the section pertaining to interventions in which the


researcher noted strategies were discussed in a teacher session in order to

better mold strategies to the use of educators and to allow for the strategies

to effectively be implemented in the classroom setting. This feedback from

actual educators helped to aid the researcher in developing more effective

strategies to address deficits. The researcher went on to address teachers by

encouraging them to implement “key messages” into their lessons such as

stating the following: “prepare your mind, what is this about?” or “if this was

a film, what would I see?”, etc. Additionally, teachers were encouraged to

create hand gestures for students to indicate and identify what specific

strategy he or she was using during a reading assignment (McCartney,

2014). “When using any teaching strategy, teachers should (1) help students to understand why

a strategy is useful, and (2) describe explicitly how the strategy should be used” (Classroom

Strategies, 2015). This, in turn, encouraged students to study and learn the

strategies being taught within the classroom setting.

Outside of socioeconomic status, there are other factors that affect reading

comprehension. These factors must also be taken into account when creating appropriate

interventions for reading achievement in elementary grades. Such factors may include

motivation/purpose, word knowledge, decoding, fluency, the general nature of the text, genre

and length of passage (Duke and Pearson, 2001). It is unlikely there is an all-inclusive strategy

designed to address every aforementioned factor and potential factor.

In his article concerning the Principles of Instruction, Barak Rosenshine (2012) highlights

ten effective principles to use when teaching reading comprehension. Among these ten principles

are the following: begin with a short review, ask many questions, provide models, create high


rates of success and scaffold for difficult tasks. Most important, Rosenshine notes, “Engage

students in weekly and monthly review: Students need to be involved in extensive practice in

order to develop well-connected and automatic knowledge” (2012). Strategies should be

repetitive in nature but also increasing in complexity throughout the given timeline.

This study aims to implement a new reading strategy defined as a “comprehension

notebook”. Similar to a Reader’s Notebook, the comprehension notebook aims to help students

create a habit of reflection and understanding while reading a variety of texts. Often times,

teachers use these notebooks as a journal for student reflection but I challenge the general

writing to become purposeful reflection in relation to the general education kindergarten

classroom setting. This study aims to analyze comprehension through the creation of a

comprehension journal specifically addressing the requirements of the kindergarten reading

standards. Reading follow-up should be purposeful and create an atmosphere intentional learning

and growth.

CHAPTER THREE

Methodology

Overview

Data collected throughout this study was used to analyze the correlation between students

identified as living in a Low SES setting as defined by the qualification to receive assistance

through the Free and Reduced Lunch Program and reading comprehension scores through the

implementation of a reading comprehension journal in a Kindergarten setting. Participants’

reading attitudes and confidence levels were also measured through the use of an open ended pre

and post assessment concerning questions about each student’s personal view of reading as well

as their knowledge about reading strategies. Student participants were selected based upon not


only their qualification for the Free and Reduced Lunch program but also based upon qualitative

teacher observation. Students participated with the written consent of their representative parent

or guardian.

Research Setting and Participants

This study took place in a general education classroom setting of only twelve students.

All of the students in this classroom were identified as living in lower socio-economics status

circumstances while also attending a school defined as impoverished according to the high

percentage of students receiving free and reduced lunch. Eleven out of the twelve students were

Hispanic and one was African American. The majority of the class was eligible to be tested to

receive ESOL services in the upcoming semester.

Intervention/Innovation

The researcher implemented a comprehension journal as part of the guided reading and

Daily 5 initiative. The teacher led the students through various reading passages including

narrative and informative. Following the reading of the passage, the teacher led the students

through a follow-up activity as outlined in the comprehension journal. Activities varied from

retelling the story, answering questions about the passage, referring to the passage for

information and other activities as they pertain to the passage being read. The comprehension

journal served as a growth record and reference for strategies in which to use when reading

independently. Rather than being used as a reflective journal, the notebook is used to assess for

understanding and establish strategies to be used during reading, testing and writing.

Data Collection and Procedure


Throughout the four weeks previous to the implementation of the aforementioned study,

the researcher observed students while reading and completing the assigned correlating reading

comprehension check. These tasks aligned with the daily tasks of the classroom teacher. The

researcher was given permission to observe the students while collecting anecdotal notes as the

students worked alongside peers as well as their classroom teacher. Anecdotal notes showed

deficits, specific struggles, sub group titles and suggested strategies for reading comprehension

improvement.

The quantitative data collection of this case study is perceived to be more beneficial to

the proposed research question and hypothesis. Students participated in a pre-assessment and

post-assessment relating to their attitude about reading in general. The pre-assessment and

attitude assessment were distributed by the researcher on a one-on-one basis before the strategy

implementation began. This pre-assessment/post-assessment is noted as Appendix A while the

attitude assessment is noted as Appendix B. The attitude assessment was used to determine the

confidence level of the reader prior to the study and at the conclusion of the study. The

comprehension assessment was used to analyze the increase, decrease, or plateau of reading

perception as confidence increases throughout the strategy implementation.

Given that socioeconomic status directly impacts reading comprehension, this study aims

to investigate the correlation between the implementation of a comprehension journal for low

SES students and the increase of reading comprehension scores. This study hypothesizes there is

a positive correlation between students learning about and exploring the strategy of a student

comprehension journal and an increase in reading comprehension scores. Students are put into

groups according to reading level (3 students at a time) to participate in a reading activity with

the researcher. The researcher begins by giving each student their reading text. As student


complete their reading, the researcher gives the student the comprehension pre-assessment

(Appendix A). Assessments are adjusted (character names and relevant questions) according to

the given text. Students then participate in the specific activity assigned to the text aimed toward

increasing reading comprehension. These strategies are introduced and filed in the student

comprehension notebook. The notebook will serve as a place to house visual representations of

strategies being taught. Following the specified activity and filing, students will read the text

once more. As the students complete, the students are given the post-assessment once more. Data

is collected to show the direct correlation between the student comprehension journal

implementation and the reading comprehension result. Assessments are scored by correct

answers given. Sub groups percentages are compiled based upon the results of these assessments.

Data should reflect a direct positive correlation.

Data Analysis

Due to the massive amount of qualitative data being collected throughout the use of the

comprehension notebook, that data was analyzed using an inductive analysis approach. The

researcher collected data in reference to each specific strategy being taught through the

comprehension notebook and looked for specific patterns in relation to reading comprehension as

a whole. Additionally, participants were assessed using a pre and post assessment in relation to

the components of a story read to them at the beginning of data collect and the end. Qualitative

data was also collected through a pre and post assessment defining the strategies being used

while reading passages throughout the study.

The study consisted of six weeks of the reading comprehension journal implementation.

The students first completed a pre-assessment then read the passage and completed

comprehension checks over two days. Finally, the students completed an identical post


assessment concerning the weekly passage. The following six charts summarize the data specific

to each passage for the six weeks of implementation.

Figure 1.1-Week 1 Data

Student 1

Student 2

Student 3

Student 4

Student 5

Student 6

Student 7

Student 8

Student 9

Student 10

Student 11

Student 12

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

44.5

Comprehension Assessment Week 1

Pre-Assessment Post Assessment

Week one data reflected an overall increase in comprehensive averages. Eleven of the

twelve students increased their comprehension scores while one maintained a perfect score.

Additionally, students 6, 7, 8, and 12 all began their comprehension check with a score of 0 on

their pre assessments. All four of these students increased their scores after interacting with the

passages and participating in comprehension check activities.


Student 1

Student 2

Student 3

Student 4

Student 5

Student 6

Student 7

Student 8

Student 9

Student 10

Student 11

Student 12

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

44.5


Pre Assessment Post Assessment Column1


Week two data collection was very similar to week one in that every participant increased

or maintained their comprehension score. Only one of the twelve students maintained his score

while the rest showed a minimum of a one point increase. None of the students had a perfect

score on their pre assessment though six of the students received a perfect average (4 points) on

the post assessment.


Student 1

Student 2

Student 3

Student 4

Student 5

Student 6

Student 7

Student 8

Student 9

Student 10

Student 11

Student 12

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

44.5


Pre Assessment Post Assessment

The third week of data collection proved to be consistent with the previous weeks. Every

participant maintained their score or increased their score. During week three, two students had

an identical pre assessment and post assessment score. However, the remaining ten students all

increased their comprehension scores.



Student 1

Student 2

Student 3

Student 4

Student 5

Student 6

Student 7

Student 8

Student 9

Student 10

Student 11

Student 12

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

44.5



Week four data continued with the correlation of comprehension increase with the

majority of the participants. As the difficulty level of the reading passages increase, pre

assessment scores suffer. Fifty percent of the twelve participants began with a score of zero on

their pre assessment. One student maintained her perfect score from pre to post assessment while

the remaining eleven increased their score by a minimum of one point. All six students whom

began with a score of zero on their pre assessment, increased their post assessment score by a

minimum of one point.

Figure 1.5- Week 5 Data

Student 1

Student 2

Student 3

Student 4

Student 5

Student 6

Student 7

Student 8

Student 9

Student 10

Student 11

Student 12

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

44.5




As participants worked through week five’s passage, the difficult of the passage as well

as the comprehension questions greatly increased. Again, fifty percent of the participants began

their pre assessment with a score of zero. Five of these students composed the lower leveled

readers while one represented the higher leveled readers. Regardless of the pre assessment score,

every participant increased their score. No student maintained their pre assessment score.

Figure 1.6- Week 6 Data

Student 1

Student 2

Student 3

Student 4

Student 5

Student 6

Student 7

Student 8

Student 9

Student 10

Student 11

Student 12

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

44.5



During week six of data collection, students again showed great increase in their

comprehension scores. This passage, being the most informative and rich in facts, was the most

difficult story the students read throughout the six weeks of research. Of the twelve students,

four increased their scores by at least one point. Two students maintained their score in the

transition. This week posed a particular limitation for student number 12. She was unable to

complete the post assessment due to a severe illness. However, in the weeks past, she has


consistently increased her comprehension score which leads one to assume week six would not

have been different.

The reading comprehension journal was implemented in a Kindergarten classroom at a

Title 1 school comprised of twelve students all identified as receiving Free and Reduced Lunch

thus also being identified as students living in low socioeconomic circumstances. Students were

grouped according to their reading levels as identified through the administration of the DRA by

the classroom teacher. Prior to the implementation of the comprehension journal, students were

given a survey to analyze their reading attitude as well as their understanding of reading

strategies which to use when answering questions about passages. The class was given a weekly

passage to interact with two days a week. Grouping the students according to reading level

proved to be effective in the group collaboration and independent working.

As passages were read throughout the weeks, students were given five key questions to

answers pertaining to the passage. Students were encouraged to read in the group setting then

assess the questions as a group but answer independently. Students were also made to compose

their answers to the pre and post assessments independently. As the pre and post assessments

were administered, data revealed no regression in the students’ comprehension scores. Appendix

A is an example of the types of questions which were asked pertaining to the weekly passages.

Averages reflected a positive correlation between the implementation of the journal and student

comprehension scores.

Students were also administered a pre and post assessment concerning reading attitude

and knowledge acquisition. These tests were given the week prior to research beginning and the

post assessment was given at the conclusion of the research. The pre assessment, found in

Appendix B, asked questions related to the child’s attitude about reading as well as their


knowledge about using strategies while reading. Research revealed participants had limited

exposure to strategy use. In comparing the two assessments, none of the twelve participants

could define the word “strategy” on the pre assessment and only two could properly identify a

strategy to be used while reading. Consequently, after six weeks of research, eleven of the

students could define “strategy” while seven could also identify a usable strategy. As noted in the

limitations, student 12 was unable to complete her last assessments, attitude assessment included,

due to severe illness. Therefore, it is safe to assume 100 percent of the class would have been

able to define “strategy” at the conclusion of the study. Is should also be noted that students were

asked whether they enjoyed reading or not. From the pre assessment to the post assessment, three

students changed their answers from “no” to “yes” thus indicating a positive reading attitude,

two students revealed new negative attitudes as their answers moved from “yes” to “no”, while

the remaining students showed no change in their prior position. The implementation of the

reading comprehension journal, while it clearly increased comprehension and strategy

understanding, did not greatly impact the reading attitude in students.

Results

Overall, the twelve participants grew in exponential ways through the six week

implementation of the comprehension journal. When analyzing the data, it is important to

analyze each reading group according to their reading success. The first group, consisting of

students 1-3, is classified as the higher readers in the classroom. Between these three students

and the 18 data points collected amongst them within the six weeks of research, 78% of the data

reflected an increase in comprehension scores while 22% revealed a maintained score. The

second group, classified as students 4-6, were identified as the second highest reading leveled

students. The data collected over the six weeks reflected a 94% increase in comprehension while


also reflecting 5% of a maintained score. Group three consisted of students 7-9. This group, as

expected, is classified at the higher of the lower two reading groups. The combination of these

students resulted in data showing an 89% increase in comprehension score as well as an 11%

collection of maintained scores. Lastly, group four, comprised of students 10-12, were not only

on the lower end of the reading spectrum but also the students experiencing sever struggles with

English as a Second Language. However, this group also benefited from the implementation of

the comprehension journal as data reflected an 89% increase in comprehension scores and an

11% group of maintained scores. The overall data collection proves that 100% of the participants

benefited from the implementation of the comprehension journal in one way or another. Of the

twelve participants, not a single student showed any regression throughout the six weeks of

research.

Reading attitudes and strategy understanding were also calculated through the use of a

pre and post assessment. Data revealed 27% of the participants showed a positive increase in

reading attitude while 18% showed a negative decrease in reading attitude. The pre assessment

revealed 0% of the students could define “strategy” and only 16% could identify a proper

strategy to be used when reading. Conversely, the post assessment revealed 100% of the

participants were now able to properly define “strategy” while 58% of those students were able

to identify and define an appropriate strategy to be used while reading. Overall, reading attitude

remains stagnant thereby showing the reading comprehension journal did not have great effect

on this area. However, it is clear the reading comprehension journal did aid students in their

knowledge of strategies which should be used during reading.

CHAPTER FOUR

Conclusions


Limitations

Though this study provided data and research beneficial to ever changing research

concerning reading comprehension and reading attitudes, there were several limitations to the

study. Firstly, it is imperative to note that the study analyzed the participation of only twelve

students. Because the sample is limited, generalizations must be made in relation to the greater

population. More specifically to this sampling is the detail that the researcher was not the

students’ general classroom teacher. Due to the change in teachers and teaching styles, there was

an adjustment period for both the teacher and the participants. However, this also provided an

atmosphere of excitement and challenge with both the researcher and the students.

Similarly, with the lack of relationship between the participants and the researcher, there

was a lack of understanding of the students’ actual performance levels. While writing the

answers to the pre and post assessment questions, students were frustrated by their lack of

phonemic awareness. Students have had limited exposure to letter sounds and blending skills in

order to foster independent writing. Many students gave up in the writing of their responses

which resulted in random words found around the classroom and random letter combinations. As

this issue came to fruition, the research had to adjust and reorganize the lessons to allow time to

work with students individually when writing their responses. Many of the lower students

required scripting from the researcher. In doing this, the researcher had to be purposeful in not

prompting students to adjust or rethink their answers. Once this issue was confronted, students

began to experience success and work more willingly.

Because of the strict timeline for the study and the intense nature of the data collection,

absences proved to be a challenge. The researcher alternated days on which she worked with

each group of students. When a student was absent on his or her work day, the researcher would


have to work with that student with the opposite group on an odd day. This proved to challenge

some students as the change in peers caused some discomfort. Specifically, during the last week

of data collection, student 12 became severely ill and could not complete the post comprehension

assessment nor her post reading attitude assessment. Due to the length of her absences, the

researcher felt as though completing a post assessment after such a significant time would cause

a skew in data. As a result there is one less data point than originally projected.

Discussion

Generally speaking, the research revealed a positive correlation between the reading

comprehension journal and an increase in reading comprehension. There was never an instance

when a student did not maintain or increase his or her comprehension score. Therefore, though

the sampling was limited in quantity, we can assume the reading comprehension journal is a

research based tool which could be implemented in the classroom to aid with student

comprehension. However, the implementation of the journal did not necessarily aid in creating a

positive attitude toward reading in the participants. Though the students enjoyed the journal and

especially the fact that it was in a binder like the “big kids,” they did not leave the research

sessions eager to read. This leads one to assume the reading comprehension journal lacks a key

ingredient of motivation. Lastly, the study revealed every student learned to use the word

“strategy” and define it appropriately while 58% of the participants were able to implement said

strategies effectively. This proves that while the reading comprehension journal was beneficial to

the participants, it is crucial that this tool be carried on throughout grade levels while strategies

are taught and implemented. Overall, the comprehension journal gave great life to the students

and benefited them as a whole.

Implications for Future Research


As should be done with all research, this study should encourage educators to further

pursue the findings in order to best address the needs of students concerning reading

comprehension, specifically with students living in lower socioeconomic circumstances. As

previously noted in the study, the comprehension journal did not necessarily increase student

attitudes toward reading. This is a point for further research. Though students enjoyed the

reading comprehension journal, the feeling did not transfer to reading in general. There is a

motivational component missing from the implementation of the research. Further research could

be conducted to better address this deficits.

Because the participants found success while working through the journal, it would be

interesting to follow the research to another grade level. The researcher would encourage further

research in the form of continuing data analysis during the Daily 5 portion of the day through the

new grade level. Implementing the reading journal in another grade level would allow the

researcher to observe increase, maintenance and decrease. This would help the researcher to

form a more solid assumption of the success of the journal itself. This study leaves to wonder if

the journal is attractive just because of participant age or rather participants’ stimulation

concerning reading.

Finally, the researcher believes it is crucial to extend this research to a wider variety of

students. Not only should future research be conducted with a larger sample, but also a more

diverse sample. This class allowed for a majority of participants to be English Learners of

Hispanic descent. One would wonder how data would be similar or different amongst a greater

number of subgroups. This would allow for a more holistic approach to the conclusion.


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Appendix A

Comprehension Pre/Post Assessment

1. What was in the story?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Where did they go?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. When did they go to Insert location specific to story?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Number of Correct Responses: ______

Details:

4. What happened when insert specific event from story?


__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Number of Correct Details: _____________

Appendix B

Attitude Pre/Post Assessment

1. Do you enjoy reading? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What is your favorite part of reading? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. What is your least favorite part of reading? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. What is a strategy?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. What is a strategy you can use while you are reading?


________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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