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Clinical Implications of Academic Procrastination
by
Shirley Eylor Asif, M.A.
A doctoral project submitted to the faculty of
the California School of Professional Psychology
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for her degree of
Doctor of Psychology at
Alliant International University, Los Angeles
May 2011
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Copyright by
Shirley Eylor Asif
2011
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ALLIANT INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY Los Angeles
The doctoral project of Shirley Eylor Asif, directed and approved
by the candidate’s Committee, has been accepted by the
Faculty of the California School of Professional Psychology
In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PSYCHOLOGY
_______________
DATE
Doctoral Project Committee:
______________________________________________________
Rumiko Okada, PhD, Project Supervisor
______________________________________________________
Joan Murray, PhD, Project Consultant
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DEDICATION
To my husband, thank you for believing in me, for your support in this prolonged
process, and for your endless love.
To my children, thank you for being the wonder that you are, and for truly being my
greatest teachers.
To my family, thank you for your love, support and nurturance over the years.
I love you all dearly.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would foremost like to thank my Project Supervisor, Dr. Rumiko Okada for
guiding and supporting me in the last six years throughout this very long process of
writing this project. Thank you for bearing with me during the times I was lost, avoiding,
changing and re-changing topics, overwhelmed with the project or simply with the many
life demands I had at that time. I would not have made it without you, and your kind,
knowledgeable encouragement and expertise. Thank you for being there for me at the
times I barely knew what I was doing. I would also like to thank my wonderful Project
Consultant, Dr. Joan Murray, for her gentle and kind support along with her genuine
interest in this project. Thank you for your guidance and insight and also for being
accommodating and patient with me each and every time. I truly appreciate it.
Additionally, I would like to thank all of my Field Consultants who were willing
to participate in this project and contribute their vast knowledge and insight pertaining to
the field of procrastination: Dr. Lenora Yuen, Dr. Linda Sapadin, Dr. Marshall Bloom,
Dr. Tanya Brown, and Dr. William Chien. Your kindness and willingness to support this
project and to actually find the time for it were beyond my expectations. Thank you for
your input, your ideas and conceptualizations that you have shared with me. Our
conversations were truly fascinating and thought-provoking.
I would like to thank the wonderful staff and interns of Glen Roberts-Verdugo
Mental Health Center who were kind enough to attend my presentation, and to provide
their enlightening feedback and comments. Thank you very much for your interest in my
work, and for allowing me to share it with you. A special thank you is also expressed to
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Dr. Patrick Kelly, my former wonderful internship supervisor, for your accommodation
and for allowing this presentation to take place in this agency.
Additional acknowledgements are for all my supervisors during my practicum and
internship years, as well as my CSPP professors, who gave me knowledge and promoted
my passion for clinical psychology. During these seven years of studying and practicing,
I enjoyed working and learning from your knowledge and professional experience. Thank
you for your many accommodations for a student who entered this program pregnant and
became a mother twice during these years. I truly appreciate your considerate approach
towards me. Thank you to CSPP for allowing me to adjust my program duration
according to the needs of my growing family. It was a pleasure and a thrill to become a
mother in the process of becoming a clinician.
Finally, I would like to thank my friends here in the U.S. and family in Israel for
accompanying me during my prolonged school years. Thank you for always being
interested in my work and progress, and thank you for supporting me in times of
challenge and uncertainty. To my friends, thank you for practically being our family here
in the U.S. To my parents, thank you for instilling in me the love and passion for learning
and thriving. To my husband, thank you for following, pushing, encouraging, providing,
and loving me during these seven years. You always believed in me and never let me
give up, I love you. To my sweet boys, thank you for being who you are, thank you for
bearing with a busy mother who many times had to “write her book” instead of playing
with you. Thank you for being my greatest teachers who taught me so much about myself
and about what matters in life – I love you.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page ................................................................................................................. 1
Copyright ................................................................................................................. 2
Signature Page ......................................................................................................... 3
Dedication ................................................................................................................ 4
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. 5
Abstract of the Doctoral Project .............................................................................. 7
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 10
Justification and Purpose ............................................................................. 11
Goals and Objectives ................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER II: SELECTIVE LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................... 16
Definitions of Procrastination ...................................................................... 16
Academic Procrastination ............................................................................ 18
Positive and Negative Effects of Chronic Procrastination ........................... 19
Conceptualizations of Procrastination ......................................................... 21
Behavioral Manifestations of Procrastinators .............................................. 25
The Perfectionist .............................................................................. 25
The Dreamer .................................................................................... 26
The Worrier ...................................................................................... 27
The Defier ........................................................................................ 28
The Crisis-Maker ............................................................................. 29
The Pleaser ....................................................................................... 30
Characteristics of Procrastinators ................................................................ 31
The Big Five Personality Model ...................................................... 31
Task Perception ................................................................................ 32
Self-Regulation ................................................................................ 34
Fears ................................................................................................. 35
Fear of Failure ...................................................................... 35
Fear of Success .................................................................... 36
Fear of Losing in Combat .................................................... 37
Fear of Separation ................................................................ 39
Fear of Attachment .............................................................. 40
Individual Perception of Procrastination ......................................... 41
Time Perception/Temporal Dimensions .......................................... 41
Interventions for Academic Procrastination ................................................ 43
Basic Elements ................................................................................. 43
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy ......................................................... 44
Motivation ............................................................................ 45
Applied Behavioral Analysis ............................................... 46
Techniques ........................................................................... 47
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Behavioral Therapy .......................................................................... 49
Narrative Therapy ............................................................................ 52
Psychodynamic Therapy .................................................................. 54
Pressuring ............................................................................. 54
Doubting .............................................................................. 55
Controlling ........................................................................... 55
Clinging................................................................................ 56
Distancing ............................................................................ 56
Summary ...................................................................................................... 58
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ........................................................................ 60
Design Concepts and Objectives ................................................................. 60
Procedures .................................................................................................... 61
Target Audience ........................................................................................... 62
Resources ..................................................................................................... 62
Evaluation .................................................................................................... 63
CHAPTER IV: RESULTS ...................................................................................... 64
Description of the Product ........................................................................... 64
Field Consultant Interviews ......................................................................... 65
Evaluation and Feedback Results ................................................................ 74
Sample of the Product .................................................................................. 75
CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION ................................................................................. 76
Implications of the Project ........................................................................... 76
Personal Account and Critique of the Project .............................................. 77
Limitations of the Project............................................................................. 79
Suggestions for Future Research ................................................................. 80
Conclusion ................................................................................................... 81
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 85
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................... 94
Appendix A: Interview Consent Form for Field Consultant ....................... 94
Appendix B: Interview Questions for Field Consultants ............................. 96
Appendix C: Presentation Evaluation Form ................................................ 98
Appendix D: Presentation Lecture Notes .................................................... 101
Appendix E: Presentation Power Point Slides ............................................. 120
Appendix F: Curriculum Vita ...................................................................... 140
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ABSTRACT OF THE DOCTORAL PROJECT
Academic procrastination is prevalent among students and is on the rise in this
technological age. A review of the literature suggests that the prevalence of academic
procrastination among college students is as high as 75-90%. Therefore, empirical and
clinical studies that focus on the understanding of academic procrastination and the
development of effective treatment for this dilatory behavior are needed. This project
examines the different behavioral manifestations of procrastination, the characteristics of
academic procrastination according to the Big Five Personality Model, as well as the role
of self-regulation, fears, and anxieties, and unique time and task perceptions
procrastinators may exhibit. Additionally, this project provides an overview of the major
interventions currently provided for academic procrastinators specifically focusing on
behavioral therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, narrative therapy, and psychodynamic
therapy. This doctoral project critically reviews the research literature on the topic of
academic procrastination and includes a summary of findings from interviews with
mental health professionals who have expertise on this issue. Finally, the information
from the literature review and the interviews was integrated into the creation of a formal
PowerPoint presentation that was offered to a group of practitioners to enhance their
knowledge and awareness of this issue. The presentation addressed the importance of
understanding the complexity of the academic procrastination phenomenon, its different
etiologies, and the serious impact on the procrastinator’s life. The project’s limitations as
well as suggestions for future research are also discussed which hope to aid in reducing
the gap between research and clinical practice.
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CHAPTER I
Introduction
Procrastination is a behavioral phenomenon in which one neglects or prolongs a
timely attendance to a necessary task or decision, usually in spite of one’s good intentions
as well as the potential unpleasant and negative consequences (Balkis & Duru, 2007).
This potentially problematic dilatory behavior can be manifested in task performance (i.e.,
avoidant procrastination) or by delaying decisions (i.e., decisional procrastination).
Additionally, procrastination can be limited to certain circumstances, as in state
procrastination, or can become prevalent in most life areas, as in chronic or trait
procrastination (Schouwenberg, 2004).
Research shows that chronic procrastination has a variety of negative
consequences to the people who practice it from low performance on final exams and
lower course grades (Steel, Brothen, & Wambach, 2001) to negative effects on physical
health (Sirois, Melia-Gordon, & Pychyl, 2003). General procrastination is reported to be
prevalent in 20% of the adult population, while academic procrastination or dilatory
behavior related to academic performance can be prevalent in as many as 70% of the
student population (Ellis & Knaus, 1977; Harriot & Ferrari, 1996). The development of
dilatory behavior may be explained by a preference for short-term, pleasurable goals over
long term ones (Schouwenberg, 1994), or by a discrepancy between the actual self versus
the ought or ideal self (Higgins, 1987). Therefore chronic procrastinators seem to lack
identity consolidation where they have not adequately developed a sense of who they are
or what they should do in life (Lay, 2004).
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Clinicians and theorists have stated that procrastinators can be divided into
different types, each accommodating specific needs such as being perfect, avoiding risk
or challenge, resisting external control, or pleasing others (Sapadin, 1997). Accordingly,
each type may be characterized with a certain personality type and may present with
unique thinking, speaking, and acting styles to fulfill their emotional needs (Sapadin,
1997).
Some characteristics of procrastination are attributed to deficits in self-esteem and
self-efficacy, fears related to achievements, control or attachment, and difficulty in self-
regulation (Burka & Yuen, 1983). Additionally, procrastination has been found to be
related to certain personality traits such as impulsivity, neuroticism, and engagement in
fantasies as well as positively correlated with environmental depression and anxiety (Van
Eerde, 2003). Furthermore, procrastination is attributed to the perceptual difference
between specific time perception and subjective task perception.
Justification and Purpose
The justification for exploring the issue of academic procrastination is first and
foremost due to its high prevalence. As mentioned, while 20% of the normal adult
population reportedly engages in general procrastination, as much as70% of college
students may engage in academic procrastination (Harriot & Ferrari, 1996). Moreover,
academic trait procrastination occurs at a higher rate among graduate students than
undergraduate students (Onwuegbuzie & Collins, 2001).These levels of academic
procrastination are prevalent from a young age, and can be seen in students in Ivy League
schools as well as non-selective colleges (Ferrari, Wolfe, Wesley, Schoff & Beck, 1995).
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Procrastination can lead to a variety of negative consequences and dysfunction
including monetary losses, academic and vocational problems, health risks, the
compromising of personal and familial relationships, and threats to general well-being
(Burka & Yuen, 1983). These negative effects not only affect the procrastinator, they also
impact the people related to the person including spouses, family members, friends,
employers, and colleagues. It is thus important to efficiently address procrastination in
therapy and seek appropriate interventions.
Procrastination may take on different forms and presentations (Sapadin, 1997). It
is important for clinicians to recognize the reasons for the procrastinator’s behavior (i.e.,
the purpose that it serves) and the dysfunction or negative consequences that may result.
Once identified, procrastination needs to be treated in accordance with the particular
needs it serves in order to weaken or break the dilatory behavior pattern.
There are various treatment approaches that have been helpful to students in
overcoming this self-defeating behavior and it is important for clinicians to become
familiar with them. These treatments represent various theoretical approaches. For
example, behavioral therapy is focused on changing the dilatory behavior by controlling
stimuli acting as antecedents as well as consequences while cognitive-behavioral therapy
focuses on examining their task behaviors to promote insight and better sense of self-
control. Narrative-oriented therapy focuses on “rewriting” the problem narrative to
decrease its identification with negative attributes related to being a procrastinator while
psychodynamic therapy helps identify themes and family dynamics related to
achievement and attachment and their effect on the procrastinator’s world view, driving
fears, and motivations. With such high prevalence of this common behavior among
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students, it is expected that most clinicians will encounter representatives of this
population in their practices. Therefore, learning about the difficulties, challenges, and
treatment options that exist for this population may be important for mental health
professionals.
Furthermore, the research on procrastination promotes the understanding of it as a
complex phenomenon instead of viewing it as mere “laziness,” poor time management or
organization skills, or a passive-aggressive display of irresponsibility. Oftentimes the
people who lack this understanding are the procrastinators themselves. It is also
important for clinicians and professionals to develop the competence, empathy, and
sensitivity needed to reach out to this struggling population.
Goals and Objectives
The primary objective of this project is to contribute to clinicians’ education and
improved understanding of the phenomenon of academic procrastination. By developing
a PowerPoint presentation for mental health professionals, the author hopes to effectively
disseminate critical information regarding this complex behavior. In so doing it is hoped
that individuals who have procrastination issues will be better served by the mental health
professions.
It is therefore the objective of this project are to inform and familiarize clinicians
with the etiologies of procrastination, such as fears related to achievement, control, or
attachment, and family dynamics that can promote these fears (Burka & Yuen, 1983), or
discrepancies between different parts of the self that can result in psychological conflict
(Higgins, 1987). Another important procrastination theme is being able to identify the
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different manifestations of procrastination, as well as the understanding that most
procrastinators display multiple types in different circumstances. Additional key
information for clinicians is the knowledge of the various therapies available for
procrastinators, such as behavioral intervention, cognitive-behavioral therapy, narrative
therapy, or psychodynamic approach.
Furthermore, in terms of long-term goals for this project, a better awareness and
understanding of the issue of procrastination may support clinicians’ empathic
attunement with their procrastinator clients. As these clients may manifest their problem
by frequent tardiness or cancellations of therapy sessions, it is important to grasp that this
resistance can be a manifestation of the targeted dilatory behavior. Thus, another critical
long term goal is to contribute to clinicians’ knowledge of the different interventions that
have been researched and explored to treat procrastination in order to be able to pick and
choose for each client the most suitable intervention for their case, as well as expand the
clinicians’ tool box and interventions’ repertoire. As many people engaged with dilatory
behavior are not aware of the etiology of their problem nor to its vast consequences on
their lives, the ultimate goal of this project is to extend this knowledgebase to the
clientele themselves so as to promote procrastinators’ better understanding of their own
behavior via involvement in psychotherapy.
The main personal objectives for this author are to expand her professional
network of professionals researching or working with procrastinators and enhance the
writer’s knowledge about procrastination, its etiologies, and possible interventions. As
chosen media to disseminate the information explored in this thesis is a presentation for
clinicians, the personal objectives of this project include gaining further experience in
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public speaking, increasing knowledge and experience through building clear and
informative PowerPoint presentations, and developing increased comfort and competency
in presenting to professional audiences. Thus, the author hopes to be able to contribute
some significant information to the field of mental health that will increase professional
interest in this topic that may lead to better outreach and intervention for this often
invisible but often chronically struggling clinical population.
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CHAPTER II
Selective Literature Review
Definitions of Procrastination
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, procrastination is defined as to
postpone, put off, or prolong. In Latin, pro means “forward” or “in favor of,” and
crastinus means “tomorrow.” In his meta-analysis of self-regulatory failure, Steel (2007)
states that the first historical analysis of procrastination was written as late as in 1992 by
Milgram. According to Steel, during the last decade of the former millennium researches
thought procrastination to be a modern malady (circa 1750; the Industrial Revolution),
due to ever growing commitments and deadlines in advanced societies versus agrarian
ones. Yet procrastination has been observed throughout human history as evidenced by
many proverbs and writings dating to Roman and Greek philosophers and poets as well
as Hindu and other Eastern literature recorded early as 500 BC. Often procrastination was
considered a sin or an archetypal human failing. Nowadays, during the electronic age, in
which distractions are highly accessible, instant, and endless procrastination may be on
the rise (L. Sapadin, PhD, personal communication, April 4, 2011).
Procrastination is a common and well-researched phenomenon of human
behavior. There is no single operational definition for procrastination. Rather, there exist
many definitions that view this behavior from different perspectives and emphases. Even
though these various definitions are not contradictory to one another, each one views
different aspects of the procrastination phenomenon.
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Procrastination can be defined as frequent delays in beginning or completing tasks
to meet a deadline (Ferrari, Johnson, & McCown, 1995). Balkis and Duru (2007)
described procrastination as a phenomenon where one neglects a timely attendance to a
necessary task or a decision usually in spite of one’s good intentions. It also refers to
behavior leading to negative consequences. A behaviorally-oriented definition of
procrastination is provided by Ellis and Knaus (2002)which is stated as a behavioral
avoidance and an interactive dysfunctional process characterized by wishing to avoid a
task, promising to attend to it later, and making excuses justifying the behavior in order
to avoid blame or shame.
Procrastination may be the result of a discrepancy between one’s intentions to act
and one’s actual performance of the action (Lay & Brokenshire, 1997). Van Eerde’s
(2000) definition of procrastination is “the avoidance of the implementation of an
intention” (p. 374), and Milgram, Mey-Tal and Levison (1998) defined procrastination as
a behavioral disposition or a trait to delay or postpone making a decision or performing a
defined task in a timely fashion.
Yet, not all procrastinating persons can be called trait procrastinators or chronic
procrastinators (Ferrari et al., 1995). According to Schouwenberg (1995), trait
procrastination is the predisposition to frequently engage in a procrastinating behavior.
Trait procrastination is different from state procrastination where the avoidant behavior
is aimed to a specific task (Schouwenberg, 2004) as opposed to various instances.
According to Ferrari, Mason, and Hammer (2006), chronic procrastination is a complex
phenomenon related to several personality traits such as depression and anxiety (Van
Eerde, 2003) rather than mere deficits in time management skills.
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Schouwenburg, Lay, Pychyl, and Ferrari (2004) have also identified two forms of
chronic procrastination common in the United States: arousal procrastination occurs
when the purposive delay of a task makes the individual engage in hyperactivity or a rush
to complete the task that results in a “high;” and avoidant procrastination that occurs
when one delays the performance of a task that may negatively reflect on the performer’s
abilities. In this case, a possible poor performance may be attributed to time pressure or
lack of effort, rather than inability or incompetence (Ferrari et al., 1995).
Academic Procrastination
Ferrari (2004) conceived of procrastination in the academic setting as the
expression of trait procrastination as well as a behavior generated by the particular
situation. According to Harriot and Ferrari (1996), up to 20% of average adults are
engaged in general procrastination, i.e., the delay of starting or completing common
everyday tasks, such as taking care of health issues or paying bills. However, the rate of
academic procrastination, i.e., the delay of academic specific tasks, is reportedly as high
as 70%among all college students (Ellis & Knaus, 1977).
Moreover, academic trait procrastination is present among graduate students who
usually report higher rates of it in comparison to undergraduate students (Onwuegbuzie &
Collins, 2001). Even many university faculties have reported experiencing a form of
academic trait procrastination, evidenced by a lack of or insufficient professional
publications that may affect promotion and tenure (Boice, 1995). This can also be
manifested in late responses to grading papers, reviewing tests and quizzes, or not
attending to governance work or required meetings. As students’ lives, as well as the job
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market, are nowadays significantly more competitive and stressful, academic
procrastination may be a student’s cry for help due to over stress (L. Yuen, PhD, personal
communication, April 13, 2011).
Positive and Negative Effects of Chronic Procrastination
As Lay (2004) states, “Nothing beats the timely pursuit of one’s intentions. It is
the measure of success in life” (p. 43). According to this statement being a procrastinator
means, by definition, being unsuccessful in life (Lay, 2004). There are many
disadvantages or negative consequences of chronic or trait procrastination that have been
examined in empirical studies. Some of these findings are presented below.
Ferrari and Tice (2000) found that chronic procrastinators are more likely to
demonstrate self-handicapping behaviors, and are often negatively perceived by others
(Ferrari & Patel, 2004). According to Van Eerde (2003), procrastination is positively
correlated with depression and anxiety. As such, Lay (2004) identifies dissatisfaction
from one’s life as the main reason for seeking treatment for chronic procrastination.
Additionally, procrastination is related to lateness at work (Van Eerde, 2000), low
performance on final exams and class exercises, as well as lower course grades (Steel,
Brothen, & Wambach, 2001). Burka and Yuen (1983) found fines resulting from a late
return of library books and failed marriages as examples of consequences of chronic
procrastination. Moreover, chronic procrastination can also negatively affect one’s
physical health as it elevates perceived stress, causes delays in treatment seeking, and is
related to fewer wellness behaviors (i.e., life style choices such as, healthy eating habits
or regular exercise) and poorer health (Sirois, Melia-Gordon, & Pychyl, 2003).
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On the other hand, chronic procrastination may have some advantages or positive
effects as well. As Lay (2004) described, by procrastinating a task that one perceives as
less voluntary, less interesting, or more aversive, the procrastinator gets to engage in
alternative behaviors that one perceives as being more attractive, more interesting, and
voluntary activity. Accordingly, academic procrastination can potentially allow for more
time for pleasant pastimes, social activity, and dealing with affairs of the day instead of
spending significant amounts of time in ongoing stressful studying in an attempt to reach
better performance that is not necessarily guaranteed (Van Horebeek, Michielsen,
Neyskens, & Depreeuw, 2004).
A type of function-enhancing procrastination was identified in research
demonstrated by Chu and Choi’s (2005) description of active procrastination in which
one makes a conscious decision to delay engagement with a task, to later achieve better
outcomes due to better performance under pressure, as opposed to passive
procrastination where the impact of its outcome is mostly negative. According to Chu
and Choi (2005), active procrastinators possibly share similar characteristics with
nonprocrastinators that are substantially different from passive procrastinators such as,
higher levels of time control, purposive use of time, and self-efficacy. Consequently,
active procrastinators like nonprocrastinators experience higher rates of positive
outcomes in comparison with passive procrastinators who match the perception of
“traditional” procrastinators paralyzed by past failures and indecision concerning action
(Chu & Choi, 2005).Furthermore, for individuals with attention deficit disorder (ADD),
procrastination may serve as a natural medication system in which they reach motivation
and focus that cannot be reached when performing in a timely manner due to the thrill
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and adrenaline rush of performance close to the deadline (L. Yuen, PhD, personal
communication, April 13, 2011).
Conceptualizations of Procrastination
The reason for the occurrence of procrastination can be explained as the
consequence of a psychological conflict between short-term and long-term goals, in
which the reinforcement of the short-term goals is stronger, hence causing the negligence
of the long-term goals (Schouwenberg, 1994).Mainly, procrastination can be explained as
an avoidance pattern in which one avoids feelings or situations that are anxiety-provoking
or intolerable. Other avoidant behaviors may co-occur, such as emotional eating,
drinking, and other addictive behaviors (T. Brown, PhD, personal communication, April
1, 2011).
Another conceptual explanation for procrastination is according to the theory of
self-discrepancy (Higgins, 1987). According to Higgins, a significant and ongoing
discrepancy between the actual self (the way a person views himself) and the ideal self
(the way a person wishes to be) or the “ought self”(the way a person thinks he should be)
causes an emotional conflict that results in various negative feelings about oneself. An
awareness of this self-discrepancy may help the individual developing sight regarding the
influence of what he actually wants to do versus any perceived external expectations by
family and friends and others. It also relates to the way he sets goals and plans behaviors.
This awareness then can allow one to identify misleading ideals that interfere with goal-
setting behavior and cause procrastination (Van Essen, Van Den Heuvel, & Ossebraad,
2004).
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Other explanations for procrastination utilizing self-theories focus on identity
consolidation or the lack of it (Lay, 2004). Berzonsky and Ferrari (1996) found that
procrastinators may possess a diffused sense of identity which is characterized by a lack
of commitment to one’s values, or aspirations. Not having a clear identity is linked by
Baumeister (1985) to a conflict deriving from the wish to commit to a task while not
being able to give up on other interested targets. According to Lay (2004), the
inconsistent and diffuse self-elements impact self-regulation and thus may enhance
dilatory behavior in procrastinators.
Gollwitzer’s theory of implementation intentions may add another aspect in
understanding the process of procrastination. According to Gollwitzer (1999), planned
behavior happens in two phases: (a) the motivational phase, in which an action is selected
to bring a certain consequence, and (b) the volitional phase, in which the selected action
is in fact performed. As most of the explanations for procrastination mentioned earlier in
this chapter, focus on the discrepancy between actions and intentions. Assuming
intentions predict actions, Owens, Bowman, and Dill (2008) point out mere behavioral
intentions may not be sufficient for prediction of behavioral enactment. Accordingly,
procrastination may reflect the difficulty of translating intentions, even strong ones, into
action (Owens et al., 2008).
In order to enhance translation of intentions to actions, Gollwitzer (1999)
developed implementation intentions that are an augmentation of goal intentions by
adding specifications to the performance of the task (such as the location, date, time, and
duration of the action). According to Brandstatter, Lengfelder, and Gollwitzer (2001)
procrastination, or delayed enactment, was minimized when implementation intentions
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were used since the environmental cues contained in those intentions (i.e., when and
where) controlled the behavior and promoted its enactment. In four studies Brandstatter
et al. (2001) found forming of implementation intentions enhanced the initiation of a
desired behavior, even during intensive mentally distracting conditions. In the first study,
withdrawing opiate addicts experiencing increased cognitive load due to the withdrawal
stage were more successful in performing a writing task of their curriculum vitae
following the formation of an implementation intention regarding where, when, and how
to write it. In the remaining three studies, Brandstatter et al. (2001) found participants
immediately act on a specified opportunity once a corresponding implementation
intention is formed. In these studies samples of students and schizophrenic patients in
heightened cognitive load (i.e., performing dual tasks simultaneously) enhanced the
initiation of a specific behavior (pressing a button when spotting a critical number)
following the formation of an implementation intention (a commitment to respond fast;
press a button, to the number 3).
Similarly, Lay (2004) described the procrastinator’s intentions, as opposed to non-
procrastinators, merely as hopes or ideals and as a manifestation of the procrastinator’s
lack of willpower or conscientiousness. Along these lines, procrastinators may often
depend on others to solve their problems or will passively wait for problems to be
magically solved without taking any responsibility in doing so (M. Bloom, PhD, personal
communication, April 6, 2011). Warshaw and Davis (1985) drew a line between
behavioral expectations (BE) and behavioral intentions (BI). They expressed their belief
that behavioral expectations (one’s estimation of acting out an intention) is a better
predictor of actual performance. They contend that many common behaviors are habitual
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or mindless and behavioral intention (BI) is not the direct influence, but rather the
performance of the behavior is the result of several existing determinants included in a
behavioral expectation (BE). Accordingly, Lay (2004) also states that procrastinators
experience broader gaps between their behavioral expectations and their behavioral
intentions.
From a narrative point of view, the explanation for procrastination is based on
difficulties in cognitive, emotional, and behavioral self-regulation (O’Callaghan, 2004).
In a limited intervention program for academic writing procrastination, O’Callaghan
(2004) found recurrent distinctive themes characterizing the procrastinator’s narrative.
Accordingly, some of these themes included participants viewing their
procrastination as an uncontrollable, automatic process in which they experienced a
dissonance with their intentions, feeling the procrastination process takes place outside of
their conscious awareness. Moreover, participants usually held negative self-evaluations
of their academic writing, and tended to perform negative comparisons with others, from
which they came out as inferior and different from their peers. Along with unrealistic,
and at times perfectionist expectations for their performance, tied with a general
expectation the task should be easy, the participants’ intentions got lost within their
emotional needs. Some participants reported a theme of regression and resistance (i.e., a
child mode), provoking memories of early parental expectations, or related to anxiety and
anger arising from the pressure to perform. These emotions of anger, fear and frustration
that led participants to quick gratification behaviors formed a theme of shame and
mistrust of self, due to the usage of dysfunctional self-soothing strategies, and to the
inability to materialize intentions to actions when facing a deadline. The participants
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viewed procrastination as a personal characteristic and a part of their identity, rather than
being merely a rewarding trap or a bad habit, something external that can be changed.
Correspondingly, participants often identified with their achievements, e.g., “the work is
me” which reduced their sense of self-worth to be the sum of one’s achievements, while
dismissing other traits and abilities. Additional theme included rarely being in the right
mood to start the task due to anxiety or agitation management, or due to holding the
belief a “magical” or inspirational state needs to appear to allow the beginning of writing
(O’Callaghan, 2004).
Behavioral Manifestations of Procrastinators
Based on her clinical experience with hundreds of chronic procrastination cases,
Sapadin (1997) conceptually identified six styles of procrastinators. Each revolves around
a slightly different internal conflict that withholds the procrastinator from performing a
task or making a decision in a timely manner. The six styles of behavioral manifestations
are as follows: (a) the Perfectionist; (b) the Dreamer; (c) the Worrier; (d) the Definer; (e)
the Crisis-maker; and (f) the Pleaser. Sapadin (1997) reports that these procrastination
styles are rarely displayed by an individual in their pure form, but rather are manifested in
combinations of two or three major styles, along with two or three styles that are minor
and displayed less often by an individual. Each of these styles will be described and
presented below.
The Perfectionist
The perfectionist procrastinator tends to have a critical personality type and holds
high standards of self. Accordingly, the perfectionist believes that others have high
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expectations of him/her as well, regardless if this belief is grounded in reality or not. The
perfectionist thinking style tends to be extreme such as “all-or-nothing,” and is reflected
when using phrases such as “I should” or “I have to.”
The perfectionist acting style aims to be flawless, wishing to perform not less than
a perfect job. This results in reluctance to initiate or end a task due to the fear of failing
one’s own as well as others’ perceived expectations. Additionally, according to Sapadin
(1997), this procrastination style can be manifested by over-working on a task, investing
far more energy and time than necessary in order to meet the perfect performance, though
failing to finish in a timely manner or in completing the task altogether. The internal
conflict of this style is between task completion and the wish to achieve a perfect
performance, as an expression of a psychological need for control.
In support of Sapadin’s description of the perfectionist, O’Callaghan’s (2004)
research, mentioned above, of narrative approach to procrastination also revealed themes
in subjects’ narrative related to their sense of self, i.e., containing beliefs they need to be
perfect as well as substantial pressure to perform due to early life experiences and
internalized parental expectations. Additional themes found by O’Callaghan (2004) were
identification with the task, which did not allow less than perfect performance, as well as
an expectation for their performance to always be “easy and perfect.” According to
O’Callaghan, these themes were part of the subjects’ self-talk, and promoted their
procrastination due to being overwhelmed by their demands from themselves.
The Dreamer
The dreamer procrastinator tends to have a fanciful personality type causing
difficulty to be practical, and resulting in retreat to fantasies. The dreamer is skilled in
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developing, and at times promoting grandiose ideas, and yet seem to be unable to turn
these ideas to reality. The dreamer’s thinking style tends to be vague reflected by using
phrases, such as “I wish.”
According to Sapadin (1997), the dreamer’s acting style is passive stemming from
the assumption that life should be pleasant and easy. Accordingly, the dreamer manifests
resistance when confronted with challenges and difficulties, assuming unlike others,
he/she can gain achievement via avoiding the hard work. The internal conflict of this
style is between task performance and the wish to avoid hard work and dealing with
practical details, as an expression of the psychological need to be special.
In support of Sapadin’s (1997) description of the dreamer, Van Eerde’s (2004)
meta-analysis of procrastination and the Big Five personality model revealed the
tendency for fantasy was positively related to procrastination (this meta-analysis will be
discussed in more detail later in this chapter). Additionally, Steel et al. (2001) have stated
that procrastinators display a wide gap between their intentions and actions. Furthermore,
according to Sheeran, Webb, and Gollwitzer (2005), strong implementation intentions
versus plain intentions or wishes are a strong predictor of behavioral initiation. Finally,
Lay (2004) describes optimistic procrastinators who tend to believe that problems
eventually will solve on their own, hence becoming too complacent and fail to engage in
intended behavior when the opportunity presents itself. These can be examples of how
the Dreamer is manifested in their world of procrastination.
The Worrier
The worrier procrastinator tends to have a fearful personality type, resulting in
risk avoiding. Unfamiliar situations and new demands provoke anxiety towards change
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and the unknown, and possibly promote negative consequences. The worrier’s thinking
style is indecisive and is reflected by using phrases such as “what if?”
According to Sapadin (1997), the worrier’s acting style is cautious as he/she tends
to cling to familiar territories and to stay within their “comfort zone.” This is manifested
by avoiding decision making, dragging projects that involve change, or abandoning these
projects all together. The worrier’s avoidance is displayed regardless to the nature of the
change and its future impact on one’s life, negative or positive. The internal conflict of
this style is between task performance and the fear of change, as an expression for a
psychological need for security.
In support of Sapadin’s (1997) description of the “worrier,” Van Eerde (2003)
found a consistent positive relationship between anxiety and procrastination.
O’Callaghan’s (2004) narrative approach to procrastination has also found in her research
that triggered insecurities promote procrastination, along with negative comparisons with
others, perceiving task demands as overwhelming, and feeling “de-skilled.” Furthermore,
according to O’Callaghan’s (2004) a tendency of rarely being in the right state to perform
the task was associated, at times, with anxiety management. However, Lay (2004) states
anxiety does not necessarily characterize trait or chronic procrastinators.
The Defier
The defier procrastinator tends to have a resistant personality type, resulting in
difficulty to obey rules. The procrastination is a way for the definer to set a schedule,
which cannot be controlled or predicted by others. This may be a way to establish one’s
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individuality against others’ expectations. The defier’s thinking style is oppositional as
reflected in phrases such as “why should I?”
According to Sapadin (1997), the defier’s acting style is rebellious, as his/her
objection to a subject is displayed by avoiding the responsibility to act on it in a timely
manner. The defier may flaunt their tendency to procrastinate, as a part of their
opposition to conform to acceptable expectation, or may do it in a subtle manner, thus
demonstrating a passive-aggressive behavior. The internal conflict of this style is between
task performances and the co-existing opposition to do it, as an expression of a
psychological need for non-conformity.
In support of Sapadin’s (1997) description of the defier, O’Callaghan’s (2004)
research found that some subjects’ narrative consisted of resistant and regressed “child
mode” evoked by early parental expectations. Furthermore, Lay (2004) points out that
some individuals use their procrastination as an autonomy proof or an act of rebellion,
while avoiding to acknowledge its self-defeating nature.
The Crisis-Maker
The crisis-maker procrastinator tends to have an over-emotional personality type,
as reflected in a need for constant challenge, emergency action, and intense emotion. The
crisis-maker’s thinking style is agitated and tends to the extremes, as reflected in phrases
such as “unbelievable” or “it’s the end of the world.”
According to Sapadin (1997), the crisis-maker’s acting style is dramatic, and
manifested by being a risk-taker, who seeks for adventures. In this case, procrastination
allows a sense of adventure by pushing the crisis-maker to perform tasks at the last
minute in a dramatic and intense manner, in order to meet the deadline. The internal
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conflict of this style is between task completion and being motivated by urgency and
drama, as an expression of a psychological need for attention.
In support of Sapadin’s (1997) description of the crisis-maker, Ferrari and Pychyl
(2000) portrayed arousal procrastinators, or individuals who purposively delay task
performance to the last minute to gain an elevated feeling from the hyperactivity while
rushing to meet the deadline. This description is similar to the active procrastinator
depicted by Chu and Choi (2005), who likes to work under pressure, and who feels
motivated and challenged by last-minute tasks. In both descriptions, the procrastinator
has a clear and aware intention to arrive close to the deadline in order to enhance
performance and work on a high energy and urgency level.
The Pleaser
The pleaser procrastinator tends to have a busy personality type, due to a
difficulty in establishing priorities, managing time, and making decisions. This causes the
pleaser to be inefficient and to face too many tasks simultaneously. The pleaser’s
thinking style is compelled as reflected by the phrase “I can’t say no.” According to
Sapadin (1997), the pleaser’s acting style is “do-it-all” and results in some tasks being
well-performed while other projects are performed poorly, late or never completed. The
internal conflict of this style is between task performance and being overwhelmed with
duties overload, as an expression of a psychological need for self-reliance.
In support of Sapadin’s (1997) description of the pleaser, Lay (2004) describes
the characteristic of breadth of interest; an extensive interest in vast number of issues,
portrayed in students who read beyond their academic requirements, and consume
extensive amounts of information daily, via newspapers, television, cinema and other
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medias. Lay (2004) found breadth of interest to be an undesirable trait for procrastinators
as it aids in shifting focus and effort to other things than the intended task.
Characteristics of Procrastinators
The Big Five Personality Model
Van Eerde (2004) conducted a meta-analysis searching for a relation between
self-reported academic procrastinators and Costa and McCrae’s (1992) Big Five model of
personality. In this meta-analysis, Van Eerde (2004) grouped effect sizes from 41
empirical studies, according to the Big Five model of personality, to check correlations
between procrastination and the five following factors: (a) neuroticism factor including
hostility, anxiety, depression, impulsivity, self-consciousness, and vulnerability; (b)
extraversion factor including gregariousness, warmth, assertiveness, excitement seeking,
activity, and positive emotions; (c) openness to experience factor including aesthetics,
fantasy, feelings, ideas, actions, and values; (d) agreeableness factor including
straightforwardness, trust, altruism, modesty, compliance, and tender-mindedness; and
(e) conscientiousness factor including dutifulness, order, self-discipline, competence,
achievement striving, and deliberation.
According to Van Eerde (2004), a negative correlation was found between the
conscientiousness factor and procrastination. This was the largest average effect size
found in this meta-analysis (r = -.65). A moderate positive correlation was found between
the neuroticism factor and procrastination (r = .26). Within this factor, impulsiveness had
the largest correlation (r = .35), though only four studies checked this trait. It may be the
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relation between impulsivity and procrastination is under-researched, and deserves more
attention and inquiry.
Of the remainder of the Big Five factors (extraversion, openness to experience,
and agreeableness) Van Eerde’s (2004) findings do not indicate any other significant
relation, a part of the fantasy facet within the openness factor (r = .25). Van Eerde (2004)
points out the effect sizes of both neuroticism and fantasy are equal yet there are far more
studies dealing with the neuroticism factor, while the fantasy facet received less research
attention. As with impulsivity, this may be another area deserving further research
attention. Compiling these findings, Van Eerde (2004) also portrays a profile of the
procrastinator student as not conscientious, slightly neurotic, maintaining a rich fantasy
life, and somewhat unsociable and introverted.
Yet, Van Eerde (2004) recognizes several limitations to this meta-analysis, such
as possible alternative interpretations of these findings that may provide different
profiles, because individuals do not necessarily display all of the Big Five Model
characteristics. Hence, in reality there may be few procrastinators’ profiles, such as, a
profile with an anxiety component, another with a depressive component, and one with
no emotional concerns. Additional limitations are the use of self-reports to measure
procrastination and the Big Five model, and the unknown true nature of the relationships
between the effect sizes and the Big Five model, as the former are merely correlations.
Task Perception
Ferrari and Scher (2000) found that people generally tend to delay the
performance of tasks that are tedious and aversive in nature. Milgram, Batori, and
Mowrer (1993) also found students tend to procrastinate academic tasks they perceived to
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be unpleasant, difficult, or boring rather than on easy and pleasant tasks. Accordingly,
Lay (1992) found trait procrastinators to perceive the intended task as more aversive, less
interesting, and less voluntary, as opposed to other activities. Procrastinators are more
likely to prefer the other activity, unlike non-procrastinators who tend to hold to the
intended behavior despite of alternative activities, or unpleasant task characteristics (Lay,
2004).
Ferrari, Mason, and Hammer (2006) explored if procrastinators perceive their
delayed tasks differently than non-procrastinators. According to their findings,
procrastinators’ task perception was different than non-procrastinators only in tasks that
were in fact delayed, as opposed to tasks that were completed on time, or tasks with
future deadlines. The procrastinated tasks were usually perceived by the procrastinators
as less enjoyable, more difficult, and effort consuming. Furthermore, procrastinators
more likely stated they were not clear on how to perform these tasks (Ferrari et al., 2006).
Senecal, Lavoie and Koestner (1997) examined the behavior of self-reported
procrastinators when engaging with activities with varied difficulty and interest level. By
measuring the amount of time it took for participants to initiate and to complete the
activities, Here, Senecal et al. found the difficult and boring task (i.e., rewriting a
psychological report) was viewed as the most anxiety-provoking, the least enjoyable, and
was delayed and worked on last, by 45% of the participants. Furthermore, according to
Senecal et al., self-reported high-trait procrastinators demonstrated higher delay rates in
engaging the difficult and boring task, as well as slower performance, when they
anticipated to be evaluated on their interest or performance. In contrast, self-reported
low-trait procrastinators’ performance was not impacted by the expectation of evaluative
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feedback. According to this study, these findings support fear of failure triggering of
academic procrastination, as a strategy of self-handicapping to shield a fragile self-esteem.
Self-Regulation
According to Deci and Ryan (1991), self-regulation is an individual’s use of
external and internal cues to decide when to initiate, maintain, and terminate goal-
directed actions. Here, Deci and Ryan distinguished between extrinsic motivation (i.e.,
acting due to coercion or seduction of external factor) and intrinsic motivation (i.e.,
acting due to interest or pleasure the action brings) Senecal, Koestner, and Vallerand
(1995) found an association between levels of procrastination and self-regulation of
academic behavior among students. According to their research, students holding
intrinsic reasons for pursuing higher education procrastinate less than students holding
extrinsic reasons who had higher rates of procrastination. Additionally, students who had
difficulties in regulating their academic behavior or were amotivated (i.e., according to
Deci and Ryan (1991) the least autonomous behavior due to lack of expectation for
reward, sense of purpose, or perceived control) procrastinated more. Hence, higher levels
of procrastination were associated with motivation forms of less autonomous nature.
According to Senecal et al. (1995), this finding is congruent with other findings pointing
low persistence, negative emotions, and inconsistency between behaviors and attitudes;
three factors associated with less autonomous academic self-regulation, are leading to
procrastination. Accordingly, Senecal et al. focused on motivational issues, stating that
students who are intrinsically interested in academic studies are less inclined to
procrastinate than students who study due to external reasons.
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Another demonstration of self-regulation and procrastination relation can be
found in O’Callaghan’s (2004) narrative approach to procrastination. O’Callaghan
described several recurring themes in procrastinators’ narratives that demonstrate lack of
self-regulation as part of the procrastinating process. These themes included viewing
procrastination as a personal characteristic instead of a rewarding trap or bad habit that
could be changed easily, and expecting their performance of a task to be “perfect” rather
than “doable.” According to O’Callaghan (2004), these themes indicated the lack of or
immature patterns of self-regulation that promoted the dilatory behavior.
Fears
Based on their vast clinical experience, Burka and Yuen (1983) have
conceptualized five basic fears from which individuals tend to protect themselves by
using procrastination as their strategy. These are: (a) fear of failure; (b) fear of success;
(c) fear of losing a battle; (d) fear of separation; and (e) fear of attachment. Each of these
fears and how procrastination is used as a coping strategy is described below.
Fear of failure. According to Burka and Yuen (1983), procrastination helps an
individual who fears failure to avoid the question of whether his abilities match his
potential or his self-expectations. By procrastinating, the individual’s work is not a true
reflection of his ability, and will only indicate how well this individual functions under
time pressure. This process is a result of the individuals fear to fail his or others’
expectations, having his best performance judged as inadequate (Burka & Yuen, 1983).
According to Beery (1975), fear of failure stems from a set of assumptions that
equates self-worth, ability, and performance. Holding this equation results in an
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individual’s view of his performance as a direct measure of his ability, and of his worth
and value as a person (Burka & Yuen, 1983). This equation is problematic when ability,
regardless how the individual defines it, is perceived as the only measure of that
individual’s worth.
As such, Beery (1975) thus explains that the procrastinating behavior breaks the
frightening equation of self-worth, ability, and performance, by avoiding complete effort
hence forbidding performance from being a true measure of ability. As a result, the
individual can maintain the equation between self-worth and ability, regardless of his
level of performance, and therefore never confronts the realistic limits of his ability, from
fear of finding himself inadequate, or failing.
Fear of success. On the other hand, some procrastinators can use dilatory
behavior to avoid success. Unlike the normal apprehension from an unknown territory or
a change, even for the better, Burka and Yuen (1983) differentiate fear of success as a
self-defeating force, preventing progress and risk taking, as well as spontaneity and
curiosity hence causing restriction and lack of new accomplishments.
According to Burka and Yuen, procrastinators who experience fear of success will
appear non-competitive and disinterested in rewards or victory. This might be a way to
conceal from others, and at times from themselves, aspirations that they feel are
inappropriate. Another way to avoid success is by procrastinating commitments that are
necessary for achievement, and thereby reducing the risk to succeed and be found in a
place they are not ready for, that will enforce then to give up other aspects of their life
(Burka & Yuen, 1983).
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Additionally, Burka and Yuen point out cultural norms that hinder women from
seeking success, as it may contradict their cultural training as supporters for men. On the
other hand, men may fear success in order to avoid being trapped in the traditional male
provider’s role, which will force them to give up other, less responsible or more feminine
aspects of life.
Finally, Burka and Yuen count other personal reasons to fear success, such as a
fear to turn into a workaholic and lose control and choice in their life (this fear derives
from equating the lack of control they feel about their procrastination to a similar image
of uncontrollable work mode). Other reasons Burka and Yuen portray, may be feeling
undeserving to succeed due to regretful evil thoughts or behavior, fearing one’s success
will hurt other loved ones, who cannot achieve the same success, or fearing success may
hurt themselves, as they will be punished for it or will have to face fights they cannot
handle. Another reason to fear success, according to Burka and Yuen, is when the
individual feels unskilled and inadequate and thus cannot incorporate success with their
low self-image.
Fear of losing in combat. Burka and Yuen (1983) describe this fear as the battle
for control, power, respect, independence, and autonomy. Here, the dilatory behavior is
utilized to determine control over time and deadlines, as well as not prevailing to others’
directions or expectations but doing it “your own way.”
In their work, Burka and Yuen identify several themes in battling through
procrastination, such as holding the belief rules are made to be broken, as restrictions and
expectations seem to be over confining for one’s lifestyle, stifling individuality or
creativity, and decreasing personal freedom. Another theme is reversing the power
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hierarchy, in which the procrastinator avoids feeling helpless and small by delaying
performing work for his superiors. In these cases, Burka and Yuen claim procrastination
serves as a power equalizer, allowing the procrastinator more control, and reducing his
superior’s power.
Another reason to procrastinate as a means to gain control is when one feels
intruded on by other’s request. In this case, according to Burka and Yuen, the dilatory
behavior functions to restore a sense of safety and protection. On the other hand, at times
the procrastinating behavior is utilized to gain a sense of thrill and risk taking, as one
check his limits by waiting for the last minute, and risking a failure that will cause a
“loss” of some kind. When succeeding to complete the task in spite of the great pressure,
the procrastinator feels triumphant and elated (Burka & Yuen, 1983). In all these themes,
the most important goal of the procrastinator is to win the battle and repel others’ control
over his life.
Burka and Yuen further state that the procrastinator who fears losing in combat
equates self-worth with ability to be autonomous (or to resist external control), and with
performance, specifically lack of performance demonstrated by procrastination.
Accordingly, self-worth is defined by the ability to defy domination through
procrastination. As Burka and Yuen describe it, this procrastination can be limited to
specific circumstances, or can be a way of life, in which one constantly battles every rule
and asks for special consideration, always striving to be stronger or in control, regardless
of the consequences to one’s life.
Another aspect of the fear of losing in combat is, according to Burka and Yuen,
procrastinating making decisions and commitments in order to avoid exposing one’s
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interests and preferences and risking vulnerability and humiliation by others. Lack of
commitment provides a sense of unlimited freedom, as other options are still available,
and one is not under anyone’s control. In this case, procrastination will serve as part of a
passive-aggressive pattern, in which one keeps a friendly demeanor while secretly being
resistant and in fact uncooperative, hence frustrating others.
According to Burka and Yuen, the procrastinator who fears losing in combat is in
constant state of defense, viewing the world as an unpredictable place, holding the belief
that if someone else is strong (i.e., parents, employers) it then means that the
procrastinator is weak. Thus, by procrastinating, the person gains back some control by
weakening the authority figure. Additionally, as the procrastinator assumes he is weaker,
the dilatory behavior allows the avoidance of direct conflict, in which the procrastinator
odds to win are lower. Eventually, as Burka and Yuen explain, motivated by the fear of
losing battle, thwarting the opponent outweighs achieving one’s own goals in life.
Fear of separation. According to Burka and Yuen (1983), procrastination can
serve as a means, or be a result of an effort to gain closeness to others. Procrastination
can take place if one is unable to get work done outside of a team, or making decisions
without researching and consulting others. At times, as explained by Burka and Yuen, the
research phase, prior to making a decision, is extended and causes confusion due to the
different opinions gathered and inability to find one’s own voice.
Another case, according to Burka and Yuen, in which procrastination serves the
fear to separate is when one maintains a position in which someone else takes the lead,
makes major decisions, and assumes responsibility, while by procrastinating, one stays in
the back position, avoiding operating independently. This need to stay dependent may
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cause one to linger in settings or relationships that feel familiar and safe in order to avoid
separation, fearing they will not gain this real or presumed sense of safety, again, or
dreading to move on and function alone (Burka & Yuen, 1983).
In some cases, one can use procrastination to create a crisis that will force others
to take care, or rescue him. In this case, according to Burka and Yuen, the procrastinator
maintains incompetency and dependency believing this is the only way to elicit others’
response to him, and by that avoid separation. Here, Burka and Yuen note that the
procrastination may serve to continue familiar patterns and struggles from past
relationships (such as, with parents and teachers) in current ones (such as, with spouses
and employers), in order to keep the sense of connection from the early relationship.
Finally, clinging to the known pattern of procrastination allows the procrastinator a sense
of continuity, as one never has to terminate projects or relationships.
Fear of attachment. On the other hand, Burka and Yuen (1983) describe
procrastinators who use dilatory behavior to avoid attachment. In this case, closeness is
perceived as potentially entrapping and confining to the point of losing one’s own
identity. Thus, procrastination is used to keep a wide distance from others so as to gain
self-protection.
Burka and Yuen portray several themes manifested when procrastination is used
to avoid attachment, such as holding the belief relationships are inevitably draining and
all consuming, as well as assuming one’s inability to keep boundaries and resist
intrusions. Another theme described here is a concern that others will either take credit
over one’s accomplishment or share the pleasure from it. In both themes, the
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procrastinator avoids demonstrating skills or achieving accomplishments fearing others’
consuming response.
Individual Perception of Procrastination
Ferrari, Wolfe, Wesley, Schoff, and Beck (1995) researched chronic academic
procrastination among students from different quality institutions. According to their
findings, student from moderate or non-selective institutions reported lower rates of
chronic academic procrastination in comparison to students from highly-selective
institutions. However, the researchers proposed that these findings derive from the
relative subjectivity of self-perception of procrastination. According to Ferrari et al.
(1995), higher-level students’ standards of learning are higher, and therefore, mild delays
are considered as procrastination, versus lower-level students.
Time Perception/Temporal Dimensions
Ferrari, Harriott, Evans, Lecik-Michna, and Wenger (1997) examined the role of
Morningness and Eveningness in dilatory behavior. Carrier and Monk (2000) describe
Morningness-Eveningness as differences held by individuals regarding their time
preferences for sleeping and waking, as well as for accomplishment of demanding
physical and intellectual tasks. According to Carrier and Monk, individuals with a
preference for eveningness demonstrate better performance of certain tasks during
evening time, in comparison with individuals with morningness preference which
demonstrated higher performance during morning hours.
Ferrari et al. (1997) researched among university students and found that
procrastinators are more prone to self-identify with eveningness preference in comparison
to non-procrastinators. Hess, Sherman, and Goodmand (2000) also found academic
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procrastination among university students is associated with eveningness, while
neuroticism, which is associated with academic procrastination as well, partially
mediated this relation. Additionally, Diaz-Morales, Ferrari, and Cohen (2008) researched
among adults and found that morningness is negatively related to avoidant procrastinators
(i.e., individuals who avoid starting or completing a task), who tend to identify as night
people.
Another time dimension that may be related to procrastination is time perspective
or orientation; the way one psychologically relates to the past, present, and future.
Formation of goals and expectations as well as storage and recollection of experienced
events utilizes these temporal frames (Boyd & Zimbardo, 2005). Accordingly, an
individual’s subjective preferences, values, and beliefs about temporal experiences can
determine one’s temporal orientation (i.e., a past/present/future orientation) that can be
either negative or positive.
In the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI), Zimbardo and Boyd (1999)
identified five factors or dimensions people hold that frame them in a certain time
perspective from which they mentally operate: past-negative – a general aversive view of
the past (such as, “I think about the bad things from the past”); past-positive – an
optimistic view of the past (such as, “I enjoy thinking about the past” or “I get nostalgic
about my childhood”); present-fatalist – a hopeless view of the future and life (such as, “I
do not plan for the future because things keep changing”); present-hedonist – a risk
taking, hedonistic attitude towards life and time (such as, “devil may care”); and future –
goal planning and achievement oriented attitude (such as, “I complete projects on time by
making steady progress”).
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Spector and Ferrari (2000) found procrastination is more related to a present
orientation than to a future orientation. Additionally, they found that indecision has a
negative association with a future orientation, and a positive association with a past
orientation. In a research among students, Jackson, Fritch, Nagasaka, and Pope (2003)
found that avoidant procrastination has a positive relation to a past orientation. The same
study also found that procrastination is strongly associated with negative evaluations of
past and present along with a positive view of the future. Diaz-Morales, Ferrari, and
Cohen (2008) also explored among adults and found that indecision is related to a strong
past orientation, either positive or negative, as well as to weak present-hedonistic and
future orientations. In view of these findings, Diaz-Morales et al. (2008) suggest it is not
necessarily that indecisive people are focused on negative, or negatively-perceived past
experiences, but rather their preoccupation with reminiscing about past events, both
negative and positive, may cause their indecision.
Interventions for Academic Procrastination
Basic Elements
Based on ten years of leading group counseling to students for academic
procrastination issues and treatment, Lay (2004) describes some basic elements of the
treatment that can be provided to procrastinators. The general premise of this treatment
is the definition of success in life that “Nothing beats the timely pursuit of your
intentions. It is the measure of success in life” (Lay, 2004, p. 45). Lay offers orientations
toward change and operations toward change, along with few reminders to facilitate
change.
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The group treatment focuses on providing the clients a better understanding of the
reasons of procrastination in general, and their personal reasons to procrastinate, along
with a better understanding of each client’s personality, motivations, and goals. Lay
(2004) utilizes procrastination scales as well as personality questionnaire to measure
traits such as, neurotic organization, optimism, rebelliousness, perfectionism, time
management, anxiety, and self-esteem. The clients are provided with feedback in the
group setting, in which misconceptions are challenged and are changed by more accurate
conceptions to decrease the dilatory behavior.
Lay (2004) prompt clients to focus on their self-identity, claiming procrastinators
tend to display a diffused identity (Berzonsky, 1989) leading to a lack of commitment to
be personally involved in their declared beliefs, values, and aspirations. The goal is to
promote a better sense of self in clients via the group dynamics. Another goal of the
program is to change the clients’ perception of their intentions and actions, by utilizing
self-talk to self-regulate. Another is to enable clients to form intentions of better quality
that indeed lead to the desired enacted behavior. These may change from behavioral
intentions to behavioral expectations or implementation intentions, which are better
predictors of actual behavior.
Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy
Van Horebeek, Michiesen, Neyskens, and Depreeuw (2004) describe practical
experience of group training for students with extreme academic procrastination. The
program’s aim is to decrease the discrepancy between behavior and intention, by shifting
the behavior closer to the intention, hence moving from procrastination, demotivation,
and discouragement to motivation, knowledge, and self-confidence. According to Van
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Horebeek et al. (2004), the reduction in procrastination will lead to improvement in
negative self-image, social isolation in comparison to peers, conflict at home, and health
issues, as these are secondary consequences of procrastination.
In this intervention, Van Horebeek et al. (2004) map the problematic behavior by
providing the clients with guidance how to gain insight of the causes and process of
procrastination. Following that, the program focuses on behavioral changes. Van
Horebeek et al. (2004) intervention focuses on motivation and applied behavioral
analysis. In other programs of self –management for student procrastinators Van Essen,
Van Den Heuvel, and Ossebaard (2004) state similar goals: promoting insight of the
procrastination tendency following by provision of various tactics and techniques to
control the dilatory behavior.
Motivation. Motivation is defined by Miller and Rollnick (2002) as the
probability that one wants a personal change and proceeds with a change process. In this
program, motivation is considered to be influenced by the therapeutic relationship.
Throughout the program, the participants are offered with a free choice of two equal
value options: changing and unlearning procrastination, a difficult and self-tormenting
process, or carry through with procrastination.
Accordingly, Van Essen et al. (2004) describe procrastination as an acquired and
initially paid off behavior, that currently became a dysfunctional strategy with heavy
costs. Van Horebeek et al. (2004) also describe their participants as being in a stage of
internal conflict that has been developed over years. This ambivalence can be viewed as
insufficient motivation. This intervention aims to initiate a process of constant small
equilibrium shifts that will allow the beginning of a slow process of change. This process
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of change is comprised of six stages; pre-contemplation, contemplation, decision making,
active change, stabilization, and relapse (Prochaska, Diclemente & Norcross, 1992). As
Van Horebeek et al. (2004) state, a significant of motivation is identifying at which stage
each student is, to gauge his state of willingness.
Applied behavioral analysis. Van Horebeek et al. (2004) use Depreeuw’s
process model (Lens & Dupreeuw, 1998) to assess their task behaviors. By focusing on
the process-like nature of procrastination and formulating it in task behavior terms, the
student gains insight and views thoughts and experiences in a different way, and gains a
sense of control on what seemed to be a static unchangeable pattern. Similarly, Van
Essen et al.’s (2004) self-management courses aim to establish in the student a sense of
control over their behavior.
The cognitive-behavioral approach views behavior and feelings as the
consequences of meaning, or interpretation, one give’s to a situation. Hence, this
interpretation is targeted to initiate a change. The students analyze and evaluate their
behavior (task relevant and irrelevant) via SORC diagrams in which S stands for stimulus
or situation prior to the procrastination behavior (such as, having to read a textbook, or
wishing to visit friends), R stands for response or the actual behavior (such as,
reading/not reading the textbook or visiting/not visiting friends), and C stands for all
positive or negative consequences (such as, feeling lonely and tired while studying,
having fun with friends, failing and earning bad grades). Following the SORC diagrams,
Van Horebeek et al. (2004) provide the students with concrete techniques to overcome
the dilatory behavior. Similarly, Van Essen et al. (2004) include in their self-management
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programs rational-emotional behavioral therapy (REBT) part, time management or study
planning part, and an informational part.
Techniques. The first technique presented by Van Horebeek et al. (2004) is study
planning or time management, in which students are directed to formulate clear, and
realistic time objectives, describing the duration of time they will spend on studying as
well as on leisure time. Another technique used by Van Horebeek et al. is stimulus
control, in which students gain a clear view of the stimulus, such as, where and with
whom they will study. Self-management of consequences is another technique provided,
in which students provide themselves with positive incentives (rewards) for performing
desired behavior, and at times, using negative consequences (punishments) for undesired
behavior. Similarly, van Essen et al. (2004) analyze students’ study behavior in three
stages; before studying, the selected environment to study and how well it’s fitted for the
purpose; while studying, how effectively distractions are handled; and after studying,
applying reward or punishment based on the session’s achievements. Additionally, Van
Essen et al. present the formulation of SMART short-term study plans. Tuckman and
Schouwenburg (2004) describe a SMART formulation of study tasks which comprised of
listing specific and measurable activities (such as the amount of time, or number of paged
to read or to write). These activities need to be accepted by the student, realistic and
feasible, and timed within a determined schedule.
Another technique used by Van Essen et al. (2004) utilizes solution-focused
therapy, developed by De Shazar (1985), in which “success rounds” are part of the group
program. In these rounds students share their weekly successful experiences with the
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group, including the way they were able to achieve this success. By that, students’
attention is shifted from failures to successes, and feelings of self-efficacy are promoted.
The final technique targets cognitive aspects of procrastination and aims for
cognitive restructuring. According to Ellis and Harper (1997), rational-emotional therapy
(RET or REBT) identify four irrational beliefs that trigger and maintain irrational feelings
and dysfunctional behavior: (a) musts – a rigid and absolutistic world view in which
wishes are replaced by demands (such as “I must always succeed”) and create excessive
stress and pressure; (b) catastrophizing – a disproportional view of things, in particular,
negative things (such as “making a mistake is horrible”) that seem worse than they are,
even before encountering them, promoting one’s view these things cannot be handled; (c)
low frustration tolerance – inability to accept life hassles and setbacks, believing life is
unfair or too hard (such as “I cannot bear attending this boring class”); and (d) human
worth rating – equalizing one’s worth with one’s actions or achievements, excluding the
uniqueness and complexity of the individual as a human being. Hence, instead of rating
the behavior the whole person is put down (as in “failing this test makes me a loser”).
According to Ellis and Knaus (2002), irrational beliefs trigger overreactions such
as depression or anxiety. Hence, these irrational cognitions are identified and challenged
to allow the formation of realistic cognitions and reasonable objectives. The core
assumption of this therapy states the source of thoughts and feelings is not a certain
situation, but the meaning one applies to it. The formulation of ABCDE is used to
represent the objective situation (A), beliefs (B), and emotional and behavioral
consequences (C). The intervention is represented by disputing the irrational cognitions
or distorted beliefs (D) and replacing them with effective ones (E).
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Van Horebeek et al. (2004) uses RET’s ABC formulations, in which students pick
a situation (A), and note the related emotional and behavioral consequences (C).
Following that the students trace the rational and irrational thoughts and beliefs (B).
These diagrams allow the students to recognize the consequences are a result of their
beliefs (B) and not derive from the objective situation (A). Finally, the recognized
irrational thoughts and beliefs are challenged and replaced with new realistic cognitions
that promote the desired behavior and feelings. Similarly, Van Essen et al. (2004)
encourage reality testing the irrational cognitions by searching for evidence for these
beliefs (D), as well as using imagination to formulate and rehearse effective and rational
beliefs (E).
Behavioral Therapy
Behavioral interventions focus on changing dysfunctional behaviors by
controlling an environmental stimuli acting as antecedents as well as consequences
(Cullinan, 2002). Tuckman and Schouwenburg (2004) present behavioral interventions,
either in the form of an academic course, or as a support group. These interventions
include behavioral antecedents and consequences. The antecedents are:
Environmental restructure – used to promote higher extrinsic motivation to guide
active behavior. This restructure includes providing students with frequent
deadlines and tasks to promote self-regulation, as well as self-appraisal
benchmarks (e.g., self-tests), and external monitoring (e.g., teachers’ progress
checks).
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Social influence – includes expectation stating, and urging to meet goals in order
to promote self-efficacy, public commitment (e.g. stating to others one will meet
goal on time), and sponsorship (e.g., having a sponsor to contact when thinking to
break commitment).
Training – includes provision of time management techniques, such as, daily
schedules, goal statements, daily performance targets, and to-do lists.
According to Tuckman and Schouwenburg (2004), consequences either positive or
negative, are another part of behavioral intervention, consisting of elements such as
accountability and inevitability. Accordingly, typical byproducts of social monitoring are
rejection and embarrassment due to negative performance outcomes.
Tuckman’s (2004) Strategies for achievement course is theoretically based on the
achievement motivation model (McClelland, 1965), social-cognitive theory (Bandura,
1997) and schema theory (Anderson, 1995). This intervention focuses on self-regulation
and motivation, specifically, building responsibility and self-confidence to improve life
management, along with learning cognitive strategies for studying.
According to Tuckman (2003), four basic motivation and learning strategies for
achievement, which promote self-regulation, are used:
Empowering strategy – involves moderate risk taking in which challenging yet
attainable goals are set, and each goal is divided to manageable, small tasks.
Belief strategy – involves assuming responsibility for outcomes, using positive
thinking and belief in one’s capability and effort, as well as building a plan.
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Action strategy – involves environment search by asking questions, and
visualizing or building a model for action.
Reaction strategy – involves feedback usage to monitor one’s actions to keep on
track, and giving self-instruction using self-talk.
According to Tuckman and Schouwenburg (2004), in the procrastination part of the
course, participants are taught to distinguish between real reasons for dilatory behavior,
such as, lack of knowledge, and rationalizations for procrastination, such as, “I can be
motivated only at the last minute.” Additionally, students learn to identify thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors triggered by potentially challenging conditions, to use the four
achievement strategies, and to manage their time, utilizing self-regulating means, such as,
to-do lists. (Tuckman & Schouwenburg, 2004)
In the building self-confidence part, according to Tuckman and Schouwenburg
(2004) and based on Bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy study, students are taught emotional
self-regulation, affirmation seeking, effective model picking, and acting out their plan.
The instructional part of the course combines computer-based instruction with traditional
classroom, using assignments, self-assessments, quizzes, online discussions, and papers.
As such, Tuckman and Schouwenburg’s purpose of the instructional part is to allow
practice required for behavioral change, as well as providing transfer opportunities.
Schouwenburg’s (2004) Task Management groups use similar behavioral
intervention in the form of strict groups rather than an academic course. The group’s
purpose is to engage participants in a regular studying pattern. Students learn to divide
study goals to weekly attainable tasks using SMART terms, and to self-monitor task
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performance. According to Tuckman and Schouwenburg (2004) the group has strict
attendance and task completion rules, in which each participant has a personal progress
graph publicly displayed, while rewards and punishments are used according to one’s
performance and rules compliance.
Narrative Therapy
A story is an episode containing a protagonist and a sequence structured to produce a
certain conclusion holding a purpose for the narrator (Stein & Policastro, 1984). This
process is more influenced by the emotional aspect of the recalled event than by
conscious control (Bruner, 1986), and can be distinct from historical truth (Schafer,
1992). According to O’Callaghan (2004), narrative intervention is designed to help
procrastinators rewrite the problem narrative to decrease identification with negative
attributions related to being a procrastinator.
O’Callaghan’s (2004) narrative intervention was conducted on students and
focused on procrastination of academic writing. The goal of this intervention was to
reduce procrastination and create a new learning experience by elevating awareness of
meaning application to personal experiences via narrative, utilizing narrative strategies to
reframe “problem accounts” that impact dilatory behavior, and re-authoring more
supportive and flexible narratives that counter procrastination.
O’Callaghan (2004) used six individual therapy sessions focused on the
participant’s possibilities and hopes, instead of focusing on the procrastination problem.
By using various strategies to question problem-oriented narratives, students were
encouraged to “dis-identify” from being a procrastinator. These strategies include,
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identifying personal qualities of nonprocrastinators, in comparison to the student’s
different self-definition, and how they can be developed, revealing student’s hidden
agency and considering small changes that will promote desired behavioral consequences
by using De Shazer’s (1988) “miracle question” in which the student imagines he
miraculously and not knowingly wakes up cured from procrastination, and needs to
describe in detail the difference in his day that will reveal to him he was cured.
Another strategy used by O’Callaghan (2004) is to expand the student’s
perspective to externalize, and separate the problem from the person, in order to establish
the view procrastination is a bad habit, instead of a personal trait. This allows the student
to respond to and fight the problem rather than to own it and embody the problem
(O’Callaghan, 2004). Additional strategy is to elevate awareness of negative external and
self-talk that is avoiding and energy draining, and to promote inspirational and energizing
self-talk, as well as external conversations, that were lost and omitted from the
procrastinator’s narrative.
O’Callaghan’s (2004) final strategy is comparing pre-therapy narratives with the
new co-constructed narratives formed in therapy, while exploring which social
conversations will support and accept these new narratives. Thus, O’Callaghan stresses
the importance of cultivating a broader perspective to practice, understand, and integrate
thoughts, feelings, and actions, in order to build a broader framework of meaning that
will include the previous narratives along with the new ones, instead of merely replacing
negative with positive.
Post intervention, O’Callaghan (2004) identified a distinctive change in recurrent
domains and themes regarding procrastination, in comparison to pre-intervention.
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Accordingly, students were able to mentally separate procrastination from being a
personal trait to a changeable rewarding trap or a bad habit. Another example is changing
from a perfectionist view of academic writing to an attainable task and a realistic view.
Psychodynamic Therapy
Burka and Yuen (1983) conceptualize procrastination from a psychodynamic
approach, focusing on early childhood, family dynamics, and self. Accordingly, Burka
and Yuen emphasize the crucial role of beliefs, values, and rules the child learns in his
family early on in the shaping years, mainly if these attitudes are rigid and become an
inner critical voice automatically governing feelings, thoughts, and behaviors, later on in
adulthood. Particularly, they focus on the following themes, which exist in every family,
and their influence or inhibitions on the child’s self-esteem:
Pressuring. This theme is stressed in highly achievement–oriented families. The
parents can be either extremely successful in one aspect or more, or unsatisfied with their
lives, hence shifting their high hopes to their children. Mediocrity and limitations are
unacceptable, and success considered to be reaching no less than the top. Accordingly,
children are not rewarded for things they do well, unless they are done perfectly.
Another way of pressure is by holding overconfident views of the child’s ability,
such as, “you can do anything,” by blaming external factors for the child’s imperfect
performance, such as, “this teacher is stupid,” or by over praising average performance,
leaving the child confused and embarrassed. Consequently, the child cannot estimate
realistically his strengths and weaknesses.
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Additionally, siblings’ performance is another factor, in which, the presence of a
“perfect” sibling pressures the others to keep up with him, or a failing sibling causing the
other to try and compensate for him by being perfect, and holding full responsibility to
fulfill the family ambitions. Accordingly, these dynamics convey the message self-worth
is based on achievements rather than on being, and foster the development of intense
fears of rejection and disappointment if failing to achieve. In these circumstances,
procrastination may offer a safe gateway, by which one never risks failing.
Doubting. This theme portrays the family doubt in the child ability to accomplish,
or succeed. This doubt is communicated indirectly, or directly, by comparing the child to
a more successful sibling, by devaluing or mocking the child’s achievements, by mere
lack of interest in the child, or showing interest only when he performs well in areas the
parent value. At times, unsuccessful parents are threatened by their child’s progress hence
devaluing it.
Consequently, the child internalizes the doubts, and views failures as inevitable,
and as a proof of the incompetency prophecy. As an adult the child either complies with
the doubts, and procrastinates what he believes he cannot achieve, or defy the doubts by
trying to prove it wrong and often becoming an over achiever, or a perfectionist
procrastinator.
Controlling. This theme is displayed by parents who rigidly direct and
excessively control the child’s life, not tolerating the child’s natural independence or
autonomy acts. In these families mastering new skills and experimenting are not
encouraged. The parents may deal with feelings of inadequacy or insecurity by over
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controlling their children or may need to have someone utterly dependent on them to
meet various needs.
This control is exerted since early years, when the child is incapable of defending
himself, and may be displayed by unpredictable misplaced rage bursts or cruel remarks,
or even by physical abuse, that often depends on other factors of the parents life, that are
not related to the child. Consequently, the child learns being weak is dangerous as people
you depend on can hurt, attack, and humiliate you. Since the child is not strong enough to
openly defy the controlling parent, he may use procrastination as a safer passive way of
resistance, to gain some sense of control over demanding or intrusive parents.
Clinging. This theme is stressed by families who encourage dependency on the
expense of independence. On one hand, the parents may perform as a lifeline for their
children well into adulthood, assuming the child cannot survive without them leaving the
child feeling incapable. On the other hand parents may expect the child to take care of
them, or others, in the family, as demonstrated by a parentified child who functions as a
care taker, feeling too needed to leave, or if leaving, is tormented by guilt.
These pressures to cling may cause one to continue on clinging by procrastinating
anything that will promote separation and independence, lacking confidence or
experience to try something new. Conversely, one may struggle for autonomy, and
develop a fear of attachment due to experiencing closeness as smothering, and isolating,
and hence to procrastinate anything that requires commitment.
Distancing. This theme is displayed by families who avoid emotional closeness.
The parents may ignore the children, or seem to be disinterested with them. Some
families may present as close, but actually maintain a comfortable yet impersonal
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household, in which family members do not share any intimacy and are emotionally
distanced. Consequently, the child may feel responsible for the distance and may view
himself as an intrusion or a burden, believing his needs are intolerable or unwanted. The
child learns to deal alone with problems and frustrations, and may procrastinate when
being challenged, instead of seeking help. Conversely, the child may try to fight the
distance by making himself extremely appealing in any aspect the family values, in order
to force attention and cause procrastination, in which the threat is doubled; one may fail
to meet the pursued high standard, or reach the perfect performance yet still face
emotional distancing.
The understanding of these dynamics, along with other techniques Burka and
Yuen (1983) are presenting, is crucial to break the cycle of procrastination, and help
develop one’s self esteem. The common lack of support in all these dynamics, denies the
child from developing a broad and balanced self-image, and is a fertile ground to develop
anxieties and fears.
According to Burka and Yuen (1983), these dynamics may foster the unrealistic
belief one can be loved, or feel good about himself, only when narrow and specific
conditions are consistently being met, i.e., that he is perfect, or does not stand out, is not a
push over, is attached to others, or separated from everyone. Obviously, one cannot meet
these conditions constantly. Thus to sustain this unrealistic belief, one procrastinates,
believing that once the desired condition will be met, self-confidence and love will be
gained(Burka & Yuen, 1983). As psychodynamic therapy treats the individual as a whole
rather than focusing on a narrow aspect of behavior, self-acceptance can be promoted
along with flexibility, resilience, and optimism one can successfully face the challenges
58
of the world. By that, the therapist works on reducing internal conflicts in order to allow
better resources and ability to face external challenges (L. Yuen, PhD, personal
communication, April 13, 2011).
Summary
Procrastination is a complex phenomenon, in which one delays beginning or
completing a task, in spite of declared intentions to do so. General procrastination is
prevalent in twenty percent of adult population, while academic procrastination is
prevalent in eighty percent of students’ population. The development of dilatory behavior
may explained by preference of short-term, pleasurable goals over long term ones, or by
discrepancy between actual self and ought self.
Clinical experience shows that procrastinators can be divided to different types,
each motivated by specific needs, and characterized with a certain personality type. These
types may present with unique thinking, speaking, and acting styles.
Some characteristics of procrastination are deficits in self-esteem and self-
efficacy, fears related to achievements, control, or attachment, and difficulty to self-
regulate. Additionally, procrastination was found to be related to certain personality
traits, as well as to specific time perceptions and subjective task perception.
Some of the treatments currently offered for procrastination are from various
approaches. Behavioral intervention is focused on changing the dilatory behavior by
controlling environmental stimuli acting as antecedents as well as consequences, while
59
cognitive-behavioral therapy focuses on the process-like nature of procrastination, and
formulates it in task behavior terms, to promote insight and better sense of self control. A
narrative oriented intervention focuses on rewriting the problem narrative to decrease
identification with negative attributions related to being a procrastinator, while
psychodynamic intervention will conceptualize procrastination by identifying themes and
family dynamics related to achievement and attachment and their effect on the
procrastinator’s world view, and deriving fears and motivations.
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CHAPTER III
Methodology
Design Concepts and Objectives
The main objective of this project was to introduce and distribute clinical
information pertaining to the clinical implications of academic procrastination to mental
health professionals who work with the student population. Thus, as a way to disseminate
the compiled information, the author developed a PowerPoint presentation for
professionals to increase their knowledge about academic procrastination, its types and
characteristics, theoretical perspectives and conceptualizations, and the various
interventions that have been explored for this problem from different psychological
approaches. This presentation was performed in an in-service interactive forum in which
the audience and the presenter had direct interaction.
The purpose of the presentation was to provide the audience with information
about definitions and explanations for different types of procrastination, positive and
negative effects of academic procrastinations, different behavioral manifestations of
procrastinators, the characteristics of procrastination, common fears and anxieties, and
61
unique temporal and task perceptions, as well as current interventions offered to help deal
with academic procrastination. It was the author’s hope that by providing key
information, the professional audience would gain a better clinical understanding of
academic procrastination and its different manifestations expanding their knowledge
about different possible interventions for student procrastinators.
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Procedures
The project development process began by gathering clinical and research
literature regarding academic procrastination from various sources including books,
psychology textbooks, scholarly journals, and other professional articles and publications.
Various reference databases were utilized such as PsychINFO and other education literature
sources to gather the needed information. The author also recruited five experts (i.e., field
consultants) in the field of mental health who have clinical or research-based knowledge
pertaining to general and academic procrastination. Interviews were conducted (see
Appendices A & B) in order to substantiate the information gathered from the literature
and to add to the research literature. These clinical experts were found through contacting
community mental health agencies and other professional networks. Appropriate referral
was obtained from the project committee members. The information collected from the
research literature and the field consultant interviews was organized into a presentation
consisting of PowerPoint slides and corresponding lecture notes. The presentation content
was reviewed by the project committee and formally approved insuring the overall
quality of the covered material.
Following approval and finalization of the prepared contents, the author selected a
mental health agency working with the student population as the site for the presentation.
On the day of the presentation, the audience was handed with a copy of the PowerPoint
slides containing areas for note-taking. At the end of the presentation, the audience was
given an evaluation form to provide feedback on the presenter and the presentation
contents (see Appendix C).
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Target Audience
The target audience for the presentation included mental health professionals
including psychology interns, case managers, family therapists, and psychologists. The
presentation was aimed at mental health professionals who are currently working with the
student population or are interested in expanding their knowledge about academic
procrastination and the available interventions for students experiencing these difficulties
and issues. In the future, the contents may be appropriate to present to the student
population and/or the community at large to help people understand more about these
often invisible but frequently experienced difficulties.
Resources
The resources for the presentation came from mostly library research, which
included books, scholarly journals, professional articles, and other publications.
Additionally, the information based on interviews with expert mental health professionals
was integrated into the presentation. The doctoral project committee (i.e., project
supervisor and academic consultant) actively participated in the creation, development,
and review of the final presentation. A suitable mental health agency that might benefit
from expanding knowledge about clinical implications of academic procrastination was
selected for the location of the presentation. There were 17 audience members who met
in the agency’s conference room with adequate seating along with a laptop computer,
PowerPoint projector, and large screen used for the PowerPoint presentation. Handout
and evaluation forms were created and provided for the audience.
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Evaluation
The evaluation of the presentation was provided via responses to a questionnaire
the author developed (see Appendix C). The questionnaire’s instructions asked the
audience to assess the strengths and weaknesses of the presentation and to provide any
further feedback. This data will be used to help this author improve the contents and
presentation as well as determining whether the presentation met its stated objectives.
Moreover, the audience’s feedback was qualitatively reviewed, examined, and discussed
in Chapter IV (Results) of the doctoral thesis report.
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CHAPTER IV
Results
Description of the Product
The final product was in the form of a PowerPoint presentation with
corresponding lecture notes. The author created a total of 40 color slides. Each slide was
organized in clauses or in short bullet-points containing short amounts of information for
the topics discussed. The author elaborated the bullet-points for the topics covered
referring to the lecture notes that have been created and compiled. The covered topics
included: (a) objectives and goals of the presentation; (b) definitions of procrastination;
(c) procrastination types; (d) academic procrastination; (e) positive and negative effects
of chronic procrastination; (f) conceptualization of procrastination; (g) behavioral
manifestations of procrastination (the six styles of procrastinators); (h) characteristics of
procrastination (The Big Five Model, self-regulation, fears, time and task perception); (i)
interventions for academic procrastination; and (j) conclusion. The product was presented
to a group of practitioners during a professional training meeting at a mental health
agency. A copy of the presentation slides that the audience could follow and refer to
during the presentation, along with a reference and suggested reading list, was provided
as handouts to each audience member. The evaluation form was also distributed at the
end of the talk for the audience to fill out for the presenter. The presentation lasted
exactly one hour, followed by extra time for questions, discussion, and evaluator
feedback at the end.
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Field Consultant Interviews
A total of five field experts were consulted and interviewed as part of the
development of this dissertation project. These consultants were clinical psychologists
working in the field of mental health. All were professionals who have treated or are
currently treating procrastinators or have dealt with procrastinators within the academic
realm as instructors or thesis committees.
Lenora Yuen, PhD, is the co-author of Procrastination: Why You Do It, What to
Do About it NOW. She co-created the first procrastination treatment group in the U.S. at
the University of California at Berkeley. Dr. Yuen has been featured many times in the
public media, and has co-conducted workshops and seminars for students, corporations,
and public groups nationwide. Linda Sapadin, PhD, is the author of “It’s About Time!
The six styles of procrastination and how to overcome them.” She specializes in helping
individuals and families overcome their self-defeating patterns of behavior. Dr. Sapadin
as well has been featured many times in the public media, and leads workshops at
business and educational conferences. Marshall Bloom, PhD, is a faculty counselor in
University Counseling Services at the California State University in Northridge. For
many years, Dr. Bloom has lead procrastination workshops for students, as well as
providing individual therapy. Tanya Brown, PhD, is a Staff Psychologist and Residential
Life Specialist in the Counseling and Psychological Services at the University of
California at Los Angeles. Dr. Brown leads procrastination workshops for students, as
well as provides individual therapy. William Chien, PsyD, is a former core faculty
member of the California School of Professional Psychology at Alliant International
University, Los Angeles. During his tenure at CSPP-LA, Dr. Chien, aside from teaching
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numerous classes and supervising students’ doctoral theses, was a chair and a member of
the Student Evaluation and Review Committee dealing with students who present with
difficulties in their academic performance. He has also worked as a counseling staff at a
university counseling center where the issue of academic procrastination was a frequent
issue brought up by young adult college students.
The Field Consultants were all given an interview consent form and were asked a
series of nine interview questions (see Appendices A & B). They were asked specific
questions regarding the therapy seeking process of procrastinators, the efficiency of
current interventions for procrastination, procrastination prognosis and relapse, and
clinical recommendations as seen in practice. For the most part, the Field Consultants’
responses were consistent with the literature review and research findings, as well as with
each other.
With respect to the first question, Field Consultants counted both internal and
external reasons for procrastinators to seek therapy. Most of them agreed that therapy will
be pursued at times of jeopardy, when negative consequences such as incomplete grades,
poor performance in classes, or failings mount. Dr. Yuen and Dr. Bloom pointed out that
as long as procrastinators get away with their procrastination they are less likely to seek
treatment (L. Yuen, PhD, personal communication, April 13, 2011; M. Bloom, PhD,
personal communication, April 6, 2011). Other external reasons may involve a referral by
a friend, a faculty, or a family member. Among the internal reasons, most of the Field
Consultants agreed that feelings of self-disappointment, elevated stress, depression,
anxiety, and being repeatedly overwhelmed are significant motivators to seek treatment.
Dr. Yuen and Dr. Brown also agreed that these feelings cause individuals to view their
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procrastination as something to be taken seriously that they could no longer avoid or deny
(L. Yuen, PhD, personal communication, April 13, 2011; T. Brown, PhD, personal
communication, April 1, 2011).
However, for the second question, the Field Consultants had different views
regarding which personality type or demographic group among the procrastinators
population might be more likely to seek treatment. While some of them believed the
common barriers for therapy, i.e., such as awareness or readiness for change, will most
likely determine whether a procrastinator will seek treatment, others identified more
specific traits. For example, Dr. Sapadin stated that out of the “six types” of
procrastinators, the Perfectionist, the Worrier, and the Pleaser are more prone to seek
treatment as they are more oriented towards achievement and good performance (L.
Sapadin, PhD, personal communication, April 4, 2011). Dr. Yuen specified that higher
rates of males tend to seek treatment for procrastination, in comparison to other common
psychological issues, probably due to the fact that procrastination is an action related to
goals and consequences, hence more easily identified, and dealt with, by men (vs.
internal feelings and processes) (L. Yuen, PhD, personal communication, April 13,
2011).
Regarding assessing for procrastinators’ awareness of their problem prior to
getting therapy (question #3), most Field Consultants stated procrastinators are highly
aware of their problem, as they usually have dealt with it most of their lives. Both Dr.
Yuen and Dr. Sapadin explained that procrastinators are well aware of their problem, yet
they tend to not take it seriously, hence fail to fully grasp its impact on their lives (L.
Yuen, PhD, personal communication, April 13, 2011; L. Sapadin, PhD, personal
69
communication, April 4, 2011). Dr. Sapadin and Dr. Brown also pointed out the avoidant
nature of the problem may cause the awareness to be vague, as procrastinators tend to
avoid feelings and behaviors that are anxiety provoking, thus they know that there is a
problem without being able to clearly define it (L. Sapadin, PhD, personal
communication, April 4, 2011; T. Brown, PhD, personal communication, April 1, 2011).
Accordingly, Dr. Brown added that at times, procrastinators may initially seek treatment
due to substance abuse and other avoidant behaviors before realizing that procrastination
is an issue.
As for the inquiry (question #4) regarding preferred treatment approaches for
procrastination, all Field Consultants reported using behavioral or cognitive-behavioral
interventions due to their effective results. Some Field Consultants reported blending in
dynamic interventions as well, ranging from limiting its usage to explore emotional
avoidance or developmental history to a two-prong model, or a combined approach with
a psychodynamic component along with a behavioral component. Here, Dr. Yuen
explained that behavioral interventions can be useful, yet they may be insufficient as
without psychodynamic understanding of the problem, one may “hit a wall of emotional
discomfort” (L. Yuen, PhD, personal communication, April 13, 2011).
With respect to question #5 as to the benefits of psychodynamic approaches for
treating procrastination, the Field Consultants held different viewpoints. Dr. Chien
responded that insight about unconscious content may promote change in behavior (W.
Chien, PsyD, personal communication, April 4, 2011), whereas Dr. Yuen stated that
psychodynamic approach can treat the person as a whole rather than just target specific
behaviors (L. Yuen, PhD, personal communication, April 13, 2011). Dr. Brown reported
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that psychodynamic approach is a good strategy for promoting emotional experiencing
(vs. emotional avoidance), yet she pointed out that psychodynamic processing may serve
as an avoidance strategy by itself, as the procrastinator will use it to avoid actual change
(T. Brown, PhD, personal communication, April 1, 2011). Accordingly, Dr. Sapadin
stated that psychodynamic intervention does not necessarily promote change, as one can
technically understand the nature of the problem and yet never change a thing.
In terms of the similarities and differences between ADD and academic
procrastination (question #6), some Field Consultants did not see any correlation between
the two issues while others did. Dr. Brown stated that there is a definite correlation
between ADD and academic procrastination, as procrastination may serve to avoid
dealing with the relative impairments of ADD in comparison to typical students (T.
Brown, PhD, personal communication, April 1, 2011). Dr. Sapadin believed that out of
the six types of procrastinators, the crisis-maker is most likely to manifest ADD
symptoms, thus using the adrenaline rash created by performing close to the deadline
under time pressure to gain motivation (L. Sapadin, PhD, personal communication, April
4, 2011). Similarly, Dr. Yuen viewed ADD and other executive functioning deficits as
correlated with academic procrastination, in which procrastination serves as a natural
medicating system via pressure build up (L. Yuen, PhD, personal communication, April
13, 2011). Both Dr. Sapadin and Dr. Yuen discussed the distractibility aspect of ADD,
and academic procrastination to be on the rise due to the current digital age, in which
distractions are inexpensive or free, highly accessible, and instant (L. Sapadin, PhD,
personal communication, April 4, 2011; L. Yuen, PhD, personal communication, April
13, 2011). However, Dr. Sapadin pointed out that ADD may serve as an avoidant strategy
71
for procrastinators, who may use it as an excuse for not performing tasks in a timely
manner (L. Sapadin, PhD, personal communication, April 4, 2011). More must be learned
about ADD and what needs to be done in order to live and perform with it according to
Dr. Sapadin.
As for prognosis for procrastination and relapse prevention (question #7), most
Field Consultants agreed that procrastination is a symptom and a human trait for which
the prognosis depends highly on motivation, severity of the problem, and other
personality factors. Dr. Brown believed that prognosis is fairly good, and noted some
clients return to treatment, usually to work on the next stage of their progress (T. Brown,
PhD, personal communication, April 1, 2011). Dr. Sapadin and Dr. Bloom compared the
prognosis to a weight loss process or twelve step programs (Sapadin, PhD, personal
communication, April 4, 2011). Accordingly, Dr. Bloom explained that there is no short
term or one-time cure for procrastination, but rather, it is a “re-educative life-long
process” highly dependent on one’s motivation (M. Bloom, PhD, personal
communication, April 6, 2011). Most Field Consultants pointed out that prognosis rates
are impacted by the pervasiveness of the phenomenon. Dr. Bloom explained that some
people manage to overcome their procrastination, and this becomes a second nature to
them, while other procrastinators are more likely to retreat to old dysfunctional patterns
of behavior (M. Bloom, PhD, personal communication, April 6, 2011). Similarly, Dr.
Yuen viewed the prognosis to be related to how psychologically-intact the person is (L.
Yuan, PhD, personal communication, April 13, 2011). Accordingly, co-occurring
challenges, such as a sense of inadequacy or vulnerable self-esteem can predict a more
guarded prognosis for these people. Additionally, Dr. Yuen explained pervasive
72
procrastination being used as a way of life by people throughout their lives, and that this
is less likely to change (L. Yuen, PhD, personal communication, April 13, 2011). Hence,
there should be a great importance placed on early interventions among children and
adolescents to figure out the issues around their procrastination, and thus expand their
repertoire of behaviors to allow dealing with these challenges.
When inquired about the issue of relapse in question #8, Dr. Yuen responded that
high level of self-acceptance is the most efficient prevention for relapse (L. Yuen, PhD,
personal communication, April 13, 2011). Dr. Sapadin also explained that relapses are
inevitable and thus they need to be treated as a detour from which one returns to the
tracks (L. Sapadin, PhD, personal communication, April 4, 2011).
Finally, in terms of there being any other issues or information that mental health
professionals should be aware of in doing clinical work with academic procrastination,
Dr. Brown discussed counter transference issues that may arise for clinicians treating
procrastinators such as, feelings of frustration due to the inconsistent behavior
characterizing procrastinators, as well as the prolonged process which mainly takes place
even before the procrastinator takes their first step towards change (T. Brown, PhD,
personal communication, April 1, 2011). Here, Dr. Brown recommended that using the
Stages of Change Model (Prochaska, DiClemente, & Norcross, 1992) can help clinicians
to deal with arising frustration, as it allows identifying the client’s stage in the process of
change. Dr. Chien noted it may be of an interest to explore cultural considerations of
academic procrastination. Dr. Bloom pointed out that clinicians may often over simplify
procrastination with no awareness to the degree of complexity that exists in
characterizing this phenomenon, as well as its vast prominence among college population
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(M. Bloom, PhD, personal communication, April 6, 2011). Dr. Yuen explained that today
there are great external pressures as students’ life, as well as the job market, are
significantly more stressful and competitive, thereby procrastination becoming a
students’ cry for help (L. Yuen, PhD, personal communication, April 13, 2011). An
ultimate goal for clinicians should be to help decrease the internal pressures and develop
and promote within the procrastinator a sense of resilience, agency, and optimism they
can handle these stressors, make good life for themselves, and acknowledge for
themselves that they do not have to be perfect to be a person of value. Dr. Sapadin also
explained that oftentimes, young procrastinators mistakenly believe that once they stop
procrastinating, they will become boring, “no fun,” always-working people, while in fact,
people who stop procrastinating often report experiencing a sense of liberation that they
do not have to be perfect, or wait to the last minute, or say yes to everyone, or work
outside of a team (L. Sapadin, PhD, personal communication, April 4, 2011).
Additionally, Dr. Sapadin stated: “You can’t go back and make a new start and recreate a
whole new person from scratch, but anyone can start from now and make a brand new
ending” (L. Sapadin, PhD, personal communication, April 4, 2011).
To summarize, Field Consultants counted both internal and external reasons for
procrastinators to seek therapy, as these reasons cause individuals to view their
procrastination more seriously. Accordingly, Dr. Sapadin stated orientation towards
achievement and good performance will promote seeking treatment, and Dr. Yuen
pointed out higher rates of males tend to seek treatment, as procrastination relates to
action. Most Field Consultants stated procrastinators are highly aware of their problem,
and Dr. Brown added substance abuse and other avoidant behaviors may initially bring
74
procrastinators for treatment. All Field Consultants reported using behavioral or
cognitive-behavioral interventions due to their effective results, and some reported using
dynamic interventions in various degrees. Dr. Yuen explained psychodynamic approach
can treat the person as a whole rather than just target specific behaviors, yet Dr. Brown
pointed out that psychodynamic processing may serve as an avoidance strategy by itself.
Regarding ADD, some Field Consultants reported it has a correlation to academic
procrastination, as it may serve to avoid dealing with the relative impairments of ADD in
comparison to typical students, or used as a natural medicating system. Both Dr. Sapadin
and Dr. Yuen stated academic procrastination is on the rise due to the current digital age,
in which distractions are inexpensive or free, highly accessible, and instant. As for
prognosis, most Field Consultants agreed it depends highly on motivation, severity of the
problem, and other personality factors. Dr. Sapadin and Dr. Bloom compared the
prognosis to a weight loss process or twelve step programs. Similarly, Dr. Yuen
explained pervasive procrastination throughout one’s life is less likely to change, hence,
early interventions is important. On the same note, most Field Consultants believed
relapse is inevitable, and Dr. Yuen stated self-acceptance promotion may be an efficient
prevention for it. Finally, Dr. Brown discussed counter transference feelings of frustration
that may arise for clinicians treating procrastinators and recommended using the Stages
of Change Model to deal with it. Dr. Bloom pointed out that clinicians may often over
simplify procrastination with no awareness to the degree of complexity. Dr. Chien
pointed out the need to explore cultural considerations of academic procrastination. Dr.
Yuen explained that today there are further great external pressures on students; hence, it
75
is important to decrease the internal pressures. And Dr. Sapadin noted people who stop
procrastinating often report experiencing a sense of liberation.
Evaluation and Feedback Results
The presentation audience was given an evaluation form (see Appendix C) which
they completed at the end of the in-service training given by the author. According to the
evaluation feedback, the majority agreed that the presenter fulfilled her objective of
increasing their knowledge and understanding of the academic procrastination
phenomenon (M = 4.44, SD = 0.63). The audience also strongly agreed the presenter
discussed the various etiologies and conceptualizations regarding procrastination (M =
4.87, SD = 0.25), identified the different manifestations of procrastination (M = 4.87, SD
= 0.25), and was knowledgeable about the presentation topic (M = 4.87, SD = 0.25).
Additionally, the majority of the participants overall agreed that the presentation was well
organized and easy to follow (M = 4.5 SD = 0.63), and the presenter was attentive and
responsive to questions from the audience (M = 4.5, SD = 0.52). Finally, most of the
audience strongly agreed overall that the presentation was educational and helpful in
increasing their knowledge about academic procrastination (M = 4.62, SD = 0.62), and
that they will recommend the presentation to other professionals (M = 4.56, SD = 0.63).
In their general comments, the audience stated that they found the presenter to be
knowledgeable and much interested in the topic, the presentation to be fascinating and
well-organized, and containing valuable information for clinicians. Many participants
also reported that they found the information regarding behavioral manifestations of
76
procrastination and the treatment for academic procrastination to be the most interesting
part of the presentation. Accordingly, the audience noted that they would like to have
more real-life examples or case vignettes illustrating these parts of the presentation, and
some audience members also wished to have cultural aspects of procrastination discussed
in the presentation. Almost all of the audience members commented that the presentation
contained a lot of information condensed in a short time period (i.e., one hour).
Accordingly, they suggested to the author that in the future the amount of time of the
presentation to be increased, or even to present it in a workshop format. Finally, some
audience members found the presentation to be suitable not only for clinicians but also
for college students and interns, which the author hopes to be able to do in the future.
Sample of the Product
Please refer to Appendices D & E for the sample of the booklet and its
accompanying lecture notes.
77
CHAPTER V
Discussion
Implications of the Project
This dissertation project which examines the clinical implications of academic
procrastination holds significant value for people who engage with dilatory behavior, as
well as for those mental health professionals who treat them. In spite of the growing
amount of research of procrastination in the last decade, many lay people, as well as
clinicians, are not fully informed of the true clinical nature of academic procrastination,
its high prevalence among student population, and the different ways it is manifested by
different individuals, and by the same person, in various circumstances. Additionally, few
people, including the procrastinators themselves, are aware of the degree of complexity
the procrastination phenomenon holds, and view it merely as lack of motivation, laziness,
or lack of time management skills. Consequently, many view procrastination lightly,
humorously, or even brag about it, failing to see the heavy and significant impact it may
have on one’s life, of its risks, and their hindering effect on a person’s life and potential.
As academic procrastination is on the rise, due to growing competitiveness and pressures
on current student population, combined with the digital/technology age distractions
which are prevalent, inexpensive, instant, and highly accessible, it is viable to identify
and understand the procrastination phenomenon in order to provide efficient interventions
and even preventative measures for children or adolescents who engage in
procrastination. Furthermore, it is of value to know of the different interventions that are
78
currently offered to treat procrastination, their different contributions to decrease this
phenomenon, as well as their limitations, as procrastination cannot be instantly cured and
it often involves a slow process of re-education along with multiple relapses.
This project thesis along with its accompanying PowerPoint presentation was
therefore formed to aid mental health professionals in attaining deeper and broader
knowledge of the academic procrastination phenomenon and its clinical implications. The
information was presented at an in-service training meeting, which provided a source to
disseminate clinical information on this issue on a larger scale. The provision of this
information for mental health professionals can better serve clients who manifest
procrastination or dilatory behavior. Consequently, it is hoped this project will benefit
procrastinators themselves as well as the helping professionals.
Personal Account and Critique of the Project
This dissertation project was completed in my seventh year of the program,
following several subject/topic changes, until I found the courage to write about the issue
of procrastination. There were many professional and personal challenges I faced while
developing this project, along with the experience of genuine interest and sense of
revelation. As an academic procrastinator myself, and non-native English speaker, I
found academic writing to often be a source of great anxiety. During the stage of
compiling the Selective Literature Review, I discovered that procrastination is not only a
personal matter to me but also a fascinating and complex phenomenon to professionally
examine. It was exciting to get to the bottom of understanding this behavior, as well as to
realize that it is receiving more recognition, attention, and research today than ever
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before. The reading for this project then became a source of pleasure and interest, and I
found myself trying and implementing most of the strategies and techniques presented in
the literature for myself. At a certain point, as I became more and more passionate about
the issue of procrastination, most of my family and friends were also becoming aware of
the meaning of procrastination, the fact it is a serious matter, and how it is manifested in
their lives. However, at times, learning about the etiologies of this phenomenon, as well
as its consequences, was hard and anxiety provoking as it forced me to truly face issues
that are usually avoided. Specifically, the psychodynamic conceptualizations of
procrastination dealing with early childhood and family dynamics provided me an
opportunity to look back at my past and forming years, as well as to focus on the present
as a mother to young children. I truly cherish this chance that I got to attain a better
understanding of the views I learned as a child, and still learning as an adult, that will
allow me to pass on to my children in what hopefully will be a better version. The
process of interviewing the Field Consultants for this project was especially rewarding. I
found these clinicians who treat procrastinators to be compassionate, informative, aware,
and creative. I was fascinated by their knowledge and understanding of procrastination as
well as human nature, along with how to provide the best treatment for people how wish
to feel better and struggle to meet their potential.
In evaluating the work that I have invested in the project and ultimately produced,
I am satisfied with this final product. The completion of this project was a process of
learning and implementing strategies and techniques that in fact work – and are working
for me. Obviously, I would have wanted to expand this project and include more research
and clinical information about the different aspects of procrastination, such as its
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prevalence and characteristics among school-age children and adolescents, its correlation
with ADD and executive functioning deficits, generational factors, and preventative
treatment or early intervention for non-adult population. Overall, I am proud of my work,
and hope it will spark further interest among professionals for future research and in the
development of interventions and tools for clinicians to treat procrastination.
Limitations of the Project
The main limitations of the project pertained to the amount of information and
topic area that the author was able to cover within its contents along with the time
constraints that were involved in the development of this project. As mentioned above,
there were several areas in which information could have been gathered and added, such
as areas of school-age children and adolescent procrastination, the correlation between
ADD and executive functioning deficits and academic procrastination, etc. On the same
note, the presentation of this project within a time limit of 90 minutes was rushed and
condensed in content. As there is much information to cover, the presenter had to omit
many examples, case studies, illustrations, techniques, and strategies for intervention that
could put life in this subject and also promote a better grasp and understanding of
procrastination, and its behavioral manifestations specifically. Additionally, the time limit
did not allow adequate facilitation of discussion with the audience nor a sufficient
question-and-answer segment within the allotted presentation time. Mostly, due to the
abundance of information that exists pertaining to this topic, the audience needed more
time to consolidate the ideas and concepts. As one of the audience members suggested, a
workshop frame of time would have been more appropriate to the size of this study.
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Suggestions for Future Research
As much as there is a growing interest in the procrastination phenomenon, there is
a strong need to continue much research in this subject. In particular, the relation between
academic procrastination and its rising rates in the electronic age, a process which is
unique to our time, needs further attention and investigation. Along with that, further
research needs to be done on academic procrastination and ADD and other executive
functioning deficits, which can also be related to the digital age and the overwhelming
amount of information and decisions we all have to make with ever-growing frequency.
Another related issue is the rate of procrastination in children and adolescents as the
heaviest users of technology. Young people’s minds and behavior are shaped in highly
different conditions than the former generation. The impact of the digital age is
significantly higher on individuals that were born to it and are thus unfamiliar with a
different reality. For these people, who already manifest ADD-like symptoms, such as
frequent shifts in focus, need for constant stimulation, and rapid yet shallow thinking
patterns and decision-making skills, procrastination may have a stronger significant
impact on their lives. Consequently, further research will be needed to assess the scale of
the procrastination phenomenon on young generations along with the development of
preventative programs to fit this growing population. Additionally, academic
procrastination treatment will benefit from research that examines empirical and
evidence-based treatments that mostly were not discussed in this project. Existing, as well
as new programs need to be researched and developed via this population needs
assessments and further qualitative research, in the hope it will promote the wealth of
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treatment and outreach for academic procrastinators. Finally, as in any psychological
theme, cultural and ethnic considerations need to be further explored, and expand
knowledge on aspects of academic procrastination reasons, behavioral manifestation, and
efficient intervention.
Conclusion
The phenomenon and issue of procrastination has existed and has been dealt with
throughout the human history and across various cultures as evident by many proverbs
and writings going back as early as 500 BC. Often, procrastination was considered a sin
or an archetypal human failing. Procrastination is a complex phenomenon in which one
delays beginning or completing a task, in spite of declared intentions to do so. General
procrastination has been found to be prevalent in twenty percent of adult population,
while academic procrastination is reportedly prevalent in eighty percent of students’
population. The development of dilatory behavior may be explained by preference of
short-term, pleasurable goals over long term ones, or by discrepancy between the “actual
self” and “ought self.”
Clinical literature shows that procrastinators can be divided to different types –
i.e., the perfectionist, the dreamer, the worrier, the defier, the crisis-maker, and the
pleaser. Each type is motivated by specific needs, and is characterized with a certain
personality type. These types may present with unique thinking, speaking, and acting
styles. A person will often display several types of procrastination that will be expressed
in different situations and circumstances.
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Mainly, procrastination is a process of avoidance in which one engages in
different activities or thoughts to avoid experiencing emotions or tasks that are anxiety
provoking due to different reasons. Some characteristics of procrastination are deficits in
self-esteem and self-efficacy, fears related to achievements, control issues, attachment
problems, and difficulties in self-regulation. Self-regulatory failures which can consist of
factors such as intention-action gap, poor self-discipline, and distractibility were found to
be strongly statistically related to procrastination. In addition, procrastination has been
conceptualized by theorists to possibly be correlated to ADD and other executive
functioning deficits. Empirically, procrastination has been found to be positively related
to certain personality traits such as neuroticism and impulsivity, and negatively correlated
to conscientiousness. Furthermore, academic procrastination is correlated to specific time
perceptions, mainly, eveningness and past-oriented time perception, and to subjective
task perception.
Some of the treatments which are currently offered for procrastination are from
various approaches. Behavioral intervention is focused on changing the dilatory behavior
by controlling environmental stimuli that are acting as antecedents as well as
consequences, while cognitive-behavioral therapy focuses on the process-like nature of
procrastination, and formulates it in task behavior terms to promote insight and better
sense of self control. Cognitive-behavioral approach usually consist of a motivation
component to allow a slow process of change, along with applied behavioral analysis to
evaluate behavior, followed by provision of specific techniques such as study planning,
consequence management, goal formulation, and cognitive restructure. A narrative-
oriented intervention focuses on rewriting the problem narrative to decrease identification
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with negative attributions related to being a procrastinator, while psychodynamic
intervention will conceptualize procrastination by identifying themes and family
dynamics related to achievement and attachment and their effect on the procrastinator’s
world view, and their deriving fears and motivations. Some clinicians believe efficient
and effective therapy will consist of a dynamic as well as a behavioral component while
others sustain their belief that behavioral approach is the most effective as dynamic
process is insufficient and may even serve as an avoidant strategy.
As discussed in this project, while discussing academic procrastination, it is
important to understand its complex nature and several different etiologies. Often times,
procrastination is viewed by the procrastinator, the people around him/her, and even by
clinicians merely as laziness or lack of time management skills. This may cause many to
view procrastination lightly, with a humorous attitude, or even brag about it, while failing
to observe its chronic and distractive nature and thus hindering impact on one’s life and
potential consummation. Additionally, in this digital/technology-oriented era and
electronic age, procrastination problems seem to be on the rise. With ever growing
inexpensive or free, instant, highly accessible, and much gratifying distractions within a
finger’s reach, it is hard to stay on track without surrendering to the short-term pleasures
that the world offers. The recovery or decrease of procrastination involves a slow process
of re-education, learning of new strategies and the ability to face challenges and
experience, and tolerate anxiety-provoking emotions and situations. The condition also
often involves battles with relapse, similar to many behavioral disorders. The level of
ability to overcome procrastination can also be highly dependent on the existence of co-
morbid mental difficulties such as depression, anxiety, or ADD, along with the
85
individual’s motivation to change, self-acceptance level, and belief in one’s ability to face
challenges successfully. Treatment will therefore involve the clinician’s ability to
sensitively and effectively assess for these issues, effectively conceptualize the
individual’s underlying reasons for the dilatory behavior, and to develop the plan that will
best fit the needs of that individual so as to overcome this chronic and complex life-
affecting issue.
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APPENDIX A
Interview Consent Form for Field Consultants
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Interview Consent Form for Field Consultants
I have been informed that this doctoral project interview will be conducted by Shirley Eylor Asif, M.A., a
graduate student at the California School of Professional Psychology at Alliant International University,
Los Angeles. I understand that this project is designed to study the clinical implications of academic
procrastination, and that I have been contacted by the above student to offer input as a Field Consultant
because I have some expertise and/or clinical/professional knowledge about the stated project topic. The
purpose of the interview is to not only fill the informational “gaps” that exist in the professional literature
about this topic, but to also examine if what is discussed in the research literature is actually being
practiced/observed in the community by field professionals.
I am aware that my participation as one of the Field Consultants will involve answering some interview
questions (face-to-face, if possible) designed to understand academic procrastination. I am aware that the
interview will be audiotaped -- or conducted via phone or email correspondence, if preferred. The amount
of response to these interview questions can be as lengthy or brief as I see appropriate for myself, and I can
choose to respond only to those questions that I feel qualified to answer, if needed. The interview process
may take approximately 45 minutes of my time to complete, and the interview will be audiotaped (if face-
to-face or via phone contact) to ensure its quality and accuracy.
I have been informed that my participation in this study is voluntary and I can withdraw at any time. I
understand that this is a professional interview/contact where I will be asked to share my
clinical/professional expertise on the stated project topic. Some of the interview contents may be used
within the project report as personal communication citations, and my contribution to this study will be
appropriately cited within this project.
I am aware that although I may not directly benefit from this study, my participation in this project will
further increase knowledge and awareness in the field of psychology -- specifically, pertaining to the
clinical implications of academic procrastination.
I understand that I may contact Shirley Eylor Asif at [email protected] OR his/her project supervisor,
Rumiko Okada, PhD at 1000 S. Fremont Ave. Unit #5, Alhambra, CA, 91803 or (626) 270-3361 if I have
any questions regarding this project or my participation in this interview as a Field Consultant. I
understand that at the end of this study, I may request a summary of the results or additional information
about the study from the above student.
I have read this form and understand what it says. I voluntarily agree to participate in this professional
interview as a part of the student’s doctoral project. I understand that I will be signing two copies of this
form. I will keep one copy and the student, Shirley Eylor Asif, will keep the second copy for his/her
records. If I have received this Consent Form and the Interview Questions via email, by returning my
answers via reply, I am agreeing to the above-stated conditions.
_______________________________________ __________________
Participant’s Signature Date
_______________________________________ __________________
Student’s Signature Date
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APPENDIX B
Field Consultant Interview Questions
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Field Consultant Interview Questions
1. From your clinical experience, what usually brings people to seek treatment for
academic procrastination?
2. Is there a certain personality type or a demographic/personal profile that might
make a procrastinator be more inclined to seek treatment? [Please explain.]
3. Prior to getting therapy, how aware do you think most procrastinators are
regarding their problem? [Please explain and describe.]
4. From your clinical experience, what kinds of treatments are available for
academic procrastination? What treatment approach(es) do you think can be most
helpful and why?
5. How can psychodynamic therapy be helpful in treating academic procrastination?
[Please explain.]
6. From your clinical experience, do you think there is a correlation between ADD
and academic procrastination? Why or why not?
7. What is the usual prognosis for procrastination?
8. What is helpful in preventing relapse for recovering procrastinators?
9. Is there anything else that you would like to mention pertaining to academic
procrastination and/or what clinicians should know about in working with this
issue/population?
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100
APPENDIX C
Presentation Evaluation Form
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Presentation Evaluation and Feedback Form
*Please rate the following statements according to the scale below:
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
5 4 3 2 1
1. The presenter fulfilled the objective of increasing my knowledge and understanding of
the academic procrastination phenomenon. ______
2. The presenter fulfilled the objective of discussing the various etiologies and
conceptualizations regarding procrastination. ______
3. The presenter fulfilled the objective of identifying the different manifestations of
procrastination – i.e., that most procrastinators display multiple types of behaviors in
different circumstances. ______
4. The presenter seemed knowledgeable about the presentation topic. ______
5. The presentation was well organized and easy to follow. ______
6. The presenter was attentive and responsive to questions from the audience. ______
7. Overall, the presentation was educational and helpful in increasing my knowledge
about academic procrastination. ______
8. I would recommend this presentation to other professionals. ______
Comments:
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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* Please answer the following questions:
1. What information might you add to and/or delete from this presentation?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. What did you like MOST about the presentation? [Please explain your reason(s).]
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. What did you like LEAST about the presentation? [Please explain your reason(s).]
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
4. Are there any other comments, suggestions, or feedback for the presenter?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
103
*Thank you very much for your time and patience in completing this evaluation form.
Please return the completed form to the presenter before you leave.
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APPENDIX D
Presentation Lecture Notes
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Presentation Lecture Notes
Clinical Implications of Academic Procrastination
By: Shirley Eylor Asif, M.A.
April 20, 2011
1. Objectives
Effectively disseminate the information regarding this complex behavior to
individuals dealing with procrastination issues will be better served by the
mental health profession and the academic personnel as well.
Contribute to clinicians’ knowledge of the different interventions that have
been researched and explored to treat procrastination in order to be able to
pick and choose for each client the most suitable intervention for their case, as
well as expend the clinicians’ tool box and interventions’ repertoire.
2. Goals
Frequent tardiness or cancellations of therapy sessions, it is important to grasp
that this resistance can be a manifestation of the targeted dilatory behavior.
(Burka & Yuen experience with Monday morning workshops)
As some people engaged with dilatory behavior are not aware of the etiology
of their problem --nor to its vast consequences on their lives. I hope to be able
to contribute some significant knowledge and information to the field of
mental health so that an increase in professional interest in this topic can also
lead to better outreach and intervention to this often invisible – but often
chronically struggling population.
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3. Procrastination
Very prevalent. Almost all of us engage in procrastination at a certain point in
our lives.
According to Steel’s (2007) meta-analysis the first historical analysis of
procrastination was written in 1992 by Milgram. During the 90’s researches
thought procrastination is a modern malady (circa 1750 –the industrial
revolution), due to ever growing commitments and deadlines in advanced
societies vs. agrarian ones. Yet, procrastination existed and was dealt with
throughout the human history, as evident by many proverbs and writings
going back to Roman and Greek philosophers and poets, as well as Hindu and
other Eastern literature as early as 500 BC. Often procrastination was
considered as a sin or an archetypal human failing.
4. Procrastination Definitions
There are many definitions for procrastination, often not contradictory but
rather complimentary, adding dimensions to this complex phenomenon,
according to the researchers’ approach.
Examples of definitions. Note it effects decisions as well as tasks. (such as,
getting married, leaving a job, going back to school, getting in shape, etc.)
5. Procrastination Types
Trait/chronic - People who procrastinate as a way of life.
State – people who procrastinate in specific circumstances only.
6. Academic Procrastination
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While 70-95% of college students engage in procrastination (Ellis and Knaus,
1977).
Academic procrastination is very prevalent as students are constantly being
measured; challenged by deadlines, and being evaluated by getting direct
feedback on their work almost on a frequent regular basis.
7. Positive and Negative Effects of Chronic Procrastination
Positive:
Or more time to gather info. And plan the task. These procrastinators, unlike
“Passive procrastinators” or more similar to non-procrastinators in their
organization skills and time management, as well as achievements. Yet, it is
unclear if this pattern promotes their well-being and stress levels.
Negative:
Higher stress levels, dissatisfaction from life and functioning – the main
reason for seeking therapy. Lay’s quote – unsuccessful or losers?
Demonstrating self-handicapping behaviors. (according to Brown and
Bloom’s interviews)
As well as loosing contact with peers, as the later progress in life stages.
Higher rates of divorce, losing jobs, late fees, etc.
Depression – lethargy and low energy levels, low self-confidence and low
self-efficacy. Anxiety will be elaborately discussed later.
The “classic” procrastinator has usually low GPA (around 2), and sometimes
is mandated to participate in therapy groups. Yet, many procrastinators
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demonstrate high or even excellent level of achievements (according to
Bloom’s interview), which can be harder to treat as procrastination is still
“working” for them.
Great impact on health. From procrastinating seeking treatment for problems
to low level of wellness habits (healthy eating, work out). Constant high level
of stress. Less “conscientious” engage in all major behaviors that lead to
premature mortality – including reckless driving and sexual activity, violence,
and suicide (Bogg & Roberts, 2004)
8. Negative Effects – Example
Students sleep less, eat poorly, abuse alcohol, food, tobacco, or recreational
drugs (according to Brown’s interview) as part of emotional avoidance.
9. Conceptualizations of Procrastination – Cont’
Planned behavior happens in two phases; the motivational phase in which an
action is selected to bring a certain consequence, and the volitional phase, in
which the selected action is in fact performed. Behavioral intentions predict of
behavioral enactment. Yet, procrastination may indicate the difficulty to
translate intentions, even strong ones, into action. In order to enhance
translation of intentions to actions Gollwitzer (1999) developed
implementation intentions; augmentation of goal intentions by addition of
specifications to the performance of the task (such as, when and where).
Procrastination was minimized when implementation intentions were used
since the environmental cues contained in those intentions (i.e., when and
109
where) controlled the behavior and promoted its enactment. In experiments,
participants were asked to report to an experiment, the group with
implementation intention – a specified commitment, were 8 times more likely
to keep their appt.)
Accordingly, some of these themes were: viewing their procrastination as an
uncontrollable, automatic process, a personal characteristic as opposed to
being merely a rewarding trap, or a bad habit, perfectionist expectations for
their performance, along with a general expectation the task should be easy,
rarely being in the mood to start the task, negative comparisons with others,
and shame and mistrust of self.
10. The Six Styles of Procrastinators
The Perfectionist – a critical personality type and holds high standards of self.
Accordingly, the perfectionist believes that others have high expectations of
him/her as well, regardless if this belief is grounded in reality or not. The
perfectionist thinking style tends to be extreme such as “all-or-nothing,” and
is reflected when using phrases such as “I should” or “I have to.” The
perfectionist acting style aims to be flawless, wishing to perform not less than a
perfect job. This results in reluctance to initiate or end a task due to the fear of
failing one’s own as well as others’ perceived expectations. Or by over-working
on a task, investing far more energy and time than necessary in order to meet the
perfect performance, though failing to finish in a timely manner or in completing
the task altogether. The internal conflict of this style is between task
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completion and the wish to achieve a perfect performance, as an expression
of a psychological need for control.
The Dreamer– a fanciful personality type causing difficulty to be practical, and
resulting in retreat to fantasies. The dreamer is skilled in developing, and at times
promoting, grandiose ideas, and yet seem to be unable to turn these ideas to
reality. The dreamer’s thinking style tends to be vague reflected by using
phrases, such as “I wish.” According to Sapadin (1997) the dreamer’s acting
style is passive stemming from the assumption that life should be pleasant and
easy. Accordingly, the dreamer manifests resistance when confronted with
challenges and difficulties, assuming unlike others, he/she can gain achievement
via avoiding the hard work. The internal conflict of this style is between task
performance and the wish to avoid hard work and dealing with practical
details, as an expression of the psychological need to be special.
The Worrier – a fearful personality type, resulting in risk avoiding. Unfamiliar
situations and new demands provoke anxiety towards change and the unknown,
and possibly promote negative consequences. The worrier’s thinking style is
indecisive and is reflected by using phrases such as “what if?”
According to Sapadin (1997), the worrier’s acting style is cautious as he/she
tends to cling to familiar territories and to stay within their “comfort zone.” This
is manifested by avoiding decision making, dragging projects that involve change,
or abandoning these projects all together. The worrier’s avoidance is displayed
regardless to the nature of the change and its future impact on one’s life, negative
111
or positive. The internal conflict of this style is between task performance and
the fear of change, as an expression for a psychological need for security.
The Defier - a resistant personality type, resulting in difficulty to obey rules.
The procrastination is a way for the defier to set a schedule, which cannot be
controlled or predicted by others. This may be a way to establish one’s
individuality against others’ expectations. The defier’s thinking style is
oppositional as reflected in phrases such as “why should I?”
According to Sapadin (1997), the defier’s acting style is rebellious, as his/her
objection to a subject is displayed by avoiding the responsibility to act on it in a
timely manner. The defier may flaunt their tendency to procrastinate, as a part of
their opposition to conform to acceptable expectation, or may do it in a subtle
manner, thus demonstrating a passive-aggressive behavior. The internal conflict
of this style is between task performances and the co-existing opposition to do
it, as an expression of a psychological need for non-conformity.
The Crisis-Maker - over-emotional personality type, as reflected in a need for
constant challenge, emergency action, and intense emotion. The crisis-maker
thinking style is agitated and tends to the extremes, as reflected in phrases
such as “unbelievable” acting style is dramatic, and manifested by being a risk-
taker, who seeks for adventures. In this case, procrastination allows a sense of
adventure by pushing the crisis-maker to perform tasks at the last minute in a
dramatic and intense manner, in order to meet the deadline. The internal conflict
of this style is between task completion and being motivated by urgency and
drama, as an expression of a psychological need for attention.
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The Pleaser –a busy personality type, due to a difficulty in establishing
priorities, managing time, and making decisions. This causes the pleaser to be
inefficient and to face too many tasks simultaneously. The pleaser’s thinking
style is compelled as reflected by the phrase “I can’t say no” acting style is
“do-it-all” and results in some tasks being well-performed while other projects
are performed poorly, late, or never completed. The internal conflict of this style
is between task performance and being overwhelmed with duties overload, as
an expression of a psychological need for self-reliance.
11. The Big Five Personality Model-Cont’
In this meta-analysis Van Eerde grouped effect sizes from forty one empirical studies
The largest average effect size found in this meta-analysis (r= -.65).
(r= .26).
Impulsiveness had the largest correlation (r= .35), though only four studies
checked this trait. It may be the relation between impulsivity and
procrastination is under-researched, and deserves more attention and inquiry.
Fantasy facet within the openness factor (r= .25). Van Eerde (2004) points
out the effect sizes of both neuroticism and fantasy are equal, yet there are
far more studies dealing with the neuroticism factor, while the fantasy facet
received less research attention. As with impulsivity, this may be another
area deserving further research attention.
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Compiling these findings, Van Eerde (2004) also portrays a profile of the
procrastinator student as not conscientious, slightly neurotic, maintaining
rich fantasy life, and somewhat unsociable and introverted.
12. Self-Regulation
Additionally, students who had difficulties in regulating their academic behavior
or were amotivated - the least autonomous behavior due to lack of expectation for
reward, sense of purpose, or perceived control) procrastinated more.
13. Self-Regulation (cont’)
This finding is congruent with other findings. Focus on motivation, stating
students who are intrinsically interested in academic studies are less inclined to
procrastinate than students who study due to external reasons.
14. Fears
Based on their vast clinical experience,
Fear of failure. to avoid the question of whether his abilities match his potential
or his self-expectations. By procrastinating, the individual’s work is not a true
reflection of his ability, and will only indicate how well this individual functions
under time pressure. This process is a result of the individuals fear to fail his or
others’ expectations, having his best performance judged as inadequate
According to Beery (1975), fear of failure stems from a set of assumptions that
equates self-worth, ability, and performance. As such, Beery (1975) thus explains
that the procrastinating behavior breaks the frightening equation of self-worth,
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ability, and performance, by avoiding complete effort hence forbidding
performance from being a true measure of ability.
Fear of success. a self-defeating force, preventing progress and risk taking, as
well as spontaneity and curiosity hence causing restriction and lack of new
accomplishments. The procrastinator will appear non-competitive and
disinterested in rewards or victory. Procrastinating commitments that are
necessary for achievement. Cultural norms that hinder women from seeking
success, as it may contradict their cultural training as supporters for men. On the
other hand, men may fear success in order to avoid being trapped in the
traditional male provider’s role, which will force them to give up other, less
responsible or more feminine aspects of life. Another reason to fear success,
according to Burka and Yuen is when the individual feels unskilled and
inadequate and thus cannot incorporate success with their low self-image.
Fear of losing in combat. the battle for control, power, respect, independence,
and autonomy. Here, the dilatory behavior is utilized to determine control over
time and deadlines, as well as not prevailing to others’ directions or
expectations but doing it “your own way.” holding the belief rules are made to
be broken, as restrictions and expectations seem to be over confining for one’s
lifestyle, stifling individuality or creativity, and decreasing personal freedom.
Another theme is reversing the power hierarchy, procrastination serves as a power
equalizer, the procrastinator who fears losing in combat equates self-worth with
ability to be autonomous (or to resist external control), and with performance,
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specifically lack of performance demonstrated by procrastination. procrastinating
making decisions and commitments in order to avoid exposing one’s interests and
preferences and risking vulnerability and humiliation by others. part of a passive-
aggressive pattern, in which one keeps a friendly demeanor while secretly being
resistant and in fact uncooperative, hence frustrating others’ viewing the world as
an unpredictable place, holding the belief that if someone else is strong (i.e.,
parents, employers) it then means that the procrastinator is weak. Thus, by
procrastinating,
Additionally, as the procrastinator assumes he is weaker, the dilatory behavior
allows the avoidance of direct conflict, in which the procrastinator odds to win are
lower.
Fear of separation. Procrastination can serve as a mean, or be a result of an effort
to gain closeness to others. Procrastination can take place if one is unable to get
work done outside of a team, or making decisions without researching and
consulting others. Another case, in which procrastination serves the fear to
separate is when one maintains a position in which someone else takes the lead,
makes major decisions, and assumes responsibility, while by procrastinating, one
stays in the back position, avoiding operating independently. In some cases, one
can use procrastination to create a crisis that will force others to take care, or
rescue him. In this case, the procrastinator maintains incompetency and
dependency believing this is the only way to elicit others’ response to him, and by
that avoid separation. Finally, clinging to the known pattern of procrastination
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allows the procrastinator a sense of continuity, as one never has to terminate
projects or relationships.
Fear of attachment. On the other hand, Burka and Yuen (1983) describe
procrastinators who use dilatory behavior to avoid attachment. In this case,
closeness is perceived as potentially entrapping and confining to the point of
losing one’s own identity. Thus, procrastination is used to keep a wide distance
from others so as to gain self-protection. Another theme described here is a
concern that others will either take credit over one’s accomplishment or share the
pleasure from it. In both themes, the procrastinator avoids demonstrating skills or
achieving accomplishments fearing others’ consuming response.
15. Time Perception (cont’)
Such as phrases – “I miss the good old days”
16. Psychodynamic Therapy
The understanding of these dynamics is crucial to break the cycle of procrastination,
and help develop one’s self esteem. The common lack of support in all these
dynamics, denies the child from developing a broad and balanced self-image, and is a
fertile ground to develop anxieties and fears. foster the unrealistic belief one can be
loved, or feel good about himself, only when narrow and specific conditions are
consistently being met; he is perfect, or does not stand out, is not a push over, is
attached to others, or separated from everyone. Obviously, one cannot meet these
conditions constantly, hence to sustain this unrealistic belief one procrastinates,
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believing once the desired condition will be met, self-confidence and love will be
gained.
Pressuring. This theme is stressed in highly achievement–oriented families. The
parents can be either extremely successful or unsatisfied with their lives, hence
shifting their high hopes to their children. Mediocrity and limitations are
unacceptable, and success considered to be reaching no less than the top.
Accordingly, children are not rewarded for things they do well, unless they are
done perfectly.
Doubting. This theme portrays the family doubt in the child ability to accomplish,
or succeed. This doubt is communicated indirectly, or directly, by comparing the
child to a more successful sibling, by devaluing or mocking the child’s
achievements, by mere lack of interest in the child, or showing interest only when
he performs well in areas the parent value. At times, unsuccessful parents are
threatened by their child’s progress hence devaluing it. Consequently, the child
internalizes the doubts, and views failures as inevitable, and as a proof of the
incompetency prophecy. As an adult the child either complies with the doubts,
and procrastinates what he believes he cannot achieve, or defy the doubts by
trying to prove it wrong and often becoming an over achiever, or a perfectionist
procrastinator.
Controlling. This theme is displayed by parents who rigidly direct and
excessively control the child’s life, not tolerating the child’s natural independence
or autonomy acts. In these families mastering new skills and experimenting are
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not encouraged. This control is exerted since early years, when the child is
incapable of defending himself, and may be displayed by unpredictable misplaced
rage bursts or cruel remarks, or even by physical abuse, that often depends on
other factors of the parents life, that are not related to the child. Consequently, the
child learns being weak is dangerous as people you depend on can hurt, attack,
and humiliate you. Since the child is not strong enough to openly defy the
controlling parent, he may use procrastination as a safer passive way of resistance,
to gain some sense of control over demanding or intrusive parents.
Clinging. This theme is stressed by families who encourage dependency on the
expense of independence. On one hand, the parents may perform as a lifeline for
their children well into adulthood, assuming the child cannot survive without
them leaving the child feeling incapable. On the other hand parents may expect
the child to take care of them, or others, in the family, as demonstrated by a
parentified child who functions as a care taker, feeling too needed to leave, or if
leaving, is tormented by guilt. These pressures to cling may cause one to continue
on clinging by procrastinating anything that will promote separation and
independence, lacking confidence or experience to try something new.
Distancing. This theme is displayed by families who avoid emotional closeness.
The parents may ignore the children, or seem to be disinterested with them.
Consequently, the child may feel responsible for the distance and may view
himself as an intrusion or a burden, believing his needs are intolerable or
unwanted. The child learns to deal alone with problems and frustrations, and may
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procrastinate when being challenged, instead of seeking help. Conversely, the
child may try to fight the distance by trying to reach the perfect performance
17. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Techniques.
study planning or time management, in which students are directed to
formulate clear, and realistic time objectives, describing the duration of
time they will spend on studying as well as on leisure time.
Stimulus control, in which students gain a clear view of the stimulus, such
as, where and with whom they will study.
Self-management of consequences is another technique provided, in which
students provide themselves with positive incentives (rewards) for
performing desired behavior, and at times, using negative consequences
(punishments) for undesired behavior.
Formulation of SMART short-term study plans. listing Specific and
Measurable activities (such as, the amount of time, or number of paged to
read or to write). These activities need to be Accepted by the student,
Realistic and feasible, and Timed within a determined schedule.
De Shazar (1985), in which “success rounds” are part of the group
program. In these rounds students share their weekly successful
experiences with the group, including the way they were able to achieve
this success. By that, students’ attention is shifted from failures to
successes, and feelings of self-efficacy are promoted.
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18. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (cont’)
Musts – a rigid and absolutistic world view in which wishes are replaced by
demands (such as, “I must always succeed”) and create excessive stress and
pressure;
Catastrophizing – disproportional view of things, in particular, negative things
(such as, “making a mistake is horrible”) that seem worse than they are, even
before encountering them, promoting one’s view these things cannot be handled;
Low frustration tolerance – inability to accept life hassles and setbacks, believing
life is unfair or too hard (such as, I can’t bear attending this boring class”); and
Human worth rating – equalizing one’s worth with one’s actions or achievements,
excluding the uniqueness and complexity of the individual as a human being.
Hence, instead of rating the behavior the whole person is put down (such as,
“failing this test makes me a loser”).
19. Narrative Therapy (cont’)
Instead of focusing on the procrastination problem. By using various
strategies to question problem-oriented narratives, students were
encouraged to
“Dis-identify” from being a procrastinator. These strategies include,
identifying personal qualities of nonprocrastinators, in comparison to the
student’s different self-definition, and how they can be developed,
revealing student’s hidden agency and considering small changes that will
promote desired behavioral consequences by using
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De Shazer’s (1988) “miracle question” in which the student imagines he
miraculously and not knowingly wakes up cured from procrastination, and
needs to describe in detail the difference in his day that will reveal to him
he was cured.
expand the student’s perspective to externalize, and separate the problem
from the person, in order to establish the view procrastination is a bad
habit, instead of a personal trait. This allows the student to respond to and
fight the problem rather than to own it and embody the problem
elevate awareness of negative external and self-talk that is avoiding and
energy draining, and to promote inspirational and energizing self-talk, as
well as external conversations, that were lost and omitted from the
procrastinator’s narrative.
.
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APPENDIX E
Presentation Power Point Slides
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APPENDIX F
Curriculum Vita
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VITA
Shirley Eylor Asif
EDUCATION
Doctoral candidate for Doctor of Psychology (PsyD)
Alliant International University, Los Angeles, CA.
August 2008 ~ Present
Masters in Clinical Psychology
Alliant International University, Los Angeles, CA.
September 2004 ~ 2008
Bachelor of Arts in Behavioral Sciences
The Academic College of Tel-Aviv-Yaffo, Tel-Aviv, Israel.
October 1996 ~ June 2000
RELATED EXPERIENCES
Volunteer (Enosh – The Israeli Association for Mental Health)
Kiryat Ono, Israel October 1996 ~ August 1998
Experience working in a social club with severely mentally ill clients, providing
social support and structured leisure time in a safe and contained environment.
Building and co-leading workshops for clients, such as, creative writing and
drama.
Tailoring and organizing holiday and special events celebrations appropriate for
the clients’ needs.
PROFESSIONAL TRAINING
Internship with Verdugo Mental Health, School-Based Program,
Glendale, CA
Internship with Hillsides Family Center, School-Based Program,
Pasadena, CA
Practicum with Center for Healthy Aging,
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Santa Monica, CA