climatic change 7 a short geological and environmental
TRANSCRIPT
213
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Wilby R L, 2005. 'Uncertainty in water resource model parameters used for climate change impact assessment', Hydrological Processes, vol. 19, pp. 3201–3219.
Young P, 2003. 'Top-down and data-based mechanistic modelling of rainfall-flow dynamics at the catchment scale', Hydrological Processes, vol. 17, pp. 2195–2217.
Young W, Brandis K & Kingsford R, 2006. 'Modelling monthly streamflows in two Australian dryland rivers: matching model complexity to spatial scale and data availability', Journal of Hydrology, vol. 331, pp. 242–256.
Zhang L, Dawes W R & Walker G R, 2001. 'Response of mean annual evapotranspiration to vegetation changes a catchment scale', Water Resources Research, vol. 37, pp. 701–708.
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214
7
A short geological and environmental history of the Sydney estuary, Australia Gavin Birch
Abstract Sydney is blessed with one of the most beautiful harbours in the world. However, like many large, capital ports world-wide, this environment has been exposed to relentless stress due to a rapidly increasing population density and extensive residential, commercial and industrial expansion. In this chapter, we explain why the coastal zone is such an important environment, especially for the people of Australia, and describe changes to the Sydney estuary as an example of environmental transformation due to anthropogenic pressure. The geologic development of the Sydney estuary is briefly traced, showing how the feature was eroded into the Hawkesbury Sandstone, mainly during low sea levels of the glacial periods. The estuary and its catchment changed soon after Captain Philip landed in Sydney Cove. Early land clearing increased sedimentation in the waterway and rapid industrial growth, located mainly on the waterfront, resulted in increasing contamination of the estuary. At the University of Sydney, a novel collaboration between urban geographers working on changes in historical cadastral records of the city and environmental chemists studying estuarine sediments, have shown that as urbanisation and industrialisation spread through the catchment, so did the level and spatial extent of contamination in the estuary. The area of the estuary has been reduced by 22 per cent over 220 years of almost constant reclamation, resulting in ecological modification and possible additional contamination. The present contaminant status of the waterway is described in the concluding part
21
5
of th
e ch
apte
r an
d a
plea
is m
ade
for
a ne
w e
ffort
for
rem
ediat
ion
and
rest
orat
ion
of th
is ico
nic
envi
ronm
ent.
Intro
duct
ion
Muc
h of
the
cha
ract
er,
and
inde
ed t
he b
eaut
y, of
Syd
ney
can
be
attri
bute
d to
its e
stua
ries.
Four
dee
ply-
incis
ed, f
lood
ed v
alley
s diss
ect t
he
raise
d co
asta
l m
argi
n of
the
reg
ion
prod
ucin
g on
e of
the
lon
gest
co
astli
nes
of a
ny c
apita
l cit
y in
the
wor
ld.
Thes
e be
autif
ul w
ater
way
s ha
ve ‘i
njec
ted’
a m
ariti
me
char
acte
r dee
p in
to th
e he
artla
nd o
f sub
urba
n Sy
dney
and
hav
e pr
ovid
ed a
n ex
tens
ive
shor
eline
alo
ng w
hich
man
y be
autif
ul h
istor
ic ho
mes
tead
s ha
ve b
een
built
. Th
ese
attri
bute
s ha
ve
been
vita
l in
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f Syd
ney
into
one
of t
he m
ost b
eaut
iful
cities
in th
e w
orld
. Th
ese
wat
erw
ays
have
also
pro
vide
d ex
celle
nt h
arbo
urs
for i
nter
natio
nal
trade
an
d th
us
the
city
is at
th
e in
ters
ectio
n of
do
mes
tic
and
inte
rnat
iona
l tra
nspo
rt. B
ecau
se o
f its
loc
ality
, Sy
dney
has
attr
acte
d pe
ople
and
indu
stry
from
man
y fa
r off
lands
. The
pop
ulat
ion
of S
ydne
y ha
s gr
own
rapi
dly
since
the
Sec
ond
Wor
ld W
ar a
nd n
ow e
xcee
ds f
our
mill
ion
– alm
ost
one
quar
ter
of t
he t
otal
popu
latio
n of
Aus
tralia
. The
w
ater
way
s ha
ve p
rovi
ded
easy
acc
ess
for
raw
mat
erial
s an
d ex
port
of
prod
uce
and
have
sup
plied
coo
lant
for
mac
hine
ry, b
ut t
hey
have
also
ac
ted
as a
con
veni
ent
rece
ptac
le fo
r w
aste
. A
ll se
wag
e an
d in
dust
rial
was
te w
as d
ischa
rged
dire
ctly
into
the
est
uarie
s un
til 1
898
whe
n th
ree
majo
r coa
stal
outfa
lls w
ere
cons
truct
ed to
disg
orge
effl
uent
dire
ctly
into
th
e su
rf z
one
offs
hore
from
Syd
ney.
Onl
y in
197
2 w
as d
ischa
rge
into
the
estu
aries
con
trolle
d by
the
Clea
n W
ater
way
s Act
and
, sin
ce 1
990,
sew
age
has
been
disp
erse
d in
to th
e se
a ab
out f
our
kilo
met
res
from
the
coas
t in
appr
oxim
ately
80
met
res o
f wat
er (B
irch
2000
).
Aus
tral
ian
popu
latio
n A
ustra
lia is
a v
ast i
sland
con
tinen
t with
an
area
of a
lmos
t 6 m
illio
n km
2 an
d a
popu
latio
n of
jus
t 21
mill
ion.
Thi
s ex
trem
ely l
ow a
vera
ge
popu
latio
n de
nsity
is
dece
ptiv
e as
vas
t ar
eas
of i
nter
nal
dese
rt an
d bu
shlan
d ar
e vi
rtuall
y un
inha
bite
d an
d ov
er
85
per
cent
of
th
e po
pulat
ion
live
in th
e co
asta
l zon
e (Z
ann
1996
). M
oreo
ver,
Aus
tralia
is
one
of th
e m
ost u
rban
ised
coun
tries
in th
e w
orld
with
67
per c
ent o
f the
21
6
natio
nal p
opul
atio
n liv
ing
in o
ne o
f th
e ei
ght s
tate
and
terr
itory
cap
ital
cities
, all
of
whi
ch,
exce
pt f
or C
anbe
rra,
are
loca
ted
on t
he c
oast
(P
hilli
ps,
et a
l 19
92).
Eve
n th
e ‘co
asta
l zo
ne’,
whi
ch i
s de
fined
as
a se
ctio
n of
land
thr
ee k
ilom
etre
s w
ide
runn
ing
para
llel t
o th
e co
astli
ne,
has
an e
xtre
mely
une
ven
popu
latio
n di
strib
utio
n: 8
2 pe
r ce
nt o
f th
e co
asta
l fr
inge
pop
ulat
ion
live
in j
ust
1170
km
, or
3.9
per
cen
t, of
co
astli
ne w
ith 7
2 pe
r cen
t of c
oast
hav
ing
zero
pop
ulat
ion
(McD
onald
et
al 19
93).
Aus
tral
ian
estu
arie
s Co
asta
l eco
syst
ems
supp
ort
a va
riety
of
vita
l bio
logi
cal,
econ
omic
and
cultu
ral f
unct
ions
; how
ever
, the
se s
yste
ms
are
unde
r co
nsid
erab
le an
d in
crea
sing
stre
ss
due
to
rapi
d ur
ban
and
indu
stria
l de
velo
pmen
t. E
stua
ries,
in p
artic
ular
, ar
e be
ing
thre
aten
ed f
rom
inc
reas
ing
hum
an
inte
rven
tion
due
to c
hang
es in
wat
er c
ircul
atio
n, s
edim
enta
tion,
hab
itat
loss
, de
cline
in
nativ
e sp
ecies
and
con
tam
inat
ion
by h
eavy
met
als,
orga
noch
lorin
e co
mpo
unds
an
d po
lycyc
lic
arom
atic
hydr
ocar
bons
. E
nviro
nmen
tal d
egra
datio
n ap
pear
s to
be
an in
evita
ble
cons
eque
nce
of
urba
nisa
tion
and
indu
stria
lisat
ion.
Port
Jac
kson
Th
e w
ater
way
has
a c
ompl
icate
d ge
olog
ical a
nd h
uman
hist
ory
and
even
th
e na
min
g of
the
est
uary
is
diffi
cult.
Roy
(19
81)
inclu
des
Mid
dle
Har
bour
, Por
t Jac
kson
, and
the
Lane
Cov
e an
d Pa
rram
atta
Riv
ers
in th
e de
finiti
on o
f ‘S
ydne
y H
arbo
ur’,
whe
reas
oth
ers
conf
ine
the
mea
ning
to
the
cent
ral h
arbo
ur a
rea,
inclu
ding
Circ
ular
Qua
y, D
arlin
g H
arbo
ur a
nd
Whi
te,
Roze
lle
and
Blac
kwat
tle
Bays
(M
cLou
ghlin
20
00).
‘Syd
ney
estu
ary’
will
be
used
in
the
pres
ent
text
to
inclu
de a
ll of
the
abo
ve
loca
tions
, inc
ludi
ng D
uck
Rive
r, an
d tri
buta
ries
up t
o th
e fr
esh
wat
er
limit
and
to th
e w
eirs o
n th
e D
uck
and
Parr
amat
ta R
iver
s. Po
rt Ja
ckso
n is
one
of 8
0 re
cogn
ised
harb
ours
and
970
est
uarie
s on
the
Aus
tralia
n se
aboa
rd (N
LWA
200
2). T
he e
stua
ry is
app
roxi
mat
ely 3
0 km
lo
ng,
2 km
wid
e an
d oc
cupi
es a
bout
50
km2 ,
whe
reas
the
tot
al
catc
hmen
t is
abou
t ten
tim
es th
e su
rfac
e ar
ea o
f th
e es
tuar
y (5
00 k
m2 ).
E
ight
y-six
per
cen
t of
the
Port
Jack
son
catc
hmen
t is
urba
nise
d an
d/or
in
dust
rialis
ed.
Sens
itivi
ty
to
envi
ronm
enta
l ha
rm
is gi
ven
by
the
21
7
relat
ions
hip
betw
een
the
area
of
the
estu
ary
and
that
of
the
catc
hmen
t. Th
e Sy
dney
est
uary
sho
uld
have
a l
ow s
ensit
ivity
to
anth
ropo
geni
c ef
fect
, ho
wev
er t
hat
is ov
erw
helm
ed b
y th
e hu
ge p
ropo
rtion
of
the
catc
hmen
t th
at i
s ur
bani
sed
(86%
), as
will
be
seen
in
the
follo
win
g di
scou
rse.
The
cent
ral
east
coa
st o
f A
ustra
lia i
s m
icro-
tidal
and
Port
Jack
son
expe
rienc
es a
max
imum
2.1
met
re t
idal
rang
e. Fl
ushi
ng t
imes
incr
ease
fr
om th
ree
to se
ven
days
in th
e lo
wer
har
bour
to se
ven
to te
n da
ys in
the
uppe
r es
tuar
y. W
ith s
uch
a sm
all c
atch
men
t, on
ly a
small
qua
ntity
of
fres
h w
ater
ent
ers t
he e
stua
ry u
nder
nor
mal
cond
ition
s and
Por
t Jac
kson
is
almos
t co
mpl
etely
sa
line.
How
ever
, du
ring
heav
y ra
infa
ll,
large
vo
lum
es o
f fr
esh
wat
er a
re d
elive
red
to t
he e
stua
ry q
uick
ly du
e to
the
sh
ort
lengt
h of
riv
ers.
At
thes
e tim
es,
wat
er i
n th
e ha
rbou
r be
com
es
stra
tified
with
a o
ne t
o tw
o m
etre
thi
ck la
yer
of t
urbi
d, b
uoya
nt, f
resh
w
ater
at
the
surf
ace
and
salty
wat
er b
elow
. The
se c
ondi
tions
for
low
- an
d hi
gh-ra
infa
ll pe
riods
are
unu
sual
for
estu
aries
, whi
ch a
re t
ypica
lly
mor
e m
ixed
with
fres
h an
d sa
line
wat
er.
Geo
logi
cal h
istor
y
Perm
o-Tr
iass
ic e
ra
Port
Jack
son
is lo
cate
d in
the
Sydn
ey B
asin
whi
ch is
Per
mian
to T
riass
ic
age
(300
–220
mill
ion
year
s).
The
mos
t di
stin
ctiv
e fe
atur
e of
the
Por
t Ja
ckso
n ca
tchm
ent
is th
e be
autif
ul o
utcr
ops
of H
awke
sbur
y Sa
ndst
one
into
whi
ch t
he e
stua
ry is
diss
ecte
d. M
ost
of t
he h
igh
land
in t
he o
uter
ca
tchm
ent
is co
mpr
ised
of
Ash
field
Sh
ale
whi
ch
over
lies
the
Haw
kesb
ury
Sand
ston
e. Th
e co
nfig
urat
ion
of P
ort
Jack
son
drain
age
syst
em,
the
orien
tatio
n of
bay
s an
d sh
oreli
ne a
re a
ll co
ntro
lled
by
unde
rlyin
g ge
olog
ical s
truct
ures
. Th
e Sy
dney
est
uary
is a
dro
wne
d riv
er v
alley
, whi
ch is
ero
ded
up to
85
met
res
into
the
Haw
kesb
ury
Sand
ston
e. H
owev
er,
the
orig
in a
nd
evol
utio
n of
suc
h a
large
riv
er v
alley
com
pare
d to
its
small
cat
chm
ent
area
has
alw
ays
been
diff
icult
to e
xplai
n. P
ossib
ly th
e Pa
rram
atta
Riv
er
was
onc
e co
nsid
erab
ly lar
ger t
han
it is
toda
y an
d ex
tend
ed w
estw
ards
to
be c
onne
cted
to th
e N
epea
n Ri
ver.
Perh
aps
the
Nep
ean
Rive
r w
as la
ter
21
8
‘capt
ured
’ by
the
Haw
kesb
ury
Rive
r le
avin
g th
e Pa
rram
atta
Ri
ver
cons
ider
ably
redu
ced
in s
ize
(Liu
198
9).
This
hist
ory
may
exp
lain
the
unus
ually
de
ep
eros
ion
asso
ciat
ed
with
w
hat
is cu
rren
tly
a sm
all
catc
hmen
t. Th
e an
cient
riv
er, w
hich
is n
ow P
ort J
acks
on, w
as a
n ol
d, m
atur
e riv
er
that
mea
nder
ed a
cros
s a
flat p
lain
80 m
illio
n ye
ars
ago.
Dur
ing
perio
ds
of u
plift
, the
riv
er e
rode
d do
wn
into
the
eleva
ted
coas
tal p
lain
form
ing
stee
p-sid
ed b
anks
and
at
times
cut
thr
ough
som
e of
the
mea
nder
s. D
urin
g in
terg
lacial
per
iods
, se
a lev
el ris
es a
nd t
he ‘
river
’ is
flood
ed,
leavi
ng t
he b
reac
hed
mea
nder
s as
islan
ds, o
f w
hich
the
re a
re 1
4 un
der
pres
ent s
ea le
vel c
ondi
tions
. The
gre
at d
epth
to b
edro
ck in
Por
t Jac
kson
is
attri
bute
d to
the
incis
ion
by th
e re
juve
nate
d pa
leo-P
ort J
acks
on st
ream
as
socia
ted
with
upl
ift d
urin
g an
d re
lated
to s
ea fl
oor s
prea
ding
whe
n th
e A
ustra
lian
plat
e m
oved
aw
ay fr
om th
e Lo
rd H
owe
Rise
Plat
e (L
iu 1
989)
. Se
dim
ent,
whi
ch a
ccum
ulat
ed i
n th
e va
lley
bed
durin
g hi
gh s
ea l
evel
st
ands
, w
as r
epea
tedl
y er
oded
and
flu
shed
fro
m t
he f
loor
of
Port
Jack
son
valle
y du
ring
sea
level
low
s. Th
e pr
esen
t-day
abs
ence
of
sedi
men
t in
dep
ress
ion
in t
he P
ort
Jack
son
chan
nel
is m
ainta
ined
by
high
wat
er v
elocit
ies a
nd s
cour
ing
by tu
rbul
ent c
urre
nts
mov
ing
arou
nd
head
lands
pro
trudi
ng in
to th
e es
tuar
y.
Qua
tern
ary
perio
d O
scill
atio
ns o
f sea
leve
l fro
m 5
m a
bove
to 1
20 m
belo
w th
e pr
esen
t day
po
sitio
n oc
curr
ed e
very
100
,000
to 1
50,0
00 y
ears
dur
ing
the
Qua
tern
ary
due
to
glob
al cli
mat
e ch
ange
an
d by
gl
aciat
ion.
Th
e pe
nulti
mat
e gl
aciat
ion
ende
d ab
out 1
35,0
00 y
ears
ago
with
the
succ
eedi
ng in
terg
lacial
ex
tend
ing
to a
bout
80,
000
year
s be
fore
the
pre
sent
. Se
dim
ents
whi
ch
accu
mul
ated
in e
stua
ries
in t
his
regi
on d
urin
g in
terg
lacial
s w
ere
erod
ed
durin
g in
terv
enin
g gl
acial
per
iods
. How
ever
, for
the
majo
rity
of th
e las
t 13
5,00
0 ye
ars,
sea
level
was
20
to 7
0 m
belo
w th
e pr
esen
t and
ther
efor
e er
osio
n of
est
uarie
s w
as m
ore
pron
ounc
ed t
han
depo
sitio
n du
ring
this
perio
d (R
oy 1
998)
.
21
9
Hol
ocen
e ep
och
The
wor
ld st
arte
d to
com
e ou
t of t
he g
rip o
f the
last
glac
ial p
erio
d ab
out
17,0
00 y
ears
ago
and
sea
lev
el st
arte
d to
rise
qui
ckly
(Tho
m &
Roy
19
85).
At t
his
time
the
coas
t was
abo
ut 2
5 to
30
km e
ast o
f its
pre
sent
po
sitio
n, b
ut, w
ith a
slo
pe o
f co
nsid
erab
ly le
ss t
han
one
degr
ee, s
mall
in
crea
ses
in s
ea l
evel
adva
nced
the
coa
stlin
e th
ousa
nds
of m
etre
s. By
10
,000
yea
rs b
efor
e th
e pr
esen
t, se
a lev
el ha
d ris
en to
25
met
res
belo
w
toda
y’s s
ea l
evel
and
only
3–5
km o
ff th
e pr
esen
t co
astli
ne.
The
sea
reac
hed
its p
rese
nt p
ositi
on a
bout
600
0 ye
ars a
go (R
oy e
t al 1
997)
. Si
nce
the
Aus
tralia
n A
borig
ines
hav
e in
habi
ted
the
cont
inen
t fo
r m
ore
than
40,
000
year
s, th
ey w
ould
hav
e ex
perie
nced
thi
s ra
pid
chan
ge i
n cli
mat
e an
d ra
pidl
y ad
vanc
ing
coas
tline
. It i
s ha
rd to
visu
alise
how
they
co
ped
with
suc
h a
rapi
dly
fluct
uatin
g co
astli
ne w
hich
wou
ld h
ave
been
hi
ghly
unst
able
even
ove
r de
cada
l per
iods
. As
the
sea
adva
nced
acr
oss
the
cont
inen
tal s
helf,
it p
roba
bly
‘swep
t’ ah
ead
of it
larg
e qu
antit
ies o
f sa
nd t
hat
had
accu
mul
ated
on
the
shel
f fr
om r
iver
s w
hich
disg
orge
d se
dim
ent a
s th
e riv
ers
flatte
ned
out a
nd lo
st th
eir e
nerg
y. Th
is sa
nd w
as
push
ed i
nto
emba
ymen
ts a
nd n
ow f
orm
the
bea
utifu
l go
lden
san
ds
whi
ch o
ccup
y th
e m
any
beac
hes
along
the
east
coa
st o
f Aus
tralia
. Som
e of
thi
s sa
nd w
as t
rans
porte
d by
wav
e en
ergy
into
the
mou
th o
f Po
rt Ja
ckso
n as
a t
idal
delta
. Mea
nwhi
le, a
s th
e se
a ad
vanc
ed in
to t
he n
ow
drow
ned
river
vall
ey,
sedi
men
t tra
nspo
rted
by r
iver
s st
arte
d to
be
depo
sited
in th
e up
per p
arts
of t
he e
stua
ry a
s a fl
uvial
delt
a. Fi
ne-g
rain
ed
sedi
men
ts, c
arrie
d m
ostly
in su
spen
sion
afte
r flo
ods,
are
depo
sited
in th
e m
iddl
e of
the
estu
ary
betw
een
the
tidal
and
fluvi
al de
ltas.
The
pres
ent-d
ay e
stua
ry c
ompr
ises
five
sedi
men
tolo
gica
l uni
ts. S
hallo
w
off-c
hann
el em
baym
ents
of
the
cent
ral
harb
our
are
cove
red
in t
hick
m
ud,
as i
s th
e 30
-met
re d
eep
basin
in
Mid
dle
Har
bour
. Th
e m
ain
chan
nel o
f th
e up
per
harb
our
is m
oder
atel
y de
ep, a
nd a
lso m
antle
d in
m
ainly
mud
dy s
and,
but
in
the
cent
ral
harb
our,
the
main
cha
nnel
is de
eply
scou
red.
Th
e sa
nd
cont
ent
of
botto
m
sedi
men
t in
crea
ses
grad
ually
dow
nstre
am a
nd th
e m
ain p
art o
f th
e lo
wer
har
bour
sea
war
d of
the
Sydn
ey H
arbo
ur B
ridge
is m
antle
d in
sand
y se
dim
ent.
22
0 Env
ironm
enta
l hist
ory
Early
Eur
opea
n oc
cupa
tion
1788
–180
0 A
lthou
gh th
e A
borig
ines
had
occ
upied
the
Port
Jack
son
estu
ary
area
for
ten
thou
sand
s of
yea
rs,
evid
ence
of
their
pre
senc
e is
hard
to
find.
H
owev
er, a
fter
the
arriv
al of
the
Eur
opea
ns in
178
8, t
he e
nviro
nmen
t ch
ange
d ra
pidl
y. So
on a
fter
settl
emen
t th
e E
urop
eans
em
bark
ed o
n ex
tens
ive
land
clear
ing,
but
bec
ause
of
the
poor
soi
ls ar
ound
Por
t Ja
ckso
n,
culti
vatio
n so
on
mov
ed
wes
twar
ds
to
the
Nep
ean
and
Haw
kesb
ury
Rive
rs. C
learin
g an
d po
or la
nd p
ract
ices
prom
oted
ero
sion,
an
d se
dim
enta
tion
rate
s in
crea
sed
mor
e th
an t
en t
imes
pre
-Eur
opea
n lev
els in
the
estu
ary.
The
Firs
t Flee
t, w
hich
had
dep
arte
d Po
rtsm
outh
on
13 M
ay 1
787,
land
ed
in B
otan
y Ba
y un
der t
he c
omm
and
of C
apta
in A
rthur
Phi
llip
betw
een
18
and
20 Ja
nuar
y 17
88. C
apta
in P
hilli
p qu
ickly
reali
sed
that
the
land
in th
e Bo
tany
Bay
are
a w
as n
ot fe
rtile
enou
gh to
supp
ort t
he 1
000-
stro
ng p
arty
of
the
Firs
t Fl
eet
and
decid
ed t
o m
ove
to P
ort
Jack
son
– “t
he f
ines
t ha
rbou
r in
the
wor
ld”.
On
26 Ja
nuar
y 17
88 C
apta
in P
hilli
p lai
d an
chor
in
a w
onde
rful
cov
e w
ith “
sprin
g w
ater
” w
hich
he
calle
d Sy
dney
Cov
e. Th
e ne
xt d
ay C
apta
in P
hilli
p es
tabl
ished
the
colo
ny a
nd to
ok p
osse
ssio
n of
N
ew S
outh
Wale
s, w
hile
the
conv
icts
bega
n cu
tting
dow
n tre
es.
The
Seco
nd a
nd T
hird
Fle
ets
arriv
ed i
n Ju
ne 1
790
and
July
–Aug
ust
1791
re
spec
tively
and
the
colo
ny s
prea
d ra
pidl
y. M
ore
ferti
le lan
d to
the
wes
t ar
ound
Par
ram
atta
and
fur
ther
aw
ay i
n th
e H
awke
sbur
y an
d N
epea
n Ri
vers
was
cul
tivat
ed a
nd se
ttled
(McL
ough
lin 2
000)
.
Indu
stria
lisat
ion
and
urba
niza
tion
1800
–185
4 In
dust
ries
bega
n to
tak
e sh
ape
on t
he b
anks
of
Dar
ling
Har
bour
in
abou
t 180
0 an
d so
on s
prea
d to
nea
rby
Cock
le, R
ozell
e an
d Bl
ackw
attle
Ba
ys c
lose
to
the
pres
ent-d
ay S
ydne
y ce
ntra
l bu
sines
s di
stric
t (C
BD).
Met
al fo
undr
ies w
ere
the
first
to b
e es
tabl
ished
and
the
num
ber o
f the
se
indu
strie
s in
crea
sed
from
thr
ee t
o 14
bet
wee
n 18
31 a
nd 1
851
(Tay
lor,
Birc
h &
Lin
ks 2
004;
Wals
h 19
63).
Tann
erie
s sta
rted
oper
atio
n in
180
3 in
th
e sa
me
area
and
wer
e so
on jo
ined
by
othe
r sm
all in
dust
ries.
By 1
828,
m
etal
foun
drie
s, co
pper
smith
s an
d pa
int m
anuf
actu
rers
wer
e es
tabl
ished
ad
jacen
t to
Blac
kwat
tle B
ay d
ue t
o re
adily
ava
ilabl
e w
ater
sup
ply
and
22
1
prox
imity
to th
e cit
y (M
acD
onne
ll 19
75).
The
regi
on s
outh
and
wes
t of
the
city
grew
rap
idly
durin
g th
e 18
20s
and
the
Dar
ling
Har
bour
–
Roze
lle B
ay a
rea
was
by
this
time
fully
dev
elope
d. B
y 18
48 t
his
envi
ronm
ent
had
beco
me
so d
egra
ded
that
leg
islat
ion
was
pas
sed
to
rem
ove
all t
anne
ries
and
pollu
ting
indu
strie
s ou
t of
the
city
to B
otan
y, W
illou
ghby
and
Par
ram
atta
.
Perio
d 18
54–1
889
Prio
r to
187
0, e
ffect
ively
all
indu
stria
l act
ivity
in th
e Sy
dney
reg
ion
was
lo
cate
d clo
se
to
the
pres
ent-d
ay
CBD
, bu
t st
eam
po
wer
led
to
co
nsid
erab
le gr
owth
in
Sy
dney
af
ter
this
time.
Met
al w
orki
ng,
engi
neer
ing,
bui
ldin
g m
ater
ials,
cloth
ing
and
text
iles
beca
me
majo
r in
dust
ries
betw
een
1861
and
189
0. T
he i
ntro
duct
ion
of t
ram
way
s, ra
ilway
s an
d m
ajor
brid
ges
in t
he l
ate
1880
s pr
ompt
ed r
apid
urb
an
expa
nsio
n. I
ndus
trial
activ
ity i
n th
e Ir
on C
ove
catc
hmen
t in
187
0 co
nsist
ed o
f on
ly on
e bl
acks
mith
sho
p, b
ut b
y 18
91 t
he n
umbe
r ha
d in
crea
sed
to 1
0 (L
inks
199
8; T
aylo
r, Bi
rch
& L
inks
200
4). A
lso a
t th
is tim
e, ch
emica
l in
dust
ries,
met
al w
orki
ng,
boat
bu
ildin
g,
dye
use,
elect
rical
and
glas
s m
anuf
actu
ring,
as
well
as
hors
e-dr
awn
vehi
cle
build
ing
had
take
n ro
ot in
the
Iro
n Co
ve c
atch
men
t. La
nd a
djac
ent
to
Hom
ebus
h Ba
y ha
s be
en u
sed
for
indu
stria
l pur
pose
s, in
clud
ing
a na
val
arm
amen
t st
ore
and
brick
wor
ks,
since
the
188
0s (
Hom
ebus
h Ba
y Co
rpor
atio
n 19
94; S
uh, B
irch
& H
ughe
s 20
04; S
uh, B
irch
& H
ughe
s 20
04; S
uh, B
row
n &
Birc
h 20
03; T
aylo
r, Bi
rch
& L
inks
200
4).
Perio
d 18
89–1
922
Sydn
ey sp
read
rapi
dly
wes
twar
ds b
etw
een
1889
and
192
2 an
d Ir
on C
ove,
Hen
an
d Ch
icken
an
d H
omeb
ush
Bays
be
cam
e ur
bani
sed
and
indu
stria
lised
. Det
ailed
land
use
map
ping
(Jol
ly 20
05) s
how
s Ir
on C
ove
catc
hmen
t ch
ange
d fr
om a
sub
urb
supp
ortin
g pr
edom
inan
tly l
arge
es
tate
s (3
0–40
% o
f th
e to
tal
area
) to
one
of
main
ly sm
all r
esid
entia
l bl
ocks
(57
% o
f lan
d us
e) i
n th
e pe
riod
1905
to
1930
. In
1916
majo
r ab
atto
irs w
ere
relo
cate
d fr
om R
ozell
e Ba
y to
Hom
ebus
h Ba
y. A
larg
e ba
se m
etal
foun
dry
and
a sm
elter
com
men
ced
oper
atio
ns o
n th
e sh
ores
of
Hen
and
Chi
cken
Bay
dur
ing
the
early
190
0s.
22
2
Indu
stry
rep
laced
agr
icultu
re i
n th
e Pa
rram
atta
Riv
er r
egio
n (P
owel
l 19
87) a
nd b
ecau
se th
e m
ovem
ent o
f im
porte
d go
ods
and
man
ufac
ture
d ite
ms
requ
ired
prox
imity
to
wat
erw
ays,
almos
t all
wat
erfr
ont
on t
he
shor
es o
f low
er P
arra
mat
ta R
iver
was
occ
upied
by
indu
stry
by
the
end
of
the
19th
cen
tury
.
1922
to th
e pr
esen
t Fa
ctor
ies m
anuf
actu
ring
heav
y ele
ctric
al eq
uipm
ent,
large
oil
refin
erie
s an
d po
wer
supp
ly st
atio
ns w
ere
cons
truct
ed c
lose
to th
e es
tuar
y be
twee
n th
e Fi
rst a
nd S
econ
d W
orld
War
s. M
any
heav
y in
dust
ries
situa
ted
in th
e in
ner,
mix
ed r
esid
entia
l/in
dust
rial
area
s of
the
city
wer
e re
loca
ted
outs
ide
the
Port
Jack
son
catc
hmen
t afte
r th
e Se
cond
Wor
ld W
ar (L
inks
19
98; T
aylo
r, Bi
rch
& L
inks
200
4). H
owev
er, t
hese
indu
strie
s wer
e so
on
repl
aced
with
lig
ht i
ndus
try,
who
lesale
rs a
nd t
rans
port
com
pani
es.
Furth
er d
ecen
tralis
atio
n of
indu
stry
occ
urre
d in
Syd
ney
afte
r the
Sec
ond
Wor
ld W
ar d
ue t
o a
mov
emen
t of
peo
ple
to t
he o
uter
sub
urbs
and
a
chan
ge i
n tra
nspo
rtatio
n, m
ainly
tow
ard
truck
ing
and
cont
ainer
isatio
n (W
ebbe
r &
Daly
197
1).
Hen
and
Chi
cken
Bay
cat
chm
ent
rem
ained
pr
edom
inan
tly a
gricu
ltura
l un
til a
fter
the
Seco
nd W
orld
War
whe
n it
chan
ged
to m
ediu
m-d
ensit
y ho
usin
g.
Ext
ensiv
e pa
rts o
f th
e H
omeb
ush
Bay
shor
eline
wer
e re
claim
ed.
The
wes
tern
sho
re w
as c
ompl
etely
rem
odifi
ed p
rior
to 1
955,
whe
reas
the
Rh
odes
Pen
insu
la, o
n th
e ea
ster
n sh
ore,
was
rec
laim
ed la
ter,
betw
een
1956
an
d 19
75,
crea
ting
oppo
rtuni
ties
for
hous
ing,
in
dust
rial,
com
mer
cial a
nd r
ecre
atio
nal r
edev
elopm
ents
. How
ever
, man
y of
the
se
indu
strie
s hav
e m
oved
aw
ay fr
om th
is re
gion
in re
cent
tim
es.
Fore
shor
e de
velo
pmen
t and
recl
amat
ion
in th
e ha
rbou
r Po
rt Ja
ckso
n ha
s be
en e
xten
sively
mod
ified
by
recla
mat
ion
over
the
last
200
year
s, es
pecia
lly in
the
uppe
r an
d ce
ntra
l est
uary
. App
roxi
mat
ely 7
7 km
of t
he 3
22 k
m o
f orig
inal
shor
eline
has
bee
n lo
st d
ue to
recla
mat
ion
and
infil
ling
of in
terti
dal a
reas
(Pitb
lado,
197
8). R
eclai
med
are
as a
re u
sed
main
ly fo
r in
dust
rial,
recr
eatio
nal a
nd r
esid
entia
l use
s an
d co
ver
a to
tal
11.3
5 km
2 of
the
tot
al 50
km
2 or
23%
of
the
estu
ary
(Birc
h &
Mur
ray
2007
; M
urra
y 20
03).
Nat
ural
fore
shor
es o
f m
ud f
lats
and
man
grov
es
have
giv
en w
ay to
sea
wall
s, w
harv
es a
nd b
uild
ings
. The
hea
d of
man
y
22
3
emba
ymen
ts h
ave
been
enc
lose
d by
san
dsto
ne w
alls
and
inte
rtida
l are
as
recla
imed
by
infil
ling.
Rec
lamat
ion
has
resu
lted
in a
los
s of
alm
ost
9 m
illio
n cu
bic
met
res
of w
ater
on
each
tida
l cyc
le, w
hich
has
res
ulte
d in
lar
ge c
hang
es i
n w
ater
mov
emen
t, w
ater
qua
lity,
sedi
men
tatio
n an
d ec
olog
y of
the
uppe
r har
bour
(Liu
198
9). S
ea w
alls h
ave
chan
ged
a ra
mp
fore
shor
e to
a v
ertic
al sh
oref
ace
alter
ing
the
hydr
olog
y an
d ec
olog
y of
th
e es
tuar
y. Th
e fo
llow
ing
hist
ory
of r
eclam
atio
n is
main
ly fr
om t
he
wor
k of
Mur
ray
(200
3).
Per
iod
1788
–185
4
F
igu
re 7
.1 O
nly
the
cent
ral a
rea
of S
ydne
y w
as u
rban
ised
by 1
860
and
fore
shor
e re
clam
atio
n w
as c
onfin
ed t
o Sy
dney
and
Far
m C
oves
. Th
e in
tens
ity o
f ind
ustri
al ac
tivity
can
be
judg
ed b
y th
e nu
mbe
r of s
hips
in a
ph
otog
raph
of S
ydne
y Co
ve ta
ken
abou
t thi
s dat
e (F
igur
e 7.
3). S
edim
ent
man
tling
Dar
ling
Har
bour
, Blac
kwat
tle B
ay a
nd R
ozell
e Ba
y be
gan
to
show
sign
s of h
eavy
met
al co
ntam
inat
ion
by th
is tim
e.
22
4
The
first
cha
nge
in t
he f
ores
hore
occ
urre
d w
hen
large
allo
tmen
ts w
ere
give
n ou
t to
the
mili
tary
, civ
ilian
adm
inist
ratio
n, w
ealth
y m
erch
ants
and
th
e cle
rgy
and
by 1
830
min
or r
eclam
atio
n ha
d st
arte
d fo
r w
harf
age
and
farm
ing
(God
den
Mac
kay
Pty
Ltd
1991
; Li
u 19
89).
The
first
majo
r re
clam
atio
n pr
ojec
t in
the
har
bour
occ
urre
d in
the
per
iod
1835
–185
4 w
hen
the
head
of
Sydn
ey C
ove
was
rem
odell
ed i
nto
a se
mi-c
ircul
ar
sand
ston
e qu
ay w
ith th
e Ta
nk S
tream
cha
nnell
ed a
nd b
uried
. Mor
t and
W
alsh
Bays
wer
e in
filled
and
the
ope
ning
of
the
Aus
tralia
n G
as L
ight
Co
mpa
ny tr
ansf
orm
ed D
arlin
g H
arbo
ur (G
odde
n M
acka
y Pt
y Lt
d 19
91,
1993
).
Per
iod
1854
–188
9
F
igu
re 7
.2 B
y 18
80, u
rban
isatio
n ha
d sp
read
to I
ron
Cove
and
mos
t of
the
bay
head
s in
the
sou
th,
cent
ral
part
of t
he e
stua
ry h
ad b
een
recla
imed
. At t
his
time,
sedi
men
ts o
f D
arlin
g H
arbo
ur, B
lackw
attle
Bay
an
d Ro
zelle
Bay
had
bec
ome
mod
erat
ely c
onta
min
ated
with
hea
vy
met
als.
22
5
The
intro
duct
ion
of tr
ams a
nd tr
ains l
ead
to a
boo
m in
dev
elopm
ent a
nd
an in
crea
sed
need
for
res
iden
tial,
indu
stria
l and
rec
reat
iona
l spa
ce. T
his
resu
lted
in r
eclam
atio
n of
em
baym
ents
clo
se t
o ce
ntra
l Syd
ney,
that
is
Sydn
ey
Cove
, Bl
ackw
attle
Ba
y, Py
rmon
t Ba
y, D
arlin
g H
arbo
ur,
Woo
lloom
oolo
o Ba
y an
d Ru
shcu
tters
Bay
(Fi
tzge
rald
& G
olde
r, 19
94;
God
den
Mac
kay
Pty
Ltd
1991
, 199
3; S
hore
198
1; S
teph
ense
n, 1
966)
. A
phot
ogra
ph t
aken
of
Sydn
ey C
ove
in t
he la
te 1
850s
sho
ws
num
erou
s sh
ips
and
inte
nse
indu
stria
l ac
tivity
in
this
area
dur
ing
thes
e tim
es
(Fig
ure
7.3)
. In
the
sec
ond
half
of t
he 1
8th
cent
ury,
dom
estic
was
te,
sew
erag
e, of
fal
and
dead
ani
mals
wer
e di
scar
ded
into
for
esho
re a
reas
co
nsid
ered
dum
ping
gro
unds
for u
nwan
ted
was
te (S
tring
er 1
984)
. It w
as
belie
ved
that
dise
ase
was
com
mun
icat
ed b
y no
xiou
s va
pour
s em
anat
ing
from
dam
p ar
eas
whe
re f
aeca
l was
te a
ccum
ulat
ed, a
nd o
dour
s an
d th
e fe
ar o
f di
seas
e em
itted
fro
m t
hese
wet
lands
con
tribu
ted
grea
tly t
o re
clam
atio
n du
ring
this
perio
d (S
ollin
g &
Rey
nold
s 197
7).
F
igu
re 7
.3 A
n ea
rly p
hoto
grap
h of
Syd
ney
Cove
take
n in
the
late
1850
s by
an
unkn
own
phot
ogra
pher
. Th
e nu
mbe
r of
shi
ps i
n th
e co
ve
dem
onst
rate
s th
e in
tens
ity o
f ac
tivity
in th
is pa
rt of
the
harb
our
at th
is tim
e. Th
e pe
riod
portr
ayed
in th
is ph
otog
raph
cor
relat
es w
ell w
ith d
ate
of o
nset
of
cont
amin
atio
n as
ind
icate
d in
a c
ore
take
n fr
om n
earb
y D
arlin
g H
arbo
ur s
how
n in
Fig
ure
7.6.
The
pho
togr
aph
is fr
om t
he
Mac
arth
ur A
lbum
title
d “S
ydne
y –
The
1850
s, th
e Lo
st C
ollec
tions
”, b
y
22
6
Barr
y G
room
and
War
ren
Wick
man
fro
m t
he H
istor
ic Ph
otog
raph
Co
llect
ion,
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f Syd
ney.
Per
iod
1889
–192
2
F
igu
re 7
.4 S
outh
of
the
harb
our,
urba
nisa
tion
had
spre
ad f
rom
the
es
tuar
y m
outh
to
Hom
ebus
h Ba
y by
191
7, a
nd t
he s
outh
ern
part
of
Nor
th S
hore
had
bec
ome
resid
entia
l. M
ost o
f the
upp
er e
nds o
f bay
s on
the
sout
hern
sho
res
of t
he e
stua
ry h
ad b
een
recla
imed
by
1922
. Se
dim
ents
in
Dar
ling
Har
bour
, Bl
ackw
attle
Bay
and
Roz
elle
Bay
had
beco
me
high
ly c
onta
min
ated
with
hea
vy m
etals
and
Iron
Cov
e, H
en a
nd
Chick
en
Bay
and
Hom
ebus
h Ba
y se
dim
ents
w
ere
mod
erat
ely
cont
amin
ated
by
1917
. Th
e co
ntin
ued
wid
espr
ead
disp
osal
of g
arba
ge i
n in
terti
dal
swam
ps
(Cow
ard
1988
) to
for
m i
ndus
trial
area
s an
d pa
rks
(DE
P 19
86)
was
a
majo
r con
tribu
ting
fact
or to
rat i
nfes
tatio
n an
d th
e ou
tbre
ak o
f bub
onic
pl
ague
in 1
898/
99. T
he S
ydne
y H
arbo
ur T
rust
(SH
T) w
as fo
rmed
und
er
pow
ers
give
n by
an
Act
of
Parli
amen
t in
190
0 to
res
ume
priv
ate
22
7
ente
rpris
es a
nd m
oder
nise
dila
pida
ted
fore
shor
es i
n W
alsh
Bay
and
Dar
ling
Har
bour
, whi
ch sh
elter
ed in
fest
atio
ns o
f rat
s (E
mer
y 19
65; M
SB
1974
). In
crea
sed
dem
and
for
acce
ssib
le w
ater
side
land
for
port
and
indu
stria
l fu
nctio
ns r
esul
ted
in e
xten
sive
recla
mat
ion
in C
anad
a Ba
y, K
ings
Bay
, Hen
and
Chi
cken
Bay
, Iro
n Co
ve (H
awth
orne
Can
al), W
hite
Ba
y, Ro
zelle
Bay
and
Ros
e Ba
y.
Per
iod
1922
–200
2
F
igu
re 7
.5 U
rban
isatio
n of
the
cat
chm
ent
is no
w a
lmos
t co
mpl
ete,
exce
pt f
or a
reas
set
asid
e fo
r re
crea
tion
and
bush
lan
d re
serv
es a
nd
fore
shor
e re
clam
atio
n ha
s all
but c
ease
d. S
edim
ents
in th
e up
per p
arts
of
bays
, es
pecia
lly a
long
the
sou
ther
n sh
ores
of
the
harb
our,
are
high
ly
cont
amin
ated
with
hea
vy m
etals
and
min
or c
onta
min
atio
n is
pres
ent i
n m
ost
sedi
men
t of
the
upp
er a
nd c
entra
l har
bour
, as
well
as
in M
iddl
e H
arbo
ur a
nd L
ane
Cove
.
22
8
The
mos
t ac
tive
perio
d of
rec
lamat
ion
took
plac
e in
Por
t Ja
ckso
n be
twee
n 19
22 a
nd 1
955
whe
n ab
out
5.7
km2
of l
and
was
cre
ated
ad
jacen
t to
Par
ram
atta
Ri
ver
at S
ilver
wat
er,
Hom
ebus
h Pe
nins
ula,
Gar
den
Islan
d, E
xile
Bay,
Kin
gs B
ay,
Iron
Cov
e, G
lebe
Isla
nd a
nd
Dar
ling
Har
bour
. Be
twee
n 19
55 a
nd 1
978
recl
amat
ion
was
main
ly by
the
use
of
landf
ill,
inclu
ding
indu
stria
l was
tes
(Cow
ard
1988
) in
low
-lyin
g ar
eas
adjac
ent t
o M
iddl
e H
arbo
ur, P
arra
mat
ta R
iver
and
Lan
e Co
ve R
iver
(M
cLou
ghlin
, 19
85).
The
last m
ajor
recla
mat
ion
perio
d w
as f
rom
196
4 to
198
1 w
hen
exte
nsiv
e fo
resh
ore
area
s w
ere
cons
truct
ed t
o ac
com
mod
ate
the
new
‘ro
ll-on
, rol
l-off’
con
tain
er s
hipp
ing
(Ang
lin &
Ass
ociat
es 1
990;
Bud
in
1990
; Fra
ser 1
989;
Pro
udfo
ot 1
996)
.
Rec
lam
atio
n as
a s
ourc
e of
pol
lutio
n Th
e to
tal m
ass o
f mat
erial
use
d to
und
erta
ke 1
1.35
km
2 of
recla
mat
ion
in
Port
Jack
son
has
been
est
imat
ed a
t ov
er 1
00 m
illio
n to
nnes
(M
t) (M
cLou
ghlin
200
0). T
he m
ost c
omm
on m
etho
d us
ed to
und
erta
ke th
is re
clam
atio
n w
as to
con
stru
ct a
sea
wall
and
infil
l beh
ind
the
barr
ier u
sing
garb
age,
indu
stria
l was
te a
nd s
edim
ents
rem
oved
fro
m th
e flo
or o
f th
e ad
jacen
t est
uary
. The
com
posit
ion
of m
ater
ial u
sed
as in
fill v
aried
with
lo
catio
n an
d da
te o
f re
clam
atio
n an
d alt
houg
h fe
w r
ecor
ds w
ere
mad
e, th
e co
mpo
sitio
n of
one
site
is w
ell k
now
n. T
he n
atur
e an
d ex
tent
of
was
te in
the
Hom
ebus
h Ba
y ar
ea is
well
doc
umen
ted
due
to c
lean-
up
oper
atio
ns a
ssoc
iated
with
the
Sydn
ey 2
000
Olym
pic
Gam
es.
Prio
r to
Eur
opea
n se
ttlem
ent,
this
area
com
prise
d ex
tens
ive
tidal
wet
lands
and
thick
woo
dlan
ds, w
hich
wer
e cle
ared
and
rec
laim
ed f
rom
th
e ea
rly 1
800s
for
far
min
g. T
he r
egio
n w
as u
sed
as a
rac
ecou
rse,
brick
wor
ks,
arm
amen
ts d
epot
and
an
abat
toir
betw
een
the
mid
-188
0s
and
1969
. Una
utho
rised
filli
ng w
as c
omm
onpl
ace
from
the
late
1960
s to
the
late
1970
s. D
urin
g th
is pe
riod
over
nin
e m
illio
n cu
bic
met
res
of
com
mer
cial,
dom
estic
and
indu
stria
l was
te w
as d
umpe
d in
the
area
(Suh
et
al 2
004)
. A 2
5 m
etre
-hig
h en
gine
ered
land
fill r
ose
abov
e th
e so
uthe
rn
bank
of H
aslam
s Cr
eek
and
only
30 p
er c
ent o
f the
Hom
ebus
h Ba
y sit
e re
tain
ed it
s nat
ural
top
soil
and
rem
nant
veg
etat
ion.
By
1970
Wen
twor
th
Bay
ceas
ed t
o ex
ist a
nd m
ost
of t
he lo
w-ly
ing
land
had
been
fill
ed b
y 19
78. F
inal
fillin
g alo
ng t
he n
orth
and
sou
th b
anks
of
Has
lams
Cree
k
22
9
took
plac
e be
twee
n 19
79 a
nd 1
988.
The
sig
nific
ant
ecol
ogica
l dam
age
had
been
reco
gniz
ed b
y 19
75 w
hen
licen
sing
of la
ndfil
ls be
cam
e law
, but
a
furth
er f
ive
year
s lap
sed
befo
re r
egul
atio
ns b
ecam
e fu
lly e
nfor
ced.
A
tota
l of $
137
mill
ion
was
allo
cate
d fo
r clea
n-up
of t
he s
ite in
one
of t
he
large
st r
emed
iatio
n pr
ojec
ts c
arrie
d ou
t in
Aus
tralia
(Su
h, B
irch
&
Hug
hes
2004
; Su
h,
Birc
h,
Mat
thai
et
al 20
04).
Was
te
com
prise
d pu
tresc
ible,
bu
ildin
g,
chem
ical
and
garb
age
mun
icipa
l w
aste
, co
nstru
ctio
n de
bris,
hou
seho
ld g
arba
ge, d
emol
ition
was
te, a
sh f
ill a
nd
dred
ged
sedi
men
t co
ntain
ing
heav
y m
etals
, as
best
os,
a ra
nge
of
hydr
ocar
bons
, in
cludi
ng d
ioxi
ns,
benz
ene,
tolu
ene,
ethy
lben
zene
and
xy
lene
(BTE
X)
com
poun
ds a
nd p
olyc
yclic
aro
mat
ic hy
droc
arbo
ns,
as
well
as
orga
noch
lorin
e pe
stici
des.
A t
otal
of 4
00 t
onne
s of
haz
ardo
us
was
te c
ompr
ising
dio
xins
, fur
ans
and
othe
r or
gano
chlo
rine
com
poun
ds
was
cla
ssifi
ed
as
Sche
duled
Ch
emica
l W
aste
w
hich
ha
d to
be
de
stro
yed
by a
the
rmal/
cata
lytic
treat
men
t un
der
NSW
RE
PA l
icens
e (B
irch,
et
al, 2
007)
. In
one
of
the
large
st s
urve
ys o
f its
kin
d, 4
531
so
il sa
mpl
es w
ere
colle
cted
by
corin
g th
roug
h th
e in
fill
for
chem
ical
analy
sis (
Suh,
Birc
h &
Hug
hes
2004
; Su
h, B
irch,
Mat
thai
et a
l 20
04).
Are
as
infil
led
with
es
tuar
ine
sedi
men
t fr
om
the
adjac
ent
bay
co
ntain
ed e
levat
ed c
once
ntra
tions
of h
eavy
met
als a
nd in
som
e ar
eas s
oil
met
al co
ncen
tratio
ns w
ere
cons
ider
ed h
igh
enou
gh t
o po
se a
thr
eat
to g
roun
dwat
er.
This
soil
was
rem
oved
and
con
solid
ated
int
o sm
all
man
agea
ble
area
s ca
pped
w
ith
impe
rmea
ble
clay
and
surr
ound
ed
by le
acha
te d
rain
s to
pro
tect
sur
roun
ding
aqu
ifers
. To
date
, mon
itorin
g of
th
e lea
chat
e dr
ains
indi
cate
co
ntam
inan
t co
ncen
tratio
ns
are
at
acce
ptab
le lev
els.
In a
pro
ject
spec
ially
desig
ned
to t
est
leach
ate
prod
uctio
n in
rec
laim
ed
lands
due
to
rain
wat
er f
iltra
tion
and
tidal
actio
n, S
uh, B
row
n &
Birc
h (2
003a
, 200
3b)
plac
ed s
ix b
oreh
oles
thr
ough
infil
l at
Bice
nten
nial
Park
ad
jacen
t to
Roze
lle B
ay. T
he P
ark
(1.0
1 ha
) was
recla
imed
bet
wee
n 19
72
and
1980
by
rem
oval
of a
ppro
xim
ately
31,
000
m3
of m
ater
ial f
rom
the
adjac
ent
bay,
prim
arily
to
atta
in n
avig
atio
n de
pths
. In
addi
tion
to t
he
mar
ine
sedi
men
ts,
the
fill
com
prise
d de
mol
ition
was
te,
cons
truct
ion
mat
erial
s an
d in
dust
rial a
nd d
omes
tic w
aste
. Res
ults
of
the
expe
rimen
t sh
owed
that
dur
ing
dry
perio
ds w
hen
wat
er ta
bles
rece
de, o
xyge
n in
gres
s m
ay l
ead
to d
ecre
asin
g ac
idity
(pH
) an
d an
ass
ociat
ed in
crea
se i
n th
e co
ncen
tratio
ns o
f so
me
heav
y m
etals
(co
pper
, lea
d, z
inc,
arse
nic
and
23
0
chro
me)
. Th
e re
sults
of
th
e fie
ld
stud
y w
ere
test
ed
unde
r co
ntro
lled
cond
ition
s in
the
labo
rato
ry b
y pe
rcol
atin
g fr
esh
and
salin
e w
ater
thr
ough
col
umns
con
tain
ing
soil
mat
erial
fro
m t
he p
ark
(Suh
, Br
own
& B
irch
2003
a, 20
03b)
. Alth
ough
the
par
allel
field
stu
dies
had
co
nsid
erab
ly hi
gher
con
cent
ratio
ns o
f m
etals
than
that
pro
duce
d in
the
labor
ator
y ex
perim
ent,
conc
entra
tions
wer
e or
ders
of m
agni
tude
gre
ater
th
an n
atur
al se
a w
ater
. It w
as c
onclu
ded
that
elev
ated
con
cent
ratio
ns o
f he
avy
met
als p
roba
bly
ente
r th
e es
tuar
y by
tid
al ac
tion
and
durin
g pe
riods
of r
ainfa
ll.
Alth
ough
it
has
been
dem
onst
rate
d in
the
fiel
d an
d in
con
trolle
d lab
orat
ory
stud
ies th
at th
e m
ater
ial u
sed
for i
nfill
ing
is a
sour
ce o
f hea
vy
met
als t
o th
e es
tuar
y, th
e pr
oces
s ha
s no
t ye
t be
en q
uant
ified
. Th
e ju
xtap
ositi
on o
f hi
gh c
onta
min
ant
conc
entra
tions
in
sedi
men
ts a
t th
e he
ads
of
mos
t es
tuar
y em
baym
ents
an
d ex
tens
ive
recla
mat
ion
in
adjac
ent
lands
has
obv
ious
im
plica
tions
. H
owev
er,
stor
mw
ater
can
als
also
disc
harg
e to
the
est
uary
at
thes
e lo
catio
ns (
Barr
y, Ta
ylor
& B
irch
1999
, 200
1; B
irch
et a
l 199
9) a
nd d
iffer
entia
ting
the
relat
ive
mag
nitu
de
of e
ach
sour
ce i
s co
mpl
ex a
nd h
as n
ot y
et b
een
atte
mpt
ed.
The
extra
ordi
nary
mas
ses
of m
ater
ials
dred
ged
from
the
est
uary
flo
or f
or
infil
ling
and
recla
mat
ion
arou
nd P
ort
Jack
son
give
s an
ide
a of
the
po
tent
ial m
agni
tude
of
this
poss
ible
sour
ce. A
lmos
t a m
illio
n to
nnes
of
cont
amin
ated
sed
imen
t fr
om I
ron
Cove
was
use
d fo
r re
clam
atio
n at
th
e m
outh
s of
Haw
thor
ne a
nd I
ron
Cove
Cre
eks;
4.6
Mt i
n H
omeb
ush
Bay
and
anot
her
2.8
Mt
on
the
bank
s of
th
e Pa
rram
atta
Ri
ver
(McL
ough
lin 2
000)
.
Ecol
ogic
al e
ffect
s of
recl
amat
ion
It is
not s
urpr
ising
that
, with
23
per c
ent o
f the
are
a of
Por
t Jac
kson
lost
to
rec
lamat
ion,
app
roxi
mat
ely
50 p
er c
ent o
f th
e sh
ore
is co
mpo
sed
of
reta
inin
g se
awall
s or
oth
er b
uilt
habi
tats
(Ch
apm
an &
Bul
leri
2003
). A
ltere
d sh
oreli
nes,
parti
cular
ly th
e co
nstru
ctio
n of
lon
g st
retc
hes
of
seaw
alls,
have
majo
r ec
olog
ical
impa
cts.
The
Cent
re f
or R
esea
rch
on
Eco
logi
cal I
mpa
cts o
f Coa
stal
Citie
s at t
he U
nive
rsity
of S
ydne
y is
doin
g so
me
exce
llent
wor
k on
und
erst
andi
ng th
e ec
olog
ical r
ole
that
sea
wall
s an
d ot
her
inte
rtida
l st
ruct
ures
hav
e on
urb
anise
d es
tuar
ies (
Bloc
kley
, Ch
apm
an i
n pr
ess;
Chap
man
& B
uller
i 20
03;).
Sea
wall
s di
ffer
from
na
tura
l roc
ky s
hore
s be
caus
e th
ey a
re u
suall
y st
eep
and
they
hav
e fe
wer
23
1
crev
ices
and
over
hang
s th
an r
ocky
sho
res
and
som
e ha
bita
ts (
e.g. r
ock
pool
s) a
re a
bsen
t. A
lso, v
ertic
al se
awall
s ha
ve a
com
pres
sed
inte
rtida
l ar
ea (1
–2 m
) in
cont
rast
to n
atur
al sh
ores
with
low
er g
radi
ents
(10s
of
met
res)
. The
se fa
ctor
s affe
ct th
e di
strib
utio
n an
d ab
unda
nce
of in
terti
dal
orga
nism
s. A
t mid
- and
hig
h-sh
ore
levels
ther
e ar
e fr
eque
nt d
iffer
ence
s be
twee
n as
sem
blag
es o
n na
tura
l sho
res a
nd se
awall
s, bu
t, at
low
er le
vels,
di
ffere
nces
bet
wee
n as
sem
blag
es a
re c
onsid
erab
ly sm
aller
. Th
e lo
nges
t sea
wall
s in
Por
t Jac
kson
hav
e be
en c
onst
ruct
ed to
sup
port
recla
mat
ion
activ
ities
at
the
head
s of
em
baym
ents
, fo
r ex
ampl
e Fa
rm
Cove
, W
oollo
omoo
loo
Bay
and
Iron
Cov
e. Th
ese
area
s w
ere
once
m
uddy
, m
angr
ove
and
saltm
arsh
wet
lands
with
gen
tle s
lope
s. Th
e m
arke
d ch
ange
in h
abita
t in
thes
e ar
eas
has
resu
lted
in m
ajor
alter
atio
n to
eco
logi
cal
func
tion,
not
to
men
tion
the
redu
ctio
n in
bio
logi
cal
prod
uctiv
ity a
nd c
hang
es in
hyd
rolo
gy a
nd p
hysio
-che
mica
l attr
ibut
es o
f th
e in
terti
dal z
one.
His
toric
effe
ct o
f urb
anis
atio
n an
d in
dust
rialis
atio
n on
th
e Po
rt J
acks
on e
stua
ry
The
hist
oric
effe
ct o
f in
crea
sing
anth
ropo
geni
c ac
tivity
in
the
Port
Jack
son
catc
hmen
t on
the
adj
acen
t es
tuar
ine
envi
ronm
ent
has
been
es
tabl
ished
thr
ough
an
unus
ual
colla
bora
tion
by s
tude
nts
and
staf
f in
ur
ban
geog
raph
y an
d en
viro
nmen
tal
chem
istry
in
the
Env
ironm
enta
l G
eolo
gy G
roup
in
the
Scho
ol o
f G
eosc
ience
s at
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f Sy
dney
(Bi
rch
& M
urra
y 20
07; J
olley
200
5; L
inks
199
8; M
urra
y 20
03;
Taylo
r, Bi
rch
& L
inks
200
4).
Stud
ies o
f ch
angi
ng la
nd u
se, d
evelo
pmen
t of
indu
stry
and
rec
lamat
ion
in P
ort
Jack
son,
wer
e un
derta
ken
by t
he S
choo
l of
Geo
scien
ces
at t
he
Uni
vers
ity o
f Sy
dney
to
dete
rmin
e po
tent
ial a
dver
se e
ffect
s on
the
es
tuar
y by
hum
an a
ctiv
ity in
the
adjac
ent c
atch
men
t (Jo
lley
2005
; Lin
ks
1998
; M
urra
y 20
03;
Taylo
r, Bi
rch
& L
inks
200
4).
Botto
m s
edim
ents
w
ere
used
to d
eter
min
e po
ssib
le e
ffect
s on
the
estu
ary
and
to e
stab
lish
whe
ther
tem
pora
l ch
ange
s in
the
cat
chm
ent
coul
d be
rec
orde
d in
su
bsur
face
sed
imen
t in
the
est
uary
(Ta
ylor
, Bi
rch
& L
inks
200
4).
Sedi
men
t ad
sorb
s co
ntam
inan
ts f
rom
the
ove
rlyin
g w
ater
col
umn
and
thus
has
the
abi
lity
to t
ime
inte
grat
e an
d to
rec
ord
the
influ
x of
co
ntam
inan
ts in
to a
wat
er b
ody.
Beca
use
sedi
men
ts a
re d
epos
ited
layer
-
23
2
by-la
yer
in a
reg
ular
chr
onol
ogic
sequ
ence
, thi
s se
dim
ent ‘
mem
ory’
can
be u
sed
as a
n hi
stor
ic re
cord
of c
onta
min
ant f
lux,
whi
ch in
turn
refle
cts
anth
ropo
geni
c ch
ange
s in
the
adjac
ent c
atch
men
t (Ta
ylor 2
000)
. To
test
th
is co
ncep
t in
Port
Jack
son,
12
sedi
men
tary
cor
es w
here
take
n in
nin
e hi
ghly
cont
amin
ated
em
baym
ents
and
dow
n-ho
le sa
mpl
es w
ere
analy
sed
for
cont
amin
ants
and
dat
ed u
sing
radi
oiso
tope
s lea
d 21
0 an
d ca
esiu
m
137
(Tay
lor 2
000;
Tay
lor,
Birc
h &
Lin
ks 2
004)
. Th
ree
of t
he 1
2 co
res,
one
each
fro
m B
lackw
attle
Bay
(Co
re 1
), Ir
on
Cove
(Co
re 2
) an
d H
omeb
ush
Bay
(Cor
e 3)
are
rep
rodu
ced
in F
igur
e 7.
6. T
hese
bay
s ar
e all
man
tled
in h
ighl
y co
ntam
inat
ed s
edim
ent a
nd a
re
loca
ted
with
in
crea
sing
dist
ance
fr
om
cent
ral
Sydn
ey,
that
is,
ap
prox
imat
ely 2
, 5 a
nd 1
2 km
, res
pect
ively
. All
thre
e co
res
show
low
co
ncen
tratio
n of
hea
vy m
etals
(cop
per,
lead
and
zinc
) at t
he b
otto
m o
f th
e co
re a
nd a
t som
e de
pth
conc
entra
tions
incr
ease
mar
kedl
y. In
som
e ca
ses
conc
entra
tions
tow
ards
the
top
of
the
core
rem
ain c
onst
ant,
cont
inue
to
in
crea
se,
or
begi
n to
de
crea
se.
The
dept
h at
w
hich
co
ncen
tratio
ns
begi
n to
in
crea
se
is th
e po
int,
or
time,
whe
re
cont
amin
ants
sta
rt to
be
disc
harg
ed f
rom
the
cat
chm
ent,
that
is,
the
onse
t of
co
ntam
inat
ion
is fa
ithfu
lly
reco
rded
in
th
e se
dim
ent.
Cont
amin
atio
n co
mm
ence
d in
abo
ut 1
860
in B
lackw
attle
Bay
(Co
re 1
) an
d in
app
roxi
mat
ely 1
910
in I
ron
Cove
(Co
re 2
). Co
re 3
fro
m
Hom
ebus
h Ba
y re
cord
s ad
vers
e ef
fect
s of
hum
an a
ctiv
ity b
egin
ning
at
abou
t 192
5. T
he sp
read
of u
rban
izat
ion
and
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f ind
ustry
ou
twar
ds fr
om c
entra
l Syd
ney
(Fig
ures
1, 2
, 4 a
nd 5
) are
refle
cted
in th
e ex
pans
ion
of c
onta
min
ated
sedi
men
t in
the
adjac
ent e
stua
ry.
The
date
of
onse
t of
con
tam
inat
ion,
as
depi
cted
in
the
core
s, sh
ows
appr
oxim
ately
th
e sa
me
timin
g as
th
at
of
urba
nisa
tion
and
indu
stria
lisat
ion
in t
he a
djac
ent
catc
hmen
ts. M
oreo
ver,
the
seve
rity
of
cont
amin
atio
n in
the
sedi
men
t pro
file
also
decr
ease
s aw
ay f
rom
cen
tral
Sydn
ey
with
de
crea
sing
urba
n in
tens
ity.
For
exam
ple,
zinc
in
se
dim
ent
from
the
cor
e ta
ken
close
st t
o ce
ntra
l Sy
dney
(Co
re 1
) in
Bl
ackw
attle
Bay
is a
t a m
axim
um o
f ab
out 2
000
μg/g
and
for
the
core
ta
ken
in I
ron
Cove
(Cor
e 2)
it is
app
roxi
mat
ely 1
500
μg/g
, whe
reas
in
Hom
ebus
h Ba
y th
e m
axim
um z
inc
conc
entra
tion
in t
he s
edim
ent
is ap
prox
imat
ely 1
000
μg/g
.
23
3
The
data
pro
vide
d he
re a
re f
or h
eavy
met
als,
but
the
sam
e tre
nd i
s ev
iden
t for
org
anic
cont
amin
ants
as
well
(Tay
lor,
Birc
h &
Lin
ks 2
004)
. O
rgan
ochl
orin
e co
mpo
unds
ar
e en
tirely
ar
tifici
al in
sect
icide
s an
d he
rbic
ides
and
the
se c
hem
icals
cam
e in
to u
se i
n A
ustra
lia a
fter
the
Seco
nd W
orld
War
. The
ons
et o
f the
se o
rgan
ic co
ntam
inan
ts in
the
core
pr
ofile
s ar
e da
ted
at 1
945,
alm
ost
prec
isely
whe
n th
ey w
ere
intro
duce
d in
to th
e ca
tchm
ent.
Th
ese
resu
lts p
rovi
de c
onfid
ence
in th
e m
etho
dolo
gy a
nd th
e sc
ience
of
the
curr
ent
appr
oach
. Alth
ough
sim
ilar
resu
lts h
ave
been
obt
ained
for
in
divi
dual,
sit
e-sp
ecifi
c st
udies
, th
is is
the
only
catc
hmen
t-wid
e de
mon
stra
tion
of th
is ap
proa
ch.
Fig
ure
7.6
Cor
es fr
om B
lackw
attle
Bay
, Iro
n Co
ve a
nd H
omeb
ush
Bay
show
the
ver
tical
dist
ribut
ion
of h
eavy
met
al co
ncen
tratio
ns i
n th
e se
dim
ent.
At
the
botto
m o
f ea
ch c
ore,
the
conc
entra
tion
of m
etals
is
unifo
rmab
ly lo
w, b
ut a
t so
me
dept
h m
etal
levels
incr
ease
rap
idly.
Thi
s de
pth
(mar
ked
with
an
arro
w) i
s th
e da
te o
f ons
et o
f con
tam
inat
ion.
In
Core
1, f
rom
Blac
kwat
tle B
ay c
lose
to th
e cit
y, on
set o
f co
ntam
inat
ion
was
in a
bout
186
0, a
nd o
nset
dat
es a
re la
ter f
or C
ores
2 (I
ron
Cove
) and
3
(Hom
ebus
h Ba
y), w
hich
are
loca
ted
furth
er fr
om th
e cit
y ce
ntre
. Thi
s sp
read
of
cont
amin
atio
n de
mon
stra
tes
how
the
est
uary
res
pond
ed t
o en
croa
chin
g ur
bani
satio
n ac
ross
the
catc
hmen
t.
23
4 Rec
ent e
nviro
nmen
tal h
isto
ry
Mor
e hi
stor
ic in
form
atio
n ca
n be
glea
ned
from
cor
es s
uch
as th
ese.
It is
evid
ent f
rom
Cor
e 1
that
zin
c co
ncen
tratio
ns a
ttain
ed a
max
imum
in th
e se
dim
ent
in
abou
t 19
55
and
conc
entra
tions
ha
ve
been
ge
nera
lly
decr
easin
g sin
ce t
hat
time.
In f
act,
conc
entra
tions
are
alm
ost
half
the
max
imum
at p
rese
nt, w
here
as c
oppe
r con
tinue
s to
incr
ease
in se
dim
ents
at
thi
s lo
catio
n. T
here
is
evid
ence
fro
m t
he c
ore
prof
ile t
hat
the
conc
entra
tion
of
lead
has
star
ted
to
decli
ne
in
rece
nt
times
in
Bl
ackw
attle
Ba
y. Th
ere
appe
ars
to
have
be
en
two
phas
es
of
cont
amin
atio
n in
thi
s ba
y: a
perio
d of
mod
erat
e co
ntam
inat
ion
from
18
75 to
191
0, fo
llow
ed b
y a
perio
d of
hig
h co
ntam
inat
ion
from
191
0 to
th
e pr
esen
t. In
Iro
n Co
ve (
Core
2),
zinc
con
cent
ratio
ns r
each
ed a
m
axim
um in
app
roxi
mat
ely 1
960
and
have
rem
ained
hig
h to
the
pres
ent
day.
Copp
er a
nd le
ad a
lso a
ttain
ed a
max
imum
in Ir
on C
ove
at th
is tim
e, bu
t w
hile
lead
appe
ars
to b
e de
crea
sing
sligh
tly, c
oppe
r co
ncen
tratio
ns
have
rem
ained
hig
h an
d co
nsta
nt. C
ore
3 fr
om H
omeb
ush
Bay
show
s co
ntam
inat
ion
reac
hing
max
imum
con
cent
ratio
ns in
abo
ut 1
970
for z
inc
and
copp
er, b
ut th
e m
axim
um le
ad c
once
ntra
tion
occu
rred
ear
lier i
n th
e 19
40s,
perh
aps
due
to th
e in
trodu
ctio
n of
indu
stry
man
ufac
turin
g lea
d-ba
sed
prod
ucts
on
th
e sh
ores
of
th
e ba
y. In
crea
sing
copp
er
conc
entra
tions
in r
ecen
t tim
es is
com
mon
ly ob
serv
ed in
sed
imen
ts o
f Sy
dney
Har
bour
, pe
rhap
s du
e to
the
con
tinue
d us
e of
cop
per-b
ased
an
tifou
ling
boat
pain
ts, w
here
as d
eclin
ing
lead
over
the
last 1
5 ye
ars
has
been
attr
ibut
ed to
the
intro
duct
ion
of u
nlea
ded
petro
l. Th
e m
ain s
ourc
e of
zin
c is
vehi
cular
em
issio
ns a
nd c
ompo
nent
wea
r and
is tr
ansp
orte
d to
th
e es
tuar
y by
stor
m w
ater
. Re
gion
al tre
nds
in
cont
amin
atio
n ha
ve
been
in
vest
igat
ed
by
the
Env
ironm
enta
l G
eolo
gy G
roup
in
the
Scho
ol o
f G
eosc
ience
s at
the
U
nive
rsity
of
Sydn
ey u
sing
a co
nsid
erab
ly lar
ger
core
dat
abas
e in
co
njun
ctio
n w
ith
seve
ral
vint
ages
of
su
rfac
e se
dim
ent
met
al co
ncen
tratio
ns fr
om a
bout
the
mid
-197
0s to
the
pres
ent.
Dat
a fr
om th
e co
res
and
surf
icial
sedi
men
ts s
how
tha
t, in
gen
eral,
con
cent
ratio
ns o
f m
etals
in b
otto
m se
dim
ent h
ave
been
dec
linin
g in
the
uppe
r par
ts o
f the
es
tuar
y, w
est o
f the
Syd
ney
Har
bour
Brid
ge, b
ut h
ave
been
incr
easin
g in
th
e lo
wer
har
bour
, in
Lane
Cov
e an
d M
iddl
e H
arbo
ur o
ver
the
last 2
5 ye
ars
(Birc
h &
Tay
lor 2
004)
. The
dec
reas
e in
met
al co
ncen
tratio
ns s
ince
th
e lat
e 19
70s
is co
nsist
ent w
ith th
e in
trodu
ctio
n of
the
Clea
n W
aters
Act
23
5
whi
ch re
quire
d in
dust
ry to
disc
harg
e w
aste
into
the
sew
erag
e sy
stem
and
to
redu
ce w
aste
gen
erat
ion.
A d
ecisi
on b
y in
dust
ry to
relo
cate
out
of t
he
Sydn
ey H
arbo
ur c
atch
men
t ove
r the
last
25
year
s has
also
con
tribu
ted
to
redu
ctio
n of
met
al flu
x to
the
har
bour
. Relo
catin
g in
dust
ry a
way
fro
m
high
-land
valu
e re
al es
tate
on
the
wat
er fr
ont w
ith h
igh-
dens
ity h
ousin
g ha
s un
doub
tedl
y als
o re
duce
d co
ntam
inan
t lo
ads
disc
harg
ed d
irect
ly to
th
e es
tuar
y. Th
e m
ove
has
also
chan
ged
appr
eciat
ion
of t
he h
arbo
ur
from
form
er w
orki
ng c
lass
subu
rbs t
o hi
gh-v
alue,
mid
dle
clas
s are
as, f
or
exam
ple
Balm
ain a
nd W
oolw
ich.
Incr
ease
d m
etals
co
ncen
tratio
n ov
er
the
sam
e 25
-yea
r pe
riod
in
sedi
men
ts o
f Lan
e Co
ve a
nd M
iddl
e H
arbo
ur h
ave
been
attr
ibut
ed to
a
rapi
d ex
pans
ion
of r
esid
entia
l an
d co
mm
ercia
l pr
oper
ty,
as w
ell a
s in
crea
sed
trans
port
serv
ices
in t
he C
hats
woo
d an
d N
orth
Ryd
e ar
eas
(Tay
lor,
Birc
h &
Li
nks
2004
). H
igh
conc
entra
tions
of
m
etals
in
se
dim
ents
of
river
s an
d cr
eeks
dra
inin
g th
ese
area
s su
ppor
t th
is vi
ew
(Birc
h &
Tay
lor 2
004)
.
Pres
ent s
tatu
s of
Por
t Jac
kson
Se
dim
ent i
n so
me
parts
of P
ort J
acks
on is
the
mos
t con
tam
inat
ed o
f any
ha
rbou
r w
orld
wid
e. Se
dim
ents
m
antli
ng
the
estu
ary
cont
ain
high
co
ncen
tratio
ns
of
a w
ide
rang
e of
co
ntam
inan
ts
over
ex
tens
ive
ar
eas,
inclu
ding
he
avy
met
als,
orga
noch
lorin
e pe
stici
des,
polyc
yclic
ar
omat
ic hy
droc
arbo
ns
(PA
Hs)
, po
lychl
orin
ated
bi
phen
yls
(PCB
s),
polyc
hlor
inat
ed d
iben
zo-p
-dio
xins
and
dib
enzo
fura
ns (
Birc
h &
Tay
lor,
1999
, 200
0; B
irch
et a
l 200
6; Ir
vine
& B
irch,
199
8; M
cCre
ady
et a
l 200
0).
The
orig
in o
f th
ese
subs
tanc
es c
an b
e br
oadl
y gr
oupe
d as
rela
ted
to
indu
stria
l act
iviti
es, p
ast a
nd c
urre
nt s
torm
wat
er d
ischa
rge
and
leach
ates
fr
om r
eclai
med
lan
d. T
he i
ndus
trial
sour
ce i
s du
e lar
gely
to h
istor
ical
poor
pra
ctice
s, w
here
as s
torm
wat
er a
nd le
acha
te s
ourc
es a
re p
ast
and
cont
empo
rary
. Ear
ly in
dust
ry w
as lo
cate
d on
the
sho
relin
e of
the
por
t fo
r co
nven
ience
and
che
ap d
elive
ry o
f ra
w m
ater
ials,
as w
ell a
s fo
r re
ducin
g ha
ulag
e co
sts
for
coal
to p
ower
sta
tions
. E
xpor
t of
hea
vy,
bulk
y m
anuf
actu
red
good
s w
as a
lso e
asy
and
inex
pens
ive
for
shor
e-ba
sed
indu
strie
s. Co
ntam
inat
ion
of
adjac
ent
sedi
men
t by
w
aste
as
socia
ted
with
the
mov
emen
t of
goo
ds,
and
from
che
ap d
ispos
al of
w
aste
dire
ctly
into
the
har
bour
, acc
ount
s fo
r m
ost
of p
ast
indu
stria
lly-
sour
ced
cont
amin
atio
n.
23
6
Sam
plin
g of
riv
ers
and
cree
ks
disc
harg
ing
to
Port
Jack
son
has
show
n th
at
stor
mw
ater
co
ntin
ues
to
prov
ide
large
qu
antit
ies
of
cont
amin
ants
, main
ly he
avy
met
als to
the
rece
ivin
g ba
sin. A
lthou
gh it
is
know
n th
at
cont
amin
ants
ar
e be
ing
sour
ced
from
w
aste
m
ater
ial
cont
ained
w
ithin
re
claim
ed
lands
su
rrou
ndin
g th
e ha
rbou
r, th
e m
agni
tude
of
this
supp
ly re
main
s un
quan
tified
, as
with
oth
er d
iffus
e so
urce
s, su
ch a
s atm
osph
eric
depo
sitio
n.
The
majo
rity
of t
hese
con
tam
inan
ts a
re a
ssoc
iated
with
the
par
ticul
ate
phas
e, bu
t the
pro
cess
es w
here
by th
ese
parti
cle-b
ound
con
tam
inan
ts a
re
trans
porte
d w
ithin
the
estu
ary
and
the
effe
cts
of th
ese
mat
erial
s on
flor
a an
d fa
una
are
poor
ly kn
own
and
are
the
subj
ect
of c
urre
nt s
tudi
es.
Rece
nt la
rge
ecot
oxico
logi
cal s
tudi
es (M
cCre
ady
et a
l 200
4; M
cCre
ady
et
al 20
05; M
cCre
ady,
Birc
h &
Lon
g 20
06; M
cCre
ady
et a
l 200
6a 2
006b
, 20
06c)
hav
e sh
own
that
sedi
men
t in
high
impa
ct a
reas
of t
he h
arbo
ur a
re
toxi
c to
som
e be
nthi
c an
imals
, as
was
pre
dict
ed b
y ea
rlier
inve
stig
atio
ns
of s
edim
ent q
ualit
y (B
irch
& T
aylo
r, 20
02a,
2002
b, 2
002c
). To
dat
e lit
tle
wor
k ha
s be
en d
one
on t
he t
rans
fer
of c
onta
min
ants
in
the
wat
er
colu
mn
and
botto
m s
edim
ent
to b
enth
ic an
d pe
lagic
anim
als,
term
ed
‘bio
accu
mul
atio
n’, o
r on
the
mov
emen
t of
the
se m
ater
ials
up t
he f
ood
chain
, call
ed ‘b
iom
agni
ficat
ion’
. E
arly
stud
ies d
etec
ted
high
tota
l PCB
con
cent
ratio
ns in
mul
let c
augh
t in
Port
Jack
son
(Woo
llard
& S
ettle
197
8), b
ut m
ean
valu
es a
ppea
r to
hav
e de
crea
sed
since
the
n (R
ichar
dson
198
5).
In a
mor
e re
cent
stu
dy o
f ch
lorin
ated
hy
droc
arbo
ns
in
the
tissu
e of
se
ven
fish
type
s, co
ncen
tratio
ns
exce
eded
N
atio
nal
Food
A
utho
rity
Max
imum
Re
sidue
Lim
its f
or t
wo
spec
ies i
n D
uck
Rive
r, H
omeb
ush
Bay
and
Ir
on C
ove
and
one
spec
ies i
n Pa
rram
atta
Riv
er (
Roac
h &
Run
cie
19
98).
Hig
h co
ncen
tratio
ns o
f po
lychl
orin
ated
dib
enzo
- p-d
ioxi
ns a
nd
polyc
hlor
inat
ed d
iben
zofu
rans
in
sedi
men
t in
Hom
ebus
h Ba
y ha
ve
resu
lted
in u
nacc
epta
bly
high
tiss
ue c
once
ntra
tion
in fi
n fis
h. In
198
9 fin
fis
hing
was
ban
ned
in t
he b
ay a
nd in
the
fol
low
ing
year
the
ban
was
ex
pand
ed to
incl
ude
the
who
le u
pper
third
of t
he h
arbo
ur. M
ore
rece
nt
mon
itorin
g sa
w t
he N
SW F
ood
Aut
horit
y po
sing
a 3-
mon
th b
an o
n co
mm
ercia
l fin
fish
ing
in th
e w
hole
harb
our
in D
ecem
ber,
2005
, whi
ch
in J
anua
ry t
he f
ollo
win
g ye
ar w
as e
xten
ded
to in
clude
pra
wn
traw
ling.
23
7
Thes
e ba
ns w
ere
mad
e pe
rman
ent
in F
ebru
ary
2006
. Bl
ood
test
s of
pr
awn
fishe
rmen
sho
wed
one
ind
ivid
ual
with
fou
r-tim
es t
he a
vera
ge
diox
in c
once
ntra
tions
and
his
son
with
sev
en ti
mes
ave
rage
leve
ls. O
ne
gran
dfat
her h
ad c
once
ntra
tions
10
times
ave
rage
valu
es. H
owev
er, t
hese
lev
els w
ere
not d
eem
ed d
etrim
enta
l to
hum
an h
ealth
. Stu
dies
con
tinue
to
dete
rmin
e th
e ex
tent
of
the
prob
lem a
nd h
ow b
est
to r
educ
e bo
ttom
se
dim
ent
conc
entra
tions
to
leve
ls w
here
fish
and
pra
wn
tissu
e lev
els
decli
ne to
acc
epta
ble
valu
es.
The
appr
opria
te a
nd su
cces
sful
gov
erna
nce
of th
is es
tuar
y re
quire
s hig
h-qu
ality
, scie
nce-
base
d in
form
atio
n. T
he c
urre
nt c
halle
nges
for
scie
ntist
s ar
e to
id
entif
y an
d qu
antif
y so
urce
s, un
ders
tand
th
e m
echa
nism
s co
ntro
lling
the
fat
e of
con
tam
inan
ts,
dete
rmin
e th
e ef
fect
s of
the
se
subs
tanc
es o
n liv
ing
reso
urce
s an
d co
nstru
ct m
anag
emen
t to
ols
base
d on
rob
ust
scie
nce.
Mod
ellin
g th
e so
urce
, fa
te a
nd e
ffect
s of
the
se
cont
amin
ants
in P
ort J
acks
on w
ill e
nabl
e m
anag
ers a
nd p
lanne
rs to
mak
e de
cisio
ns o
n su
ch is
sues
as
stor
mw
ater
rem
ediat
ion
optio
ns, r
elaxa
tion
times
(nat
ural
clean
up),
and
the
amou
nt o
f dr
edgi
ng r
equi
red
to r
educ
e tis
sue
conc
entra
tions
to
acce
ptab
le lim
its a
nd t
o se
t m
axim
um d
aily
load
ing
for
cree
ks e
nter
ing
the
wat
er w
ay. I
n re
cent
tim
es, c
onsid
erab
le ef
fort
has
resu
lted
in r
educ
ed i
ndus
trial
was
te e
nter
ing
Port
Jack
son.
N
ow is
an
appr
opria
te t
ime
to in
itiat
e a
new
con
certe
d en
viro
nmen
tal
effo
rt to
ins
tall
seco
nd g
ener
atio
n re
med
ial d
evice
s to
red
uce
curr
ent
stor
mw
ater
con
tam
inan
t inp
uts.
It is
also
time
to u
nder
take
app
ropr
iate
rem
edial
wor
k in
the
cat
chm
ent
and
in t
he e
stua
ry t
o re
stor
e th
e
harb
our
to a
con
ditio
n in
whi
ch it
can
sup
port
a co
mpl
ete
and
healt
hy
ecol
ogica
l com
mun
ity.
Ack
now
ledge
men
ts
Fund
ing
for
210 P
b an
d 13
7 Cs
radi
oiso
topi
c da
ting
of s
edim
ent c
ores
was
pr
ovid
ed b
y th
e A
ustra
lian
Inst
itute
of N
uclea
r Scie
nce
and
Tech
nolo
gy.
The
auth
ors
than
k H
enk
Heij
nis
and
And
rew
Je
nkin
son
of
the
Env
ironm
enta
l Rad
ioiso
tope
Lab
orat
ory
at A
ustra
lian
Nuc
lear
Scien
ce
and
Tech
nolo
gy O
rgan
isatio
n, L
ucas
Heig
hts
for
thei
r ad
vice
with
ra
dioi
soto
pic
datin
g. T
he a
utho
r th
anks
Mar
co O
lmos
for
dra
fting
the
fig
ures
to
this
man
uscr
ipt
and
to P
hil M
cMan
us f
or c
omm
ents
on
an
early
dra
ft of
the
man
uscr
ipt.
23
8 Refe
renc
es
Ang
lin a
nd A
ssoc
iates
, 19
90.
Sydn
ey H
arbo
ur:
Mar
itime
Serv
ices
Boar
d H
erita
ge an
d Co
nserv
ation
Regi
ster:
Hist
ory,
vol
1, A
nglin
Ass
ociat
es,
Sydn
ey.
Barr
y S
C, T
aylo
r S
E &
Birc
h G
F,
1999
. ‘H
eavy
met
als i
n ur
ban
stor
mw
ater
can
als e
nter
ing
Port
Jack
son,
Aus
tralia
and
their
impa
ct
on
the
estu
arin
e en
viro
nmen
t’,
Proc
eedi
ngs
of
the
Eig
hth
Inte
rnat
iona
l Con
fere
nce
on U
rban
Sto
rm D
rain
age,
Sydn
ey, J
oliff
e &
Ball
J E
(eds
.), A
ugus
t, vo
l. 4
, pp.
182
5-18
32.
Barr
y S
C, T
aylo
r S
E &
Birc
h G
F, 2
001.
‘Hea
vy m
etal
supp
ly to
the
Po
rt Ja
ckso
n E
stua
ry, A
ustra
lia b
y st
orm
wat
er’,
Aus
tralia
n Jo
urna
l of
Wat
er Re
source
s, vo
l. 4,
no.
2, p
p. 1
47–1
54.
Birc
h G
F,
Scol
len A
, Sn
owde
n R
& S
uh J
, 19
99.
‘Sou
rces
of
heav
y m
etals
in
st
orm
wat
er
drain
ing
into
Po
rt Ja
ckso
n,
Aus
tralia
’, Pr
ocee
ding
s of
the
Eig
hth
Inte
rnat
iona
l Co
nfer
ence
on
Urb
an
Stor
m D
rain
age,
Sydn
ey, J
oliff
e &
Ball
J E
(ed
s.), A
ugus
t, vo
l. 4
, pp
. 220
2–22
09.
Birc
h G
F &
Tay
lor S
E, 1
999.
‘Sou
rce
of h
eavy
met
als in
sed
imen
ts o
f Po
rt Ja
ckso
n es
tuar
y, A
ustra
lia’,
The
Scien
ce of
the
Tota
l Env
ironm
ent,
vol.
227,
pp.
123
–138
. Bi
rch
G F
, 200
0. ‘M
arin
e po
llutio
n in
Aus
tralia
, with
spec
ial e
mph
asis
on
cent
ral
New
So
uth
Wale
s es
tuar
ies
and
adjac
ent
cont
inen
tal
mar
gin’
, In
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ydne
y, A
ustra
lia’,
Mar
ine a
nd F
reshw
ater
Resea
rch, v
ol. 5
4, p
p. 7
67–7
79.
Suh
J, Bi
rch
G F
, Mat
thai
C &
Hug
hes
K, 2
004a
. ‘Sp
atial
dist
ribut
ion
and
sour
ces
of h
eavy
met
als in
rec
laim
ed la
nds
of H
omeb
ush
Bay;
the
venu
e of
the
2000
Oly
mpi
c G
ames
, Syd
ney,
New
Sou
th W
ales’,
A
ustra
lian
Jour
nal o
f Ear
th S
cienc
es, v
ol. 5
1, p
p. 5
3–66
.
24
3
Suh
J, Bi
rch
G F
& H
ughe
s K
, 200
4b. ‘
Hyd
roch
emist
ry in
rec
laim
ed
lands
of t
he 2
000
Olym
pic
Gam
es s
ite, S
ydne
y, A
ustra
lia’,
Jour
nal o
f Co
asta
l Rese
arch
, vol
. 20,
no.
3, p
p. 7
09–7
21.
Taylo
r S
E,
2000
. Th
e so
urce
and
rem
obili
satio
n of
con
tam
inat
ed
sedi
men
t in
Por
t Ja
ckso
n, A
ustra
lia. P
hD t
hesis
, the
Uni
vers
ity o
f Sy
dney
, Syd
ney.
Taylo
r S
E, B
irch
G F
, & L
inks
E, 2
004.
‘Hist
orica
l cat
chm
ent c
hang
es
and
tem
pora
l im
pact
on
sedi
men
t of
the
rec
eivin
g ba
sin,
Port
Jack
son,
New
Sou
th W
ales’,
Aus
tralia
n Jo
urna
l of E
arth
Scie
nces,
vol
. 51
, no.
2, p
p. 2
33–2
46.
Thom
B
G
&
Roy
P S,
19
85.
‘Rela
tive
sea
levels
an
d co
asta
l se
dim
enta
tion
in s
outh
east
Aus
tralia
in
the
Hol
ocen
e’, J
ourn
al of
Sedim
enta
ry Pe
trolog
y, vo
l. 55
, pp.
257
–264
. W
alsh
G P
, 196
3. ‘T
he G
eogr
aphy
of
Man
ufac
turin
g in
Syd
ney
1788
–18
51’,
Busin
ess A
rchive
s and
Hist
ory,
vol.
3, n
o. 1
, pp.
20–
52.
Web
ber
& D
aly, 1
971.
‘Loc
atio
n of
man
ufac
turin
g gr
owth
with
in c
ities
: a
pred
ictiv
e m
odel
for S
ydne
y 19
54–1
966’
, Roy
al A
ustra
lian
Plan
ning
In
stitu
te Jo
urna
l, vo
l. 9,
pp.
130
–136
. W
oolla
rd P
& S
ettle
H, 1
978.
‘PCB
resid
ues
in m
ullet
, Mug
il cep
halus
fed
to c
aptiv
e E
aste
rn A
ustra
lian
wat
er r
ats,
Hyd
romy
s ch
rysog
aster
’, Bu
lletin
of E
nviro
nmen
tal C
onta
mina
tion
and
Toxi
colog
y, vo
l. 20
, pp.
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–61
2.
Zan
n L
P, 1
996.
‘Th
e st
ate
of t
he m
arin
e en
viro
nmen
t re
port
for
Aus
tralia
(SO
ME
R). P
roce
ss, f
indi
ngs
and
pers
pect
ive’,
Ocea
n an
d Co
asta
l Man
agem
ent,
vol.
33, p
p. 1
–3 &
63–
86.
24
4 8 Ene
rgy
from
offs
hore
win
d: a
n ov
ervi
ew
Don
g-Sh
eng
Jen
g an
d Y
un
Zh
eng
Abs
tract
Re
new
able
ener
gy
has
attra
cted
a
grea
t de
al of
at
tent
ion
amon
g go
vern
men
ts, i
ndus
tries
, aca
dem
ics a
nd s
ociet
ies t
hrou
ghou
t th
e w
orld
in
rece
nt ti
mes
. Offs
hore
win
d en
ergy
is a
rene
wab
le en
ergy
sou
rce
that
ha
s gr
eat
pote
ntial
in
en
ergy
m
arke
ts
wor
ldw
ide
as
our
curr
ent
know
ledge
of
offs
hore
eng
inee
ring
tech
nolo
gy m
akes
it
read
y fo
r im
plem
enta
tion
imm
ediat
ely.
In t
his
chap
ter,
offs
hore
win
d en
ergy
is
com
pare
d w
ith o
ther
ren
ewab
le en
ergy
sou
rces
, and
exi
stin
g of
fsho
re
win
d en
ergy
pro
jects
thro
ugho
ut th
e w
orld
are
revi
ewed
. Cur
rent
des
ign
code
s of
offs
hore
win
d en
ergy
are
out
lined
and
a s
et o
f cr
iteria
for
the
selec
tion
of a
ppro
priat
e sit
es fo
r offs
hore
win
d en
ergy
is e
stab
lishe
d fo
r A
ustra
lia. F
inall
y, po
tent
ial s
ites
in A
ustra
lia a
re e
valu
ated
and
bas
ed o
n ou
r an
alysis
, the
sou
ther
n pa
rt of
Wes
tern
Aus
tralia
(W
A)
is th
e m
ost
appr
opria
te si
te fo
r win
d fa
rms.
Intro
duct
ion
Due
to th
e w
orld
’s ris
ing
ener
gy c
onsu
mpt
ion,
lim
ited
exist
ence
of f
ossil
en
ergy
so
urce
s an
d dr
amat
ic ch
ange
s to
th
e w
orld
’s cli
mat
e, th
e ex
tens
ion
of r
enew
able
ener
gy h
as d
raw
n a
grea
t dea
l of a
ttent
ion
from
go
vern
men
ts,
indu
strie
s an
d ac
adem
ics w
orld
-wid
e. Re
new
able
ener
gy
has
cons
ider
able
pote
ntial
and
cou
ld t
heor
etica
lly p
rovi
de a
nea
rly
unlim
ited
supp
ly of
rela
tively
clea
n an
d m
ostly
loca
l ene
rgy.
Rece
ntly,
gl
obal
rene
wab
le en
ergy
sup
ply
has
been
gro
win
g st
rong
ly; t
he a
nnua
l gr
owth
for
win
d en
ergy
, fo
r ex
ampl
e, ha
s be
en a
roun
d 30
per
cen
t re
cent
ly, fr
om a
ver
y lo
w b
ase
of 6
.29
per c
ent o
f tot
al re
new
able
ener
gy
reso
urce
s. In
rela
tive
term
s, ho
wev
er, t
he s
hare
of
mod
ern
rene
wab
le