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Considerations in the ranslation

o Chinese Medicine

Principal InvestigatorsMichael H. Heim, Ph.D., Ka-Kit Hui, M.D., F.A.C.P., and

Sonya E. Pritzker, Ph.D., L.Ac.Authors

Sonya E. Pritzker, Ph.D., L.Ac. Ka-Kit Hui, M.D., F.A.C.P.,and Hanmo Zhang, Ph.D.


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Acknowledgements

Tis project has been published with the generous support o the UCLA Office or the Vice Chancellor oResearch. We would also like to express our deepest gratitude to Proessor Michael Henry Heim, whosedevotion to the task o translation provided the inspiration or the project. We dedicate the final productto him, and hope to honor his memory through its publication and circulation.

Many other stakeholders in the Chinese medical translation process participated in the production o thisdocument by offering guidance and insight at various points. In particular, we would like to thank Dan

Bensky, Robert Felt, Li Zhaoguo, Jason Robertson, Zev Rosenberg, Sabine Wilms, Nigel Wiseman, YiliWu, and Zhu Jianping or offering specific suggestions during the writing process.

Te project was inspired by the Guidelines or the ranslation o Social Science exts (www.acls.org/sstp.htm).


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Considerations in the ranslation of Chinese Medicine

Principal InvestigatorsMichael H. Heim, Ph.D., Ka-Kit Hui, M.D., F.A.C.P., and

Sonya E. Pritzker, Ph.D., L.Ac.

AuthorsSonya E. Pritzker, Ph.D., L.Ac. Ka-Kit Hui, M.D., F.A.C.P.,

and Hanmo Zhang, Ph.D.


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CONSIDERATIONS IN THE TRANSLATION OF CHINESE MEDICINE4

Considerations in the ranslation of Chinese Medicine

I. Introduction

Te present considerations have emerged as theresult o many years o studying and practicingChinese medicine and integrative East-Westmedicine (KKH, SP), conducting translationsand teaching in the field o ranslation Stud-ies (MH) and Chinese medicine (KKH, SP),

and conversing with numerous scholars andpractitioners in the fields o Chinese medicine,integrative medicine, translation studies, andanthropology. Based on these experiences, ourgoal in the present document is to raise aware-ness among the many stakeholders involvedwith the translation o Chinese medicine. Tisincludes both the producers and consumers otranslations, as well as various individuals in-volved with the production process. Like theGuidelines or the ranslation o Social Science

exts [1] offers or the field o social science, wehope that this document will help to strength-en communication in the field o Chinesemedicine as a whole. We urther hope that theseconsiderations will serve the goal o develop-ing more high-quality translations in clinicalChinese medicine, especially in order to acil-itate increased opportunities or internationalcollaboration in research, education, and practice.

In this document, we discuss the trans-lation o texts and other materialsprimarily in the field o clinical Chinesemedicine, which is here considered to include acu-puncture, herbal medicine, Chinese nutrition,and tuina therapy (Chinese medical massage).

Te authors o the Guidelines or the rans-lation o Social Science exts write that:ranslation is a complex and int-ellectually challenging process, and all those who[commission and edit] translations need toamiliarize themselves with it. While thecatch-phrase lost in translation highlights thepitalls, difficulties, and potential insufficien-cies in the translation process, we wish to em-

phasize rom the outset that successul com-munication through translation is possible.Moreover, translation is a creative orce: it canenrich by introducing new words and conceptsand conventions that go with them.[1: p. 1]

We believe that this is especially true orChinese medicine in which, as many havenoted, the translation process is especial-ly complex [2-8]. Not only must those whocommission and edit translations become

amiliar with the process, but consumers mustalso increase their awareness o the transla-tion process. Tis is because in clinical prac-tice, translation occurs not just on paper, butalso rom text into practice as concepts areintroduced and principles are applied [8]. Inthis complex, highly interactive clinical field,moreover, we believe that translation not onlyenhances the target language, as mentionedabove, but also provides an opportunity or the

enhancement o the source language, providinga platorm or deeper communication, and offer-ing an opportunity or sel-reflection and growth.

Tese considerations have been prepared orstudents, practitioners, and researchers whodraw upon any orm o translation in their


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CONSIDERATIONS IN THE TRANSLATION OF CHINESE MEDICINE

study and practice. It is our hope that bothbeginning and advanced translators will alsofind the considerations relevant. For studentsand practitioners o Chinese medicine, the

considerations will help them learn how toevaluate and digest various translations oChinese medical texts with greater sensitivity andcomprehension, regardless o their Chinese lan-guage ability. For translators, though not meantas a translation manual, this document will alsobe o interest because we deal with the charac-teristics that distinguish translations o Chinesemedical texts rom translations o other typeso texts, and consider some o the techniquesbest suited to deal with these characteristics.

Furthermore, this document will offer a re-source or educators and students seeking tobetter understand how the translations onwhich they depend on or clinical education areproduced, what pitalls they need to be awareo regarding those translations, and how theymay participate in creating better resourcesin the uture. Finally, the considerations willprovide researchers with a oundation or es-

tablishing collaborative relationships on spe-cific projects where English-speaking and Chi-nese-speaking investigators need to work bymeans o translation to carry out their studies.

II. Developing the Considerations

As stated above, this document has emergedout o many years o teaching, research-ing, and practicing Chinese medicine, and

integrative medicine, as well as translation.Each o the principal investigators thus brings aslightly different set o experiences andperspectives to the project. Te late MichaelHeim, distinguished proessor in the UCLADepartments o Comparative Literature and

Slavic Studies and one o the finest literary trans-lators o the last hal-century, thought deeplyabout translation. A lielong student o languag-es, Heim mastered twelve o them and produced

award-winning translations rom eight: Rus-sian, Czech, Serbian/Croatian, Dutch, French,German, Hungarian and Romanian. Amongthese, he is best known or the translation o Mi-lan Kunderas Te Unbearable Lightness of Beingand the Nobel Literature Prize winner GunterGrasss My Century. In his later years he workedintensively on Chinese-English translation andpaid special attention to this project. Ka Kit Hui,M.D., is the Founder and Director o the UCLACenter or East-West Medicine (CEWM), wherehe has worked or over 20 years to provide pa-tients with an integrative model o care thatblends the best o both Chinese and Westernmedicine. Dr. Hui has also been involved withmultiple major research studies in the fields oChinese and integrative medicine, and sinceCEWM opened its doors in 1993, has partici-pated in the education and training o under-graduates, medical students, residents, ellows,and integrative practitioners. Troughout his

career, he has been consistently challenged tothink deeply about translation as a bridge be-tween language, cultures, and healing systems,not only in texts but also in clinical and edu-cational encounters. Sonya E. Pritzker, Ph.D.,L.Ac., a Research Anthropologist at CEWM, is alicensed practitioner o Chinese medicine as wellas an anthropologist. For her Ph.D. dissertationin the UCLA Department o Anthropology, sheconducted an extensive ethnographic study otranslation in Chinese medicine, mapping the

multiple sociocultural, historical, economic, andpersonal concerns affecting the ways in whichChinese medicine is translated into English [8].

Tese considerations were created afer theprincipal investigators on the project received


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a ransdisciplinary Seed Grant rom the UCLAOffice o the Vice Chancellor or Research andthe Academic Senate Council on Research(OVCR-COR). With the unortunate circum-

stance o Proessor Heims passing early in theproject, Drs. Hui and Pritzker continued the workby gathering and analyzing both Chinese andEnglish-language material discussing transla-tion in integrative medicine, talking to trans-lators in the field, and revisiting many o theinterviews that Dr. Pritzker conducted withtranslators, students, and instructors in bothChina and the U.S. or her dissertation. HanmoZhang, Ph.D., a China scholar working on earlyChinese texts and text ormation, joined theproject afer Dr. Heim passed away. Dr. Zhangstudied translation with Heim and is amil-iar with traditional Chinese medical texts,especially newly discovered medicalmanuscripts. His unique backgroundand training in translation as well asClassical Chinese, traditional Chinese liter-ature, and early Chinese text creation offerunique perspectives to the Considerations.

Here we would like to thank the AmericanCouncil o Learned Societies (ACLS) andits Director o International Programs, Dr.Andrzej W. ymowski, or allowing us to buildupon the Guidelines or the ranslation oSocial Science exts [1]. Te ACLS Guidelines,which were developed over several years andseveral meetings among translators special-izing in social science texts, university socialscientists in a number o disciplines, and a groupo editors and journalists, served as both an

inspiration and guiding light to us as we workedto produce a concise and comprehensive seto considerations in the translation o Chinesemedicine that was both in conversation withthe original Guidelines as well as extendedthat document to address Chinese medicine.

III. Why Tese Considerationsare Necessary

Despite the great strides that have been

made towards the development o Chinesemedicine and integrative care in China,the U.S., Europe, and beyond, significanthurdles related to language, cultural per-spective, and access to materials remain. Tefirst step to overcoming the hurdles con-sists in creating more translations o Chinesemedical texts, especially some o the classic workshistorically considered to be oundational thathave not yet been ully translated into English.

Chinese medicine rests on a highly text-based, philosophical, cultural, and scholarlytradition in which classical guidelines or thecare o patients are constantly reevaluated inthe light o historical and contemporary clin-ical case inormation and biomedical advance-ments. Only a miniscule portion o this richtradition has been translated into English. Inlight o the ever-growing popularity o Chinesemedicine as a complementary/alternative med-

icine (CAM) in the English-speaking world, itis critical that more Chinese medical texts findtheir way into English. Tis need is amplifiedby the act that only a ew o the 50 schools oChinese medicine in the U.S. that train studentsin acupuncture, Chinese herbal medicine, andmassage require any Chinese language training.Most English-speaking practitioners in the U.S.must thereore depend on translated material.

Given this need or more translations, as

well as the reality that many i not most U.S.practitioners must depend on such transla-tions, it is crucial at this time that all stake-holders in the translation o Chinese med-icine, especially consumers, understandat least the basics regarding the scope and


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CONSIDERATIONS IN THE TRANSLATION OF CHINESE MEDICINE

complexity o translation in this vast field.Tese considerations are also necessarybecause stakeholders also need to be awareo how to recognize, utilize, and create better

translations o Chinese medical texts. Highquality translations o Chinese medical textsare firmly grounded in academic rigor, clinicalexperience, and cultural sensitivity. As a result,readers and practitioners are variably influ-enced by different translations and the inevita-ble choices that translators make along the way,ofen without significant guidance. Such choic-es ofen lead to the loss or shif o critical diag-nostic and treatment inormation. Such lossesand shifs can critically impact the way Chinesemedicine is practiced, as well as the outcomesthat can be measured in research. Likewise, suchchoices ofen can and do maintain thecultural misrepresentation o Chinese medicinein English,as or example in the overuse o biomed-ical terminology without explanation or throughthe use o orthographic resources (e.g., capital-ization) that perpetuate certain characteriza-tions o Chinese medicine vis--vis biomedicine.

While perectly optimized translations maynot be possible in many cases, it is critical thatconsumers become aware o some o the pit-alls o translation in this distinct field. Becauseto a great extent all translations o Chinesemedicine are interpretations, by awareness herewe also mean to indicate the need or consumersto become aware o the social and cultural rame-works that inorm specific translators approach-es to translation. For translators, this o courseincludes the necessity o being orthright about

the ways in which a particular translation adaptsone or more original texts or various audiences.

IV. What Distinguishes Chinese Medical

exts from exts in Other Fields?

In this section, we detail the reasons that texts inChinese medicine are distinctive in comparisonto texts in other fields. Following the Guide-lines or the ranslation o Social Science exts,we distinguish Chinese medical texts rom theollowing: natural science texts (texts in chem-istry, physics, mathematics, etc), technical texts(instruction manuals), and literary texts (nov-els, poetry, etc.) [1]. For our purposes, it is alsoimportant to distinguish Chinese medical textsrom biomedical texts (texts in anatomy, path-ology, and specific specialties such as ped-iatrics, cardiology, or geriatrics). Te specificity oChinese medical texts is worth reviewing in somedetail, as it results in the need to handle trans-lation quite differently than in these other fields.

Te authors o the ACLS Guidelines distin-guish social science texts rom texts in the nat-ural sciences and technical texts by pointingto the ocus on physical phenomenon and the

lack o terminological ambiguity in the latter:

exts in the natural sciences and technicaltextsrequire o the translator an intimateknowledge o the subject matter at hand.However, since the natural sciences dealprimarily with physical phenomena andtheir measurement, lexical choices tend tobe cut and dried, ambiguities rare. [1: p.3]

Especially in biomedicine and other natural

sciences dealing with the human body, the lacko ambiguity revolves around the act that, inaddition to a ocus on a distinct physical body,standardized terminology has been well estab-lished. In biomedicine and other fields o nat-ural science, although historically there have


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been variations in approaches to translation, atpresent there are definite standards in place orthe translation o technical terms [5]. In Chinesemedicine, however, the ocus is not just on the

physical body as conceived by natural science.Lexical choices are correspondingly complex,and although there have been attempts at thecreation o standards (see Dealing with echni-cal erms, below), the issue is quite complicated,involving multiple parties with different socio-economic and political allegiances tying them tovarious ways o approaching standardization [9].

In part, this stems rom the act that, inChinese medicine, there are multiplecurrents o practice ofen closely tied toparticular political, social, and cultural contexts.Historically in Chinese, room is made or suchdivergent perspectives to coexist. Tis distin-guishes it rom natural science, especially bio-medicine, a field where contradictions and dis-agreements certainly existand where thereare certainly different currents and styles opracticebut where room is rare-ly made or such differences at the lev-

el o text, as in Chinese medicine.

Literary texts thrive on specificity o style andmanner o expression. In literature, ideas andacts are created by and in the text.[1: p.4]While texts in Chinese medicine ofen pridethemselves on unique aesthetic orms, by com-parison, the inormation in Chinese medicaltexts is not confined to material created withinthe text itsel. Instead, the content is linked toboth other texts as well as to the human body,

the environment, and the healing process.

Chinese medical discourse is also distinctivein that it communicates through concepts thatare shared (or contested) within specific com-munities o scholars and practitioners. Con-

cepts tend to take the orm o technical terms,which in turn tend to be quite specific in mul-tiple ways. Teir specificity may be linked tothe period in which they originate as much

as to the style o practice, including, or textswritten afer the 19th century, the style in whichthe author chooses to relate to biomedicine.Tey may also implicitly incorporate historicalassumptions, that is, concepts taken or grantedin different periods or among different currentso practice. Even or common terms, then, gen-eral Chinese-English (C-E) or English-Chinese(E-C) dictionaries are insufficient. Even tech-nical dictionariesboth monolingual and bi-lingualmay vary in their designation o terms.

Reerring to social science texts, theauthors o the ACLS Guidelines thus write that:

Te resultant inter-reerentiality demands thatthe translator be amiliar not only with the sub-ject matter o the text but also with the broaderfield o meanings through which it moves. Tescholarly context in which the text takes shapeis an implicit but crucial actor in the translation

process. As a result.translators need to knowthe language o the disciplinethey are dealingwithas intimately as the natural languages in-volved, both source and target languages. [1: p.4]

Due to a similar inter-reerentiality in Chi-nese medicinemeaning specifically the waysin which Chinese medical texts variously reer-ence both other texts and social, historical, andcultural actorsit is equally important thattranslators be amiliar with the multiple subsets

o terms and styles o language that have devel-oped historically in Chinese medicine. Especial-ly when translating historical texts in Chinesemedicine, moreover, it is critical to have a solidunderstanding o the language and historicalcircumstances o the time. Even in translating


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understood vis--vis phlegm or edema) [12].When considering a translation o Chi-nese medicine, it is useul to keep thesemultiple ways o understanding language in

mind, looking to see how the translator hashandled this issue. ranslations that rely pri-marily on a reerential approach to languageby relying simply on dictionaries to translateconceptsofen all short o capturing themeaning and intention o an original text. Tiscan be a thorny issue, however, because someo the other ways in which language is under-stood, especially in classical Chinese texts, areofen contested. Tis is another rea-son why it is useul to include scholarswho are amiliar with the history and cul-tural context o the text being translated.

VIII. Specific Issues for Consideration inthe ranslation of Chinese Medicine

(a) Source-Oriented Vs. arget-Orientedranslation

Te issue o source-oriented versus target-

oriented in the translation o Chinese medicine isimportant to consider. Tis issue is also reerredto as oreignization versus domestication, andcan be explained with the ollowing questions:

o what extent do the translators acculturatethe original, that is, make its methodologicalapproach, intellectual and clinical categories,taxonomy, etc. readily accessible to the targetculture by adapting its conceptual lexicon andstructures? o what extent do translators main-

tain the conceptual lexicon and structures othe source culture, sacrificing smooth dictionin order to indicate to readers that they are, inact, reading a translation rom another cul-ture rather than an original document? [1: p.7]

Tis issue is a critical one in the translationo Chinese medicine. It has been hotly de-bated in multiple circles, with various partiesarguing, on one side, that a rigorous source-

oriented approach to translation inChinese medicine is the only way to reproduceoriginal ideas, including clinical notions, with-out change [5]. Others have argued, however,that change is unavoidable as Chinese medicineis transmitted to the West, and that target-orient-ed translation is thereore most appropriate [13].

Generally speaking we agree with the au-thors o the ACLS Guidelines that the trans-lator [should seek] a middle ground betweenclarity and distinctiveness o orm 1: p.8]

Te manner in which ideas take shape and findverbal expression differs rom culture to cul-tureranslators must create the means to re-lay the peculiarities o the source language andculture without alienating readers o the targetlanguage and cultureTere is no set answerto the question o where they should positionthemselves between the two extremes: each text

is sui generis. As a rule o thumb, however, thetranslator should stretch the stylistic confines othe target language as ar as they will go to reflectthe peculiarities o the source language, and stopjust beore the result sounds outlandish in thetarget language. In other words, the translationneeds to be comprehensible, but need not readas i it were written by [someone] in the targetculture. Te goal should be to make the text asplausible as possible in its own terms. [1: p.8]

In Chinese medicine, this balance is ofendifficult to find. Western desires or agentle, alternative, holistic medicine, orexample, ofen present a challenge orsource-oriented translation o classicalChinese medicine, where military metaphors and


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CONSIDERATIONS IN THE TRANSLATION OF CHINESE MEDICINE 1

gender biases remain strong [14, 15]. What is atranslator to do, or example, when a Chi-nese text includes statements that he orshe does not agree are appropriate in the

contemporary West? In such cases, itis ofen helpul to rely upon oot-notes in order to discuss the societalshifs that may make certain statementsinappropriate, rather than changing themdirectly in the text. In a text with-out such notes, it is difficult to tell whatmay have been excluded or adapted.

(b) Style and Punctuation

Te style o Chinese medical writing isimporant to consider when thinking abouttranslation in Chinese medicine. Teauthors o the ACLS Guidelines thus write that:

Te spirit or genius o a languageinfluences the way its users writeranslatorsmust keep in mind that syntax bears amessage. Its message may not be as direct asthat o, say, terminology, but it doesinfluence the way we perceive and

unpack an argument. [1: p.8]

Chinese, in particular, ofen has a distinctrhythm and syntax that creates mellifluoussentences using either five word or seven wordstructures [16]. In translation, these struc-tures are difficult to reproduce, especiallybecause most Chinese medical classics werewritten in the classical literary style and with-out punctuation [17: p.10]. However, it isofen possible to create translations that

echo the rhythm o Chinese without, as theauthors o the Guidelines write, disrespect-ing the structure o the target language. [1: p.8] In reading a translation, it is important totake note o how the translator has dealt withthe issue o style, and i something eels too

amiliar, it is useul to question whether the stylehas been adapted more than it should have been.

(c) Period-Specific Language

Chinese medical texts range rom class-ical to contemporary productions, and varysignificantly in terms o the use o classicalChinese language. Classical Chinese, esp-ecially classical medical Chinese, is comprisedo unique grammar and structure that requirea deep amiliarity in order to interpret andtranslate. It is critical that translators be trainedin basic classical grammar patterns whentranslating a classic text or even a mod-ern text that includes many quotes rom orallusions to classics. Furthermore, esp-ecially in the translation o classics, manyo which also include commentaries romvarious time periods, it is important to under-stand that translators must also have some in-sight into the historical, literary, and poeticallusions that are invariably included in thesetexts. Tis requires a basic historical and culturalsensitivity. raining in classical grammar aswell as history is thereore important to consider

when taking on the task o translating, or whenevaluating a translation in Chinese medicine.

(d) Etymology

One o the most common issues in the trans-lation o Chinese medicine relates to the useo etymology to explain specific Chinesecharacters or multi-character terms. Manyadaptive translations use character etymology asa basis or explanations that extend or multiplepages and ofen relate ancient Chinese ideas to

contemporary issues and culture. Tis approachto translation is problematic in that it is notalways the case, in any language, that the actu-al meaning o words can be determined by in-vestigating their origins [18: p. 92-3]. Kovacsthus points out that many authors in Chinese


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medicine, in using character etymology as thebasis or the transer o meaning, may be com-mitting the etymological allacy [19]. Chinesecharacters, in other words, ofen mean a great

deal more, as they are used in the context o atext or a clinical interaction, than the etymologyconveys. Likewise, many characters are builtrom meaning-based radicals and phoneticcomponents that do not in and o themselvesconvey meaning. Although they can sometimesprovide a useul starting point, it is advisable tobe wary o extensive reliance on etymological de-scriptions in the translation o Chinese medicine.

(e) Polysemy

In Chinese medicine, terms ofen have morethan one meaning [5]. Even in single texts, thesame single terms do not always unction in thesame way, nor do they reer to the same thing.Dealing with this polysemy, or multiple mean-ings, is a major challenge in the translation oChinese medicine. In other technical fields, onecan say that a translator should always translatethe same word in the same way. However, inChinese medicine there are cases when this is

not appropriate. In the translation o a singletext, it is possible to suggest that a translatorcan handle this issue by observing that distinctmeanings o polysemous terms can be objec-tively identified, such that it remains possibleto maintain consistency throughout the text.

(f) Dealing with echnical erms

Te prevalence o technical terms is one othe prime distinguishing eatures o Chinese

medical texts. It is thereore important, whenconsidering a translation, to review how atranslator has dealt with these terms. Treeapproaches to devising equivalents or technicalterms are (1) accepting the term as a loan-word,that is, borrowing it outright (or example,

using words such as qi, yin,oryangin their pin-yin orm without translation); (2) providing theterm with a loan translation, used mostly in thetranslation o complex terms such as kidney

yin xu or kidney yang vacuity;[5] and (3)using an English word, either a technical termborrowed rom biomedicine, or a word that inregular use does not constitute a technical term.

It is urther important to consider whether andhow a given translator or team o translatorshas drawn upon any o the available standardterm lists or Chinese medicine. Although notyet in widespread use, these lists are availablerom the World Health Organization (WHO),the World Federation o Chinese Medical So-cieties (WFCMS), and in Wiseman and FengsPractical Dictionary o Chinese Medicine [20-22]. Tere are many discrepancies betweenthese standard terminologies, and at present,there is no authoritative standard set o terms,although there have been efforts to create areerence database that links the various ter-minologies used in each system together [11].Debates about which list is most appropriate

or the translation o Chinese medicine arestill quite active [9, 23-26]. Te choice o stan-dard terms or translation is thereore ar roma simple issue. Differences exist in personalpreerences, especially when one must decidebetween using certain technical Chinese med-ical terms that are translated vis--vis bio-medicine in one proposed standard and vis--visa more traditional approach in others (see below).

Generally speaking, no matter which standard

terms are chosen, it is important to considerwhether translators have specified at the out-set o their text which standard terminologyset they drew most widely upon, and why. Ia specific translator has chosen to eschew theavailable lists o standards, which is currently


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So how can readers judge the quality o trans-lated texts? Especially when consumers do nothaveaccess to the original texts or even the orig-

inal language, this is a challenging task. Oneway to evaluate translations is to consult multi-ple translations o an original work. Even whenthis option is unavailable, however, the consid-erations we have enumerated in this documentcan help, i only to make consumers more awareo what they are reading and utilizing in theirclinical practice. Tis awareness is particularlycritical, we eel, because consumers o Chinesemedical translations are ofen also participantsin the translation process, as textual knowledgeis made real through practice and as Chineseconcepts are explained to patients and other in-terested parties. Given this act, blind trust intranslations produced by translators with multi-ple agendas is no longer a viable option. Whenreading a translated Chinese medical text,whether it is intended or use in clinical practiceor not, it is important to consider the questionsand issues we have examined in this document.Who is the translator, or example, and did he or

she work alone or with a team? Was this teamsufficient or the range o material included inthe text? How did the translators approach theissue o domestication or oreignization, anddid they explain their approach? How did theydeal with technical terms and/or standard ter-minology? How, moreover, did the translator(s)handle style, punctuation, biomedicalization,and/or the need or extensive commentary?

Tere are many more important questions that

are relevant in the translation o Chinese medi-cine. Te present document is intended to serveas a basis or generating more o these questions,and to serve as springboard or urther discus-sion among all stakeholders within this complexfield. Te most important issue at this juncture

is that all participants increase their awarenesso the many actors that contribute to the pro-duction o a translation in Chinese medicine. Itis our hope that such awareness leads to the de-

velopment o more field-specific guidelines orthe high-quality translation o clinical Chinesemedicine. Because o the range o the field, suchguidelines must be relatively flexible, taking intoaccount the ways in which specific texts willeach demand an adaptable approach to transla-tion. Tey must also, however, articulate a clearpath or handling some o the complex issuessuch as domestication, period-specific language,style, and genre. It is our hope to have sparkeda conversation that will eventually lead to thecollaborative establishment o such guidelines.


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CONSIDERATIONS IN THE TRANSLATION OF CHINESE MEDICINE 1

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Natural Sciences, 22(3): 215-222.

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