CLIMATE-RESILIENT AND

ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND AGRICULTURE

OR “CLIMATE-SMART” AGRICULTURE

Information package for government

authorities

Introduction to the information package

The future of humankind and the planet relies on human activities becoming more

efficient, the food chain being no exception. This online information package was

written with the idea of providing an overview of the challenges that the agriculture

sector—and to a certain extent the food production chain—faces to feed the world

while becoming more efficient. It also explores ways to address these challenges.

Through simplified concepts and relevant resources and examples, we explore the

impacts of global change on agriculture, the impacts of agriculture on ecosystems

and possible technical and policy considerations that can help building food security

under current and future challenges.

The technical and policy considerations explored are meant to contribute towards

climate-resilient and environmentally sound or “climate-smart” agriculture—

agriculture that increases productivity; enhances resilience to global change; stops

ecosystem services deterioration; and produces economic and social benefits.

The information presented here comes from findings, experience and ideas from all

over the world, as we believe there are already elements to catalyse change. We

also believe this change has to come largely from local communities, for which

reason, wherever possible, we provide examples at local levels.

See how to use the information package.

PART I

AGRICULTURE, FOOD SECURITY AND ECOSYSTEMS: CURRENT

AND FUTURE CHALLENGES

PART II

ADDRESSING CHALLENGES

PACKAGE CONTENT

MODULE 5

C-RESAP/CLIMATE-SMART

AGRICULTURE:

TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND

EXAMPLES OF PRODUCTION

SYSTEMS

Module objectives and structure

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Objectives

Description of the different technical aspects that need to be considered in order to introduce C-

RESAP/climate-smart practices and presentation of some examples of C-RESAP/climate-smart

agriculture.

Structure

The module has an introduction to the principles that underpin climate-smart practices and 6 units:

1. Technical planning towards climate-smart agriculture: which emphasis the need for changing to

an ecosystem management based approach combined with sound land use planning.

2. Technical components towards climate-smart crop production.

3. Technical components towards climate-smart livestock production.

4. Technical components towards climate-smart fisheries and aquaculture

5. Integrated systems towards climate-smart agriculture.

6. Increasing efficiency in different systems.

Caveat

Although farmers have been adapting to different threats for many years, a clear focus on climate-

smart agriculture is much more recent. Examples may come from experiences that can be

considered sustainable and because their characteristics are promising for climate-smart agriculture.

Truly climate-smart agricultural practices will be unique to specific local conditions, but they will share

common aspects (the “components” described here) with practices elsewhere.

Food production with health in mind

• Food production and distribution must consider health as the wider goal: health of

humans and health of ecosystems

The future of people and the planet relies on more efficient human

activities, with the food chain being no exception.

Food production and distribution must consider health as the wider goal:

human health through the provision of enough, nutritious, good quality

and safe food with the least possible impact on ecosystems’ health. In

addition, interactions with other sectors should be considered in a time

of multiple challenges, e.g. the need to share water resources with other

sectors or preserving ecosystem services for other uses.

Whatever future agricultural practices are called (e.g. sound, smarter,

sustainable), their key features will be to be efficient, to become more

resilient to climate variability and change, to save, reuse or recycle

resources and to provide social and economic benefits.

Here we do not differentiate between the terms “climate-smart” and

“climate-resilient and environmentally sound” agriculture.

Checking food quality in

Tajikistan.

Photo: FAO/V. Maximov.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Sustainable systems

• Sustainable systems will provide the “win-win” outcomes required to meet the

challenges of feeding the world’s population and reduce the impact of agriculture

on ecosystems

The production of food needed by society will need to come from

intensifying production from existing resources, as there are

relatively few opportunities for expanding.

There is now widespread recognition that an ecosystem approach

must underpin sustainable crop production intensification, and that

together with increases in productivity in the livestock and fisheries

sectors, resulting systems should take human and ecosystem

health into consideration.

Sustainable systems will provide the “win-win” outcomes required to

meet the challenges of feeding the world’s population and reduce

the impact of agriculture on ecosystems. They will allow countries to

plan, develop and manage food production addressing society’s

needs and aspirations, without jeopardizing the right of future

generations to enjoy environmental goods and services.

Sustainable production

approaches used in FAO for

crop, livestock and fisheries

production (click on images).

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Getting smarter in the field

• Farmers, herders and fishing communities need solutions to multiple challenges

• Food security and climate change can be addressed together by transforming

agriculture and adopting practices that are “climate-smart”

Farmers, herders and fishing communities have been adapting for

centuries, but the rate of change is becoming too fast for them to be

able to respond. Many environmental and economic challenges add to

their work, therefore they need to look for solutions that allow them to

maintain production, improve income and fulfil the demand for

agricultural products.

Food security and climate change can be addressed together by

transforming agriculture and adopting practices that are “climate-

smart”.

Here we define climate-smart agriculture as agriculture that

sustainably increases productivity (e.g. through sustainable production

intensification) and resilience (adaptation), reduces greenhouse gases

(mitigation), and enhances achievement of national food security and

development goals (adapted from FAO). “Climate-Smart” Agriculture,

FAO.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Technical planning towards climate-

smart agriculture

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Managing ecosystems, not administrative units

• Ecosystem management is more useful than management at administrative unit

level for tackling multiple challenges

Planning is commonly done at administrative division level. This

makes it more difficult to account for differences in environmental,

economic and social conditions. Managing ecosystems, rather than

administrative units, is more useful for tackling multiple challenges.

Ecosystem management is not new; in some areas planning is done

at watershed or basin (physiographic) levels. This type of

management is often done for water resources, but can become truly

ecosystem management if multiple aspects are considered. These

include production opportunities (e.g. possible future comparative

production advantages, types of agriculture, diversification

opportunities), adaptation to climate change (e.g. flood control, storm

water management, water allocation, cropping cycles), status of

resources and conservation needs (e.g. erosion control, water,

biodiversity, forestry and ecosystem services conservation) as well as

socio-economic aspects.Ecosystem management,

UNEP.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Managing ecosystems, not administrative units

Examples

Canadian Ecological Framework

Since the late 1960s, governments, non-

governmental organizations, universities and

industry have worked to develop a common

hierarchical ecosystem framework and terminology

for Canada. The underlying principle for the initiative

was the commitment and need to think, plan, and

act in terms of ecosystems.

The principle required people to move away from an

emphasis on individual elements that comprise an

ecosystem to a perspective that is more

comprehensive. This required a consistent, national

spatial context within which ecosystems at various

levels of generalization can be described,

monitored, and reported on. The framework provides

for common communication and reporting between

different jurisdictions and disciplines. See more…Part of a map from the National Ecological

Framework for Canada.

Source: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Land evaluation and land use planning

• Land evaluation and land use planning can also be part of strategies for smarter

agriculture and ecosystem management by identifying the land with the highest

productivity potential

Traditionally, land evaluation and land use planning have been

carried out to identify land potential and facilitate a more orderly

and efficient distribution of land between urban, industrial,

farmland, forest, transportation or other uses. It contributes to the

conservation of forest, farmland, grasslands or other ecosystems.

Land evaluation and land use planning can also be part of

strategies for smarter agriculture and ecosystem management by

identifying land with the highest productivity potential, land with

the highest vulnerability and land with the highest potential for

carbon sequestration under different climate change scenarios.

Modern tools of spatial analysis and climate change scenarios

can be combined in land use planning. It will be most effective

when done by involving communities in allocating land to satisfy

community needs and responsibilities for ecosystem preservation.

Participatory land use planning

involves communities in the

allocation of land uses—some FAO

approaches (click on images).

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Land evaluation and land use planning

Examples

Land use planning and reducing

carbon losses

The original motivation for Oregon’s

land use planning program was to

protect commercial forest and farm

land from development. At the time

nobody was thinking about carbon

emissions.

A recent study from the Pacific

Northwest Research Station, USA

showed that this programme has

protected forest and farmland and

contributed to avoiding 1.7 Mt of

carbon dioxide emissions annually—

the amount of carbon that would have

been emitted by 395,000 cars in one

year.

Estimated cumulative loss of forest and agricultural land to low-

density or greater development in western Oregon with, and

without, the state’s land use planning programme. If maintained,

Oregon’s land use planning programme will continue to yield

carbon storage benefits. By 2024, avoided development on an

additional 83,000 ha of forest and agricultural land will yield an

additional 3.5 Mt of avoided carbon losses (equivalent to 12.8

Mt of CO2 emissions, or 0.64 Mt CO2 per year).

Source: Land use planning: a time-tested approach for

addressing climate change.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Land evaluation and land use planning

Examples

Participatory land use development

in Bosnia and Herzegovina

The project Inventory of Post-War

Situation of Land Resources in

Bosnia and Herzegovina (FAO, 2004)

produced an inventory of the state of

the land resources of Bosnia and

Herzegovina and strengthened

institutional capacities to monitor land

resources, including local

administrations dealing with land

resources management.

The methodology created by the

project is an example of a

participatory approach, which could

be further expanded for climate

change considerations.

The variables that determine land use.

Source: Participatory land use development in the municipalities of

Bosnia and Herzegovina, FAO, 2004.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Diversifying rural income

• Diversifying rural income may be a strategy towards more climate-resilient

livelihoods, but new activities should show larger incomes and be feasible in

terms of land, labour, capital and market access

Diversifying rural income, an old strategy in many countries, implies the

re-allocation of some of the productive resources of a farm to new

activities, such as growing new crops; introducing livestock and their

products; embarking on value-adding activities (e.g. small scale food

processing); shifting production to preserve ecosystem services;

providing services to other farmers or food industries; and working on

non-farming activities.

Rural income diversification may be a strategy towards more resilient

systems in low productivity areas, but it needs support from policies to

ensure income generated by new farm enterprises is larger than the

existing activities, but with similar or less risk.

While growing new crops, raising animals or adding value to production

may be technically possible, they may not be suitable in terms of land,

labour, capital resources or market access.

A farmer boiling olives

that will be processed

into soap in Honduras.

Photo: FAO/G. Bizzarri.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Diversifying rural income

Examples

Conditions for non-farming activities in Syria

Rural areas in Syria are still dominated by

agriculture; nevertheless, farming is no longer the

only activity. A recent study from the National

Agricultural Policy Center in selected rural areas

concluded that promoting non-farm activities

needed:

• Improvement of the education level of rural

households;

• Promotion of the professional and technical

education to increase labour capacity;

• Promotion of the access of households to credit

markets, enhancing the productive assets of

rural households;

• Increase in investment in rural areas to create

diversification opportunities.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Technical planning

Reflections

In the past, communities have developed mainly through spontaneous actions and guided by

common sense and traditional knowledge. The multiple challenges that the world is facing are

likely to result in contradicting interests among different sectors.

Sitting at the table with the multiple sectors and actors interested in local development to plan for

local resources allocation may offer an opportunity to save resources and increase resilience.

Advanced land evaluation and land use planning tools, combined with innovative approaches to

resource management (like ecosystem management), scientific data on potential impacts of

climate, economic analyses and participatory decision making can contribute to these aims.

Do you know of any efforts of land evaluation, zoning and planning, even if not done through

scientific methods?

Did you know that as part of land use planning you could identify areas which are more

vulnerable to risks from storms, landslides or tides?

Looking at the resources on ecosystem management, could you try it in your area? Perhaps your

local environmental management agencies could provide guidelines. It is not about data, but

about thinking from a system perspective!

Which opportunities are there for income diversification? For example, how can you add value to

the produce of the area? You could look for ideas in the Rural infrastructure and agro-industries

website.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Technical components towards

climate-smart crop production

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Diversifying crop systems

• Monoculture has a number of disadvantages that result in losses

• Diversification of crop systems provides an opportunity to introduce varieties that

are more resilient and may also provide economic benefits

Monoculture (the cultivation of the same species year after year in

the same place) increases pests, diseases and certain weeds;

reduces yields; has greater economic risk; results in inadequate

distribution of labour throughout the year; increases toxic

substances or growth inhibitors in the soil; and reduces biodiversity.

Change in climatic conditions and length of growing periods will

require planning for cropping patterns and varieties which make the

most of the new conditions, preserving productivity and soil fertility.

Diverse crop production and crop rotations (cultivation of

subsistence, cash or green manure/cover crops with different char-

acteristics on the same field during successive years, and following

a previously established sequence), may provide higher resilience

for agro-ecosystems. New cropping patterns should consider risks,

agro-ecological, economic and social aspects. More...

Slow-forming terraces and crop

diversification, including maize,

banana and vegetable cropping

in Kiseny region, north-eastern

Rwanda.

Photo: FAO/A. Odoul.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Diversifying crop systems

Examples

Crop diversification in

Kiaranga, Kenya

Cassava generally thrives in

challenging environments,

particularly under hot, dry

conditions.

Some experts suggest those

traits could make cassava

attractive for farmers in areas

where future hotter, drier weather

makes current staples, such as

maize, less viable.

Climatic conditions in some

areas will benefit yields of

cassava. For example, in

Kiaranga village, Kenya, yields

are predicted to increase by 9%.

Video of a farmer in Kenya talking

about her crop diversification

strategies.

Source: CGIAR- Climate Change

Agriculture and Food Security.

Suitability changes of

cassava in Kyaranga

village, Kenya.

Source: CGIAR- Climate

Change Agriculture and

Food Security.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Genetic resources and resilience

• Systems where a variety of genetic resources are available are less affected by

biotic and abiotic shocks

• Genetic resources can be used for a more efficient agriculture and adapt to

climate change

Systems where a variety of genetic resources are available are less

affected by biotic and abiotic shocks. Therefore, the preservation and

sound use of domesticated plant and animal genetic resources and

their wild relatives is fundamental in a smarter agriculture.

At a broader level, the conservation of genetic resources, as a means

of increasing resilience in agriculture, implies: characterising the

structure of ecosystems and studying their responses to climate

change; identifying species that naturally cope better with stress;

supporting breeding of stress-resistant animal breeds and plant

varieties; and allowing for the distribution of seeds of new varieties.

At field level, using genetic resources implies introducing more

productive and better adapted animal breeds and crops (e.g. more

efficient in water and nutrient utilization, tolerant to stresses),

diversifying cropping systems and using interactions between plants

and soil organisms.

Video about the

Millennium Seed Bank

Partnership.

Source: Kew, Royal Botanic

Gardens, UK.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Genetic resources and resilience

Examples

Plant breeding

Plant breeding is the art and science of

genetically improving plants for the benefit of

humankind. It can contribute to climate-smart

agriculture by developing:

• Stress-resistant or more efficient varieties

(resistant to heat, drought, salinity, floods,

and water and nutrient efficient)

• Environmentally friendly varieties (e.g.

pests resistant varieties require fewer

pesticides).

• High-yielding varieties (increasing food

production per unit area and alleviating

pressure to add more arable land to

production systems).

See also The Global Partnership Initiative for

Plant Breeding Capacity (GIPB).

A field trial of salt-tolerant

durum wheat in New

South Wales, Australia.

Source: CSIRO.

Photo: R. James, CSIRO.

Submergence-

tolerant rice.

Source: International

Rice Research

Institute (IRRI).

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Retaining soil moisture

• Practices that protect crops from either excess or lack of soil moisture are

fundamental for adaptation of agriculture to climate change

Practices that protect crops from either excess or lack of soil

moisture are fundamental for adaptation of agriculture to climate

change. These include improving soil water holding capacity in dry

areas, or draining excess of moisture in wet areas.

Soil organic matter improves and stabilizes soil structure, so that

soils can absorb higher amounts of water without causing surface

runoff (therefore reducing soil erosion, inundation or flooding). It

also improves the water absorption capacity of soils during

extended drought. Organic matter in soils can be increased through

mulching with crop residues, as in Conservation Agriculture.

In dry areas soil moisture content can be increased through the use

of water harvesting. In areas with excess or heavy episodes of rain,

drainage and biodrainage contribute to reduce inundation and

flooding. See more...

Water cellars in China.

Biodrainage in Rajasthan, India.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Retaining soil moisture

Examples

Zaï or Tassa planting pits

Zaï or Tassa planting pits, are a water

harvesting technique that retain rainwater

around crops through the use of wide pits.

Pits range in size, depth and distance.

Stones may be placed on the upslope side of

the soil around the pits to help control runoff.

Plants are grown in the pits.

Manure is usually incorporated into the pits,

making Zaï pits a soil moisture conservation

and soil fertility improvement technique.

Despite the high initial labour cost, the Zaï

system has been adopted in the Sahel region

of West Africa and is now commonly

practised in eastern and southern Africa as

well.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Zaï planting in Sudan (left)

and Burkina Faso (above).

Source: Climate Program

Office, NOAA, USA.

Photo: Carla Roncoli,

Emory University.

Managing organic matter

• Organic matter is important for soil quality as it controls critical soil functions

• Increasing soil organic matter in soils can contribute to improve production and

reducing environmental impacts of agriculture

Organic matter deserves special attention as it affects several

critical soil functions. It enhances water and nutrient holding

capacity and improves soil structure, therefore practices that

preserve or increase soil organic carbon can improve productivity

and environmental quality and reduce the severity and costs of

natural phenomena (e.g. drought and flood). See more…

In addition, increasing soil organic matter levels in depleted soils

convert them in carbon sinks, contributing to offset emissions of

carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

Management of organic matter in drylands and tropics soils, which

are generally low in organic matter, and in intensive agricultural

systems, where years of tillage have depleted organic matter, is of

outmost importance to increase the efficiency of agricultural

systems their possibilities to adapt to climate change.

Management Practices can

increase soil organic matter and

enhance soil quality.

Source: Natural Resources

Conservation Service (NRCS).

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Managing organic matter

Examples

Crop residues left on soils increase

organic matter

Crop residues are the parts of plants left in

the field after the crops have been harvested

and thrashed. Crop residues are good

sources of plant nutrients, are the primary

source of organic material added to the soil,

and are important components for the

stability of agricultural ecosystems. Leaving

crop residues on the land as mulch is ideal to

increase organic matter, especially in

depleted soils.

Crop residue is not a waste but rather a

tremendous natural resource. About 25% of

nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), 50% of

sulfur (S) and 75% of potassium (K) uptake

by cereal crops are retained in crop residues,

making them a valuable nutrient source.

Partial removal of wheat straw for fodder while leaving long

stubble in the field.

Source: Cereal Knowledge Bank, International Maize and

Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT).

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Avoiding further soil erosion

• Erosion control measures have been implemented in many countries; in

combination with other measures they will be fundamental for a climate-smart

agriculture

Erosion, already a serious problem in some agricultural lands, may

increase in areas with more frequent or intense weather events.

A series of measures have been tested in different countries with

erosion problems over the years and these could be used as part of

a wider smart agriculture plan. The types of measures for reducing

erosion (and therefore preserving soil organic matter) include:

• Agronomic (e.g. mulching, reduced tillage, Conservation

Agriculture);

• Vegetative (e.g. using grass or forest strips, cover crops);

• Structural (e.g. check dams, bank stabilization, stone walls);

• Management (e.g. introducing fallow, changing land use).

To be more effective, these measures are often used in

combination.

Technologies database.

Source: World Overview of

Conservation Approaches and

Technologies (WOCAT).

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Avoiding further soil erosion

Examples

The World Overview of Conservation Approaches

and Technologies (WOCAT) supports innovation

and decision-making processes in

sustainable land management, particularly in

connection with soil and water conservation.

Land management specialists all over the world

have contributed to document practices for

different agro-ecosystems. These are available in

WOCAT’s information products, e.g. Sustainable

land management in practice and Where the land

is greener or the Technologies and Approaches

databases.

WOCAT also has systematic methods to

document practices and approaches, which are

useful for sharing information. If your specialists

would be interested in sharing their practices,

methods can be found here.

For greener land and bluer water (video).

WOCAT collects practices for sustainable land

management, including soil and water conservation

Source: World Conservation Approaches and

Technologies.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Increasing nutrient use efficiency

• More efficient application methods of fertilizers, soil analyses, precise nutrient

management and nutrient budgets or balances contribute to deliver nutrients

according to crop demand and preserve soil fertility, avoid pollution and reduce

costs

Macronutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S) and micronutrients in soils

contribute to increase yields, but they should be used efficiently.

Phosphorous is of particular concern as its sources are finite.

The effects of climate change on plant nutrient uptake are still not

well understood, but it is likely that efficient plant nutrition may be an

important component of adaptation of crops to climate change.

A combination of organic matter (either manure, crop residues or

green manure), and nitrogen fixing legumes can be used to reduce

the use of synthetic fertilizers.

More efficient application methods of organic and synthetic

fertilizers, soil analyses, precise nutrient management and nutrient

budgets or balances can contribute to deliver nutrients according to

crop demand and preserve soil fertility, avoid pollution and reduce

costs.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

The growth of a plant is

limited by the nutrient that is in

shortest supply (Liebig’s law of the

minimum).

Source: Plant nutrition for food

security.

Increasing nutrient use efficiency

Examples

Green manure

Soils in many subsistence

production systems are depleted

and have poor nutrient content.

The use of green manures

(involves growing a crop that will

be worked into the soil later) is an

option to enhance soil fertility and

protect soils.

Almost any crop can be used but

legumes are preferred for their

capacity to fix nitrogen from the

air.

Green manure can be introduced

in the rotation, intercropped or left

as mulch (not tilled) as in

Conservation Agriculture.

Green manuring in Washington State using Mustard varieties such as Oriental

mustard (Brassica juncea) and White mustard (Sinapis alba). Farmers use

them after wheat harvesting and before potatoes, to improve their soils and

thereby manage soil-borne pests, control wind erosion, increase infiltration

and improve crop yields.

Source: Green manuring with mustard - Improving an old technology.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Sound pest and disease control

• A smarter agriculture needs pest control strategies that are more efficient and do

not produce adverse side effects to the environment or human health

• Integrated pest management (IPM) relies on healthy agro-ecosystems for pest

control

The “business as usual” approach to pest management (reliance

on large amounts of pesticides, some hazardous to environment

and health) still followed by most farmers, limits their potential for

practising climate-smart agriculture.

Climate-smart agriculture needs pest control strategies that are

more efficient and do not produce adverse side effects. These

include applying integrated pest management technologies

(IPM)—where ecological control is used in preference to

hazardous pesticides—supported by policies and infrastructure

(e.g. early warning systems, training, regulation and incentives to

reduce trade and use of hazardous pesticides).

See also Plant protection in Save and grow- a policymaker’s

guide to the sustainable intensification of smallholder crop

production and resources on IPM.

Examples of

plant

protection in

Save and

Grow.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

A farmer using

an organic

pesticide in

Senegal.

Photo: FAO/O.

Asselin.

Sound pest and disease control

Examples

Monitoring pest movement: Locust

Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria) live

between West Africa and India, where they

normally survive in isolation. With heavy rains

and favourable conditions, they can increase

rapidly, gregarize and form swarms. If

infestations are not detected and controlled,

they can affect large areas.

The Emergency Prevention System for

Transboundary Animal and Plant Pests and

Diseases (EMPRES) helps to strengthen

national desert locust control capacities by

improving early warning, rapid reaction, pre-

paredness, and introducing environmentally

safer control techniques. This experience can

be used to devise early warning systems for

pest control under climate change threats.Examples of Locust desert watch.

Source: Locust watch.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Sound pest and disease control

Examples

Farmer field schools: IPM and

adaptation to climate change

Integrated pest management (IPM) field

schools are a means to train farmers on

ecological pest control.

The department of agricultural extension

in West Java, Indonesia, has

complemented the integrated pest

management schools with climate field

schools, incorporating climate information

within the farm decision making process.

Experience in Indonesia has shown that

the use of farmer field schools can be an

effective way of bridging this gap and this

has led to the introduction of climate field

schools (CFS).

Source: TECA, FAO.

Farmers being trained in IPM in Indonesia.

Photo: FAO/J.M. Micaud.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Increasing water productivity

• The biggest potential for physical water productivity gains is in very low-yielding

areas, which typically coincide with poverty

• There is a large scope to increase economic water productivity by switching to

higher value agricultural uses or reducing production costs

Climate-smart agriculture requires increasing the productivity of

water, or gaining more yield and value from water.

There is still ample scope for higher physical water productivity in

low-yielding rainfed areas and in poorly performing irrigation

systems, especially where groundwater is being depleted or over-

extracted. T there is also scope for improvements in livestock and

fisheries.

There are many well water productivity improvements, but caution

must be mixed with optimism. Water productivity gains are often

difficult to realize, and there are misperceptions about the scope for

increasing physical water productivity.

There is greater reason to be optimistic about increasing economic

water productivity by switching to higher value agricultural uses or

by reducing costs of production. More…

Potential for water productivity

gains.

Source: Water for food, water for

life. A comprehensive assessment

of water management in

agriculture (Summary).

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Increasing water productivity

Examples

Low-head drip irrigation kits in Kenya

Small amounts of water can be applied in

drip irrigation, which would not be possible

under traditional irrigation methods (flood,

furrow and sprinklers). It is with this in mind

that the introduction of drip irrigation

technology to smallholder farmers has

attracted interest in Kenya.

The Kenya Agricultural Research Institute

(KARI) has been promoting the use of drip

irrigation for smallholders. The range of low

cost drip irrigation systems in Kenya now

includes bucket, drum, farm kits (eighth

acre) and family kits (1.4 acre) for vegetable

gardens and orchard drip irrigation kits for

fruit trees. These systems can supply water

for 500 to 5,000 plants. See more…

A farm kit drip irrigation system. It can service up to one-

eighth of an acre and consists of a screen or disc filter, sub-

mainline, connectors and drip lines. The system usually gets

its water supplied from a 1,000 litre tank raised one 1 m high,

to create the pressure. A typical one-eighth acre kit with a

tank to irrigate 2,500 plants costs US$424.

Source: GRID (Issue 28), International Programme for

Technology and Research in Irrigation and Drainage

(IPTRID).

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Using groundwater resources soundly

Examples

Drip irrigation from groundwater in Syria

A two year FAO project in collaboration with Syria's Ministry of

Agriculture demonstrated improved irrigation technology and

management techniques to farmers in four regions of Syria

hardest hit by groundwater shortages. Overall water savings

ranged from 20% to over 50%, with drip irrigation being the most

efficient and cost-effective. Farmers also reported savings in

labour and pumping costs, as well as higher crop productivity.

The project also revealed "technical and institutional factors" that

had constrained the full potential of the new technologies. One of

these was limited access to finance. There are now microfinance

schemes, which enable farmers to use water efficient irrigation

methods. Farmers are being encouraged to diversify by planting

cash crops such as almond, grape and pistachio, which also

require less water.

Sources: The Aga Khan Foundation Rural Support Programme

(SKF-RSP) and the humanitarian news and analysis service of

the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (IRIN).

An experimental drip irrigation

system in Syria.

Photo: FAO/Roberto Faidutti.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Controlling and coping with salinization

• Increasing seepage due to sea level rise will cause soils in deltas and coastal

areas to become increasingly salty

• Practices to control or avoid salinization should be part of climate-smart

agriculture

Salt accumulation in soils resulting from intense irrigation, poor

drainage or seawater seepage, reduces agricultural productivity.

Increasing seepage due to sea level rise will cause soils in deltas and

coastal areas to become increasingly salty.

Practices to adapt to this include improving drainage, treating soils to

remove salts, introducing salt-tolerant species or using mixed farming

systems. In addition, cultivation systems and market opportunities for

salt-tolerant crops provide new perspectives for agriculture in salt-

affected areas.

The experience of countries dealing with salinization, irrigation and

coastal management will be useful for climate-smart agriculture.

Institutions or programmes like FAO, ICARDA, ICBA, IMWI, IPTRID,

PAP-RAC, CAZALAC, IAEA, among others, work actively on

salinization, irrigation or coastal management.

Salt management crop

systems.

Source: Colorado State

University, USA.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Controlling and coping with salinization

Examples

About 800,000 ha (20% of the total area) in

the Mekong Delta of Vietnam experiences

seawater intrusion in the dry season.

Farmers have adapted by alternating rice and

shrimp farming. They can produce shrimp

and rice on the same plot by flooding with

saline water in the dry season for shrimp and,

at the beginning of the wet season, they flush

salinity out of their fields using rain and fresh

river water before planting rice.

This system could be further improved by

considering future drought and flood

scenarios, more salt-tolerant rice varieties

(salinization is worsening), disease control

and environmental concerns.

Source: Perspectives on water and climate

change adaptation.

A farmer inspects his rice crop on the Mekong Delta,

Vietnam.

Photo: FAO/L. Dematteis.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Technical considerations for crop production

Reflections

It is likely that some of the previous considerations for crop production are already part of the

agenda of your community. What differences are there? For example, are you: applying them with

a focus on climate; thinking about future short and long term risks; acting together with other

sectors to save resources as much as possible? Also, look at them in different ways—what once

was considered sustainable may not be so anymore, as it may affect ecosystems or human health.

The challenge is to produce less with more and having the know-how. It will be a matter of taking

components and experimenting them at local levels, looking for “no-regret” options.

Which of the previous technical components of climate-smart agriculture are you taking into

consideration in crop production in your area?

Which others, not listed here, that are specific for your area could contribute to climate-smart

crop production?

How could you increase the knowledge of communities of these technology components?

Could you translate the benefits of these components into economic gains? For example, using

fertilizers in a balanced way, how much would you increase yields and outputs? Or how much

would farmers save in inputs if they adopt integrated pest management?

How does your area manage soils, water? Are your systems diverse? Are they susceptible to

pests? How are these controlled?

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Technical components of climate-

smart livestock production

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Livestock production efficiency and resilience

• Improvements in livestock production are needed, while minimizing resource use

and greenhouse gas emissions

Significant productivity improvements in livestock production are

needed to meet food security and development requirements, while

minimizing resource use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

Past productivity gains, in particular in large scale livestock

production, have been achieved through advances in feeding and

nutrition, genetics and reproduction and animal health control, as well

as general improvements in animal husbandry. Extending these

approaches to developing countries, especially in marginal lands in

semi-arid areas and in small scale systems, where there are large

productivity gaps, will be important for smarter livestock production.

Better forecasting of risks, determination of the effects of climate

change, early detection and control of disease outbreaks and

strategies to support smallholders are also needed.

Livestock drinking from a

waterpoint in Garissa, Kenya.

Photo: FAO/Thomas Hug.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Large versus small scale operation

• Specific technology and strategies need to be adopted in different

circumstances, aiming to make systems as productive and resilient as possible

under specific cultural backgrounds

The ways large livestock facilities and small holders and pastoralists

operate are obviously different and they will require different strategies

for becoming more efficient and resilient.

In poor areas, where livestock is not only a source of food for

subsistence but also an asset, improvements in productivity may be

more difficult to realise if herders and pastoralists do not have the right

support. For instance, changing the widespread livestock herder

practice of keeping many low productivity animals, or the smallholder

practice of maintaining livestock on minimal feed that cannot produce

a marketable surplus of meat or milk, can be difficult to change

without cultural and economic changes.

Specific strategies need to be adopted, aiming to make systems as

productive and resilient as possible under specific cultural

backgrounds. Here we present examples for both types of operations.

Small and

large scale

animal

production.

Photos:

FAO/G. Diana

and I. Kodikara.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Where to produce

• As part of land use planning, areas with more potential for intensive or extensive

livestock production should be delineated, to save resources and improve

productivity

African livestock owners are thought to be among the most vulnerable

populations on earth. Yet, livestock also has potential to strengthen

resilience to climate change, as livestock production systems tend to be

more resilient than crop based systems.

A report by ILRI on improving livestock productivity in Ethiopia suggests

small stock production should be stratified and different zones

delineated for different kinds of production systems. Herding and other

extensive livestock-based systems are more suited to the lowlands as

well as subalpine sheep-based regions, whereas intensive market-

oriented systems are better suited to the highlands, where farmers

typically mix crop growing with animal husbandry.

Sources: Building climate change resilience for African livestock in sub-

Saharan Africa (IUCN), Sheep and goat production and marketing

systems in Ethiopia: Characteristics and strategies for improvement

(ILRI).

Building climate change

resilience for African

livestock in sub-Saharan

Africa. Source: IUCN.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Improving feed

• Better feeding strategies for small scale producers will come through the

application of existing nutritional principles adapted to climate change threats

Feed is the primary constraint to improving livestock production in

smallholder systems, where livestock is fed on whatever livestock

keepers have at hand.

Better feeding strategies for small scale producers will come

through the application of existing nutritional principles adapted to

climate change threats (e.g. as mentioned in Module 3, thermal

stress affects animal feeding patterns).

Livestock diets, currently dominated by crop residues and other

low-quality feeds, require more energy-rich feeds to support higher

levels of milk and meat production. Milling by-products, oilcakes,

and other agro-industrial by-products, combined more effectively

with basal diets to enhance the animals’ use of the feed, can be

used. Growing crops for animal feed will become economically

competitive as animal product demand increases.

A farmer feeding cattle fresh

fodder in Kafr el-Sheikh, Egypt.

Photo: FAO/Giorgio Napolitano.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Improving feed

Examples

Improved sheep feeding

Although Ethiopians raise vast numbers of small

stock—about 25 million sheep and 21 million goats—

the nation’s livestock sector continues to underperform.

ILRI reported the success of farmers in the Goma

District, where sheep fattening cycles (supplementing

with cottonseed meal) have been set up. Farmers

managed to fatten 15 sheep in three cycles in a single

year, translating to significant increases in income, as

households made a profits of between US$167–333

annually from the sale of fattened animals.

Farmers are using the increased income to expand the

fattening program, life improvement and to purchase

agricultural inputs like seeds, fertilizer and farm tools.

Source: Improving Food Production from Livestock and

Improved fattening doubles incomes from sheep raising

in western Ethiopia–Top two innovators are women.

Farmers in the project Improving productivity and

market success of Ethiopian farmers.

Photo: International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI),

Improving productivity and markets success of

Ethiopian farmers project.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Reducing animal thermal stress

• Methods to help animals alleviate thermal stress will be useful to reduce the

impacts of climate change on livestock production

• Whether grazing outdoors, or in confinement, energy efficient methods should

have priority

Methods to help animals alleviate thermal stress will be useful to

reduce the impacts of climate change on livestock production.

These may include:

• Physical modification of the environment (shade, improved

ventilation, combination of wetting and ventilation);

• Improved nutritional management schemes (e.g. adjustments of

ration, fibre, fat, protein and electrolytes);

• Changing feeding patterns (e.g. cows tend to eat more feed

during the cooler parts of the day);

• Providing enough water (e.g. water intake may increase by 20%

to >50% as a result of heat stress);

• Genetic development of less sensitive breeds (e.g. many local

breeds are already adapted to their harsh conditions).

At 41°C, the risk of poultry death

is high and emergency measures

have to be taken.

Source: Managing heat stress,

Part 1 - Layers respond to hot

climatic conditions. World

Poultry Net.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Reducing animal thermal stress

Examples

Tree shade

Trees provide protection from sunlight, combined with

cooling as moisture evaporates from the leaves. To

choose which species is best, several aspects need to

be considered, including protection capacity,

compatibility with livestock and environment.

For example, Waldige (1994) studied Mangifera indica,

Caesalpinia sp., Pinus sp. and Casuarina sp. for their

performance as cattle shade in Brazil. The best shade

was given by Mangifera indica (mango tree), with the

least radiant heat load; the worst results were for the

Pinus sp. Protection is important for choosing shade

but is not everything—mango trees were discarded as

shade for cattle as their fruit is dangerous for them.

Source: Weather and climate and animal production

(WAMIS). See also Trees for shade and shelter and

Cattle - Guidelines for the provision of shelter.

Cattle protected by tree belts in Australia.

Photo: Department of Primary Industries, Victoria

State Government, Australia.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Genetic resources for a smarter production

• Farmers access to animal genetic resources will be fundamental for maintaining

production under future challenges

The value provided by animal genetic diversity should be secured.

This requires better characterization of breeds and production

environments; the compilation of more complete breed inventories;

improved mechanisms to monitor and respond to threats to genetic

diversity; more effective in-situ and ex-situ conservation measures;

genetic improvement programmes targeting adaptive traits in high-

output; and performance traits in locally adapted breeds.

In addition, animal breeding will need to account for higher

temperatures, lower quality diets, greater disease challenges,

mitigation strategies and food demand.

Farmers’ access to genetic resources and associated technology

and knowledge (e.g. more efficient converters of feed to meat, milk

and eggs) and breeds better adapted to changes will be

fundamental for maintaining production under future challenges.

Indigenous Nguni cattle, a breed

that is better suited to survive the

weather conditions in South Africa,

particularly during periods of

drought, than imported European

cattle.

Photo: FAO/Jon Spaull.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Genetic resources for a smarter production

Examples

Local breeds for coping with local conditions

The Achai cow, a local breed of the Hindu Kush

Mountains, is the smallest of all cattle breeds in

Pakistan and is adapted to the environmental

conditions of the area including rugged terrain grazing.

The small body size could be the result of natural

selection to reduce the sensitivity to fodder shortage in

harsher environments. It is a multipurpose animal

genetic resource being reared both as dairy and draft

animal.

Crossbred cattle and other introduced breeds cannot

perform optimally in the area. Documenting the breed

and selecting Achai cows with better production and

reproduction performances can help in improving the

breed’s traits and increase outputs. An action plan has

been presented to the Department of Livestock and

Dairy Development of the Khyber Pukhtunkhwa, which

has initiated a conservation programme.

A herd of Achai cows in northern Pakistan.

Source: Mountain Cattle Breed for Coping with

Climate Change: Needs for Conserving and

Reintroducing the Achai in the Hindu Kush

Mountain of Northern Pakistan.

Photo: CDE, University of Bern.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Efficient management of manure

• Better management of animal manure is needed in order to reduce leach of

nutrients and greenhouse gas emissions

Factors that affect GHG emissions from manure include

temperature, oxygen level (aeration), moisture, and sources of

nutrients. These factors are affected, in turn, by manure type

(livestock type), diet, storage and handling of manure (pile,

anaerobic lagoon, etc.), and manure application (injected,

incorporated, etc.). Practices that can reduce GHG emissions from

manure include:

• General manure management practices, e.g. type and timing of

application;

• Feed management, e.g. balanced feeding, controlling frequency

of feeding, changing diet components;

• Storage, e.g. storing covered with permeable fabrics,

underground or at lower temperatures;

• Treatment, e.g. covered lagoons with gas recovery, digesting to

produce biogas, composting, adding urease inhibitors.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Covered lagoon at Iron Creek

Colony, Alberta.

Source: Manure Management and

Greenhouse Gases, Alberta

Agriculture, Food and Rural

Development (AAFRD).

Photo: Kendall Tupker.

Efficient management of manure

Examples

Manure management options for confined pig

production in rapidly growing economies

Pig production has expanded dramatically in recent

years but this has been accompanied by a high cost

to the environment.

Special care has to be given to manure management

as livestock excreta has a major impact on the

environment.

There are plenty of manure management techniques

available but they often are not well known. Also, the

farmer or the decision maker frequently has

insufficient knowledge of the economic, environmental

and public health implications of these techniques.

The LEAD initiative is preparing a decision support

tool on manure management for confined pig

production in rapidly growing economies. See more…

Recommendations on manure management from

the Canadian Pork Council.

Source: Manure management strategies to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions for Canadian hog

operations.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Improving grassland management

• Arresting further degradation and restoring degraded grasslands, through grazing

management and re-vegetation can also be part of climate-smart agriculture

• Herders and pastoralists could also play a crucial role in soil carbon

sequestration

Arresting further degradation and restoring degraded grasslands,

through grazing management and re-vegetation, are important for

smart agriculture.

This can include set‐asides, postponing grazing while forage

species are growing or ensuring even grazing of various species.

These practices along with supplementing poor quality forages with

fodder trees, as in silvopastoral systems, can all contribute to

increase productivity, resilience and boost carbon accumulation.

Herders and pastoralists could also play a crucial role in soil carbon

sequestration. Common grazing management practices that might

increase carbon include: stocking rate management, rotational,

planned or adaptive grazing and enclosure of grassland from

livestock grazing. See also Livestock grazing and soil carbon

sequestration.Grasslands, Rangelands and

Forage Crops website, FAO.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Improved grassland management

Examples

The Qinghai project

In 2008 FAO, the World Agroforestry Centre, the

Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Provincial

Government began working with herders to jointly

design improved grazing and land management

practices that can restore soil health, improve milk and

meat production and generate ecosystem services

such as reducing run-off and flash floods and

conserving biodiversity.

They also aimed to develop a cost-effective means of

estimating and crediting the extent to which such

practices result in GHG reductions, so herders can

earn money from selling carbon offset credits on

emission trading markets. A methodology has resulted

which can be used by other areas.

Source: FAO. See also Methodology for Sustainable

Grassland Management. Degraded grasslands in Qinghai province, China.

Photo: FAO/P. Gerber.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Disease prevention and surveillance

• Protecting animals from diseases, their spread and possible human health

impacts is important, especially early detection of new threats brought by climate

change

Protecting animals from diseases, their spread and possible human

health impacts may take different forms at field level:

• Training farmers in early detection of illnesses, recognising new

threats and increasing their access to veterinary services;

• Implementing biosecurity measures at farm level, e.g. isolating

new or sick animals, regulating the movement of people,

animals, and equipment and establishing cleaning procedures;

• Introducing identification and traceability systems, which

although expensive may reduce impacts of outbreaks;

• Making farmers participate in data collection and early warning

systems which connect animal health and climate warnings;

• Establishing emergency response plans;

• Enforcing health inspection procedures at local level.

A local veterinarian inspection in

Kazakhstan.

Photo: FAO/L. Miuccio.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Disease prevention and surveillance

Examples

Participatory disease surveillance

Efficient surveillance requires close

collaboration between government, business

and civil society. Participatory disease

surveillance (PDS) has been developed to

integrate civil society into surveillance activities.

The PDS approach was refined in Africa as an

accurate and rapid method to understand the

distribution and dynamics of rinderpest in

pastoral areas. It relies on traditional livestock

owners’ knowledge of the clinical, gross

pathological and epidemiological features of

diseases that occur locally.

The approach can be used in conjunction with

new training for potential diseases brought

under climate change scenarios. See more

resources.

A Maasai livestock owner whose cattle herd has suffered

from and subsequently been inoculated against

rinderpest in Kenya (Global Rinderpest Eradication

Programme).

Source: Towards a safer world: Animal health and

biosecurity.

Photo: FAO/T. Karumba.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Increasing livestock water productivity

• Livestock water productivity is defined as the ratio of net beneficial livestock-

related products and services to the water depleted in producing them

• Increasing water productivity is also closely related to improving animal

productivity

Livestock water productivity is defined as the ratio of net beneficial

livestock-related products and services to the water depleted in

producing them. It acknowledges the importance of competing uses

of water but focuses on livestock-water interaction.

Three basic strategies help to increase livestock water productivity

directly: improving feed sourcing; enhancing animal productivity; and

conserving water. Provision of sufficient drinking water of adequate

quality also improves livestock water productivity. However, it does

not factor directly into the livestock water productivity equation

because water that has been drunk remains inside the animal and

thus within the production system, although subsequent evaporative

depletion may follow.

Source: Water and livestock for human development, CAWMA.

Part of a framework for assessing

water productivity.

Source: Water and livestock for

human development, CAWMA.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Increasing water productivity

Examples

Pastoral market chains in Sudan

Kordofan and Darfur, Sudan, are home to pastoralists who

depend on grazing livestock but the markets for their animals

are in Khartoum.

Migration corridors supplied with water and feed enable

animals to trek to markets and arrive in relatively good

condition. Watering points require effective management,

such as the provision of drinking troughs, physically

separated from wells and other water sources to mitigate the

degradation of water sources and vegetation buffers to

protect riparian areas. Once in Khartoum, buyers fatten

animals with crop residues and feed supplements procured

from the irrigation systems of the Nile.

This case exemplifies the interconnection of pastoral and

irrigated production systems and the need for area wide

approaches to their management.

Source: Water and livestock for human development,

CAWMA.

Providing drinking water in

troughs helps preventing

contamination of wells and surface

water.

Source: Water and livestock for

human development, CAWMA.

Photo: D. Penden.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Technical considerations for livestock production

Reflections

As for crop production, some of the previous considerations may be already practised in your area.

There are some commonalities that can be further explored, e.g. water productivity, early

identification and prevention of diseases, crop residue management and the need to increase

efficiency in general .

There are many opportunities for increasing efficiency in the livestock sector, as well as for

reducing its impact on the environment.

Which are the most common livestock systems in your area?

Are they extensive or intensive? What are their main features?

For the different components discussed, how could production be improved in your area?

If the effects of climate variability and climate change are already being felt, what have been the

actions taken by producers?

Which measures in your area will be feasible to reduce animal heat stress? Could farmers get

together and implement common measures (e.g. common shed or ventilation areas)?

What measures would you undertake to increase water productivity across crop and livestock

production?

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Technical components towards

climate-smart fisheries and

aquaculture

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Efficient and resilient fisheries

• There are a series of measures that fishing communities can take to become

more efficient and resilient

• Responses to direct impacts of extreme events on fisheries infrastructure and

communities are likely to be more effective if they are part of long-term planning

In general, responses to direct impacts of extreme events on

fisheries infrastructure and communities are likely to be more

effective if they are anticipatory, as part of long-term integrated

management planning. However, preparation should be

commensurate with risk, as excessive protective measures could

themselves have negative social and economic impacts.

As climatic changes increase environmental variation, fisheries

managers will have to move beyond static understandings of

managed stocks or populations.

There is a need for implementation of adaptive, integrated and

participatory approaches to fisheries management, as required for

an ecosystem approach.

Source: Climate change for fisheries and aquaculture, (FAO). Fishing for mackerel off the coast

of Peru.

Photo: FAO/T. Dioses.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Efficient and resilient fisheries

Examples

Global

Climate change may offer win-win outcomes where adaptation or

mitigation measures improve economic efficiency and resilience to

climatic and other change vectors. For example, this could include

decreasing fishing efforts to sustainable levels, decreasing fuel use

and hence CO2 emissions.

Africa

The fish sector makes vital contributions to food and nutrition

security of 200 million Africans and provides income for over 10

million engaged in fish production, processing and trade. Fish has

become a leading export commodity, with an annual export value

of US$2.7 billion. However, exploitation of natural fish stocks is

reaching limits. Investment is needed urgently to improve the

management of natural fish stocks and enhance fish trade in

domestic, regional and global markets

Source: The NEPAD Action Plan for the Development of African

Fisheries and Aquaculture.

Examples of potential adaptation

measures in fisheries.

Source: Climate change for

fisheries and aquaculture (FAO).

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Efficient and resilient aquaculture

• In most cases improved management and better aquaculture practices would be

the best and most immediate form of adaptation

• Aquaculture could also be a useful adaptation option for other sectors

In most cases and for most climate change-related impacts,

improved management and better aquaculture practices would be

the best and most immediate form of adaptation, providing a sound

basis for production that could accommodate possible impacts.

Aquaculture could be a useful adaptation option for other sectors,

such as coastal agriculture under salinization threats, and could

also have a role in biofuel production, through use of algal biomass

or discards and by-products of fish processing.

Integrating aquaculture with other practices, including agro-

aquaculture, multitrophic aquaculture and culture-based fisheries,

also offers the possibility of recycling nutrients and using energy

and water much more efficiently. Short-cycle aquaculture may also

be valuable, using new species, technologies or management

practices to exploit seasonal opportunities.

Examples of potential adaptation

measures in aquaculture.

Source: Climate change for

fisheries and aquaculture (FAO).

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Efficient and resilient aquaculture

Examples

Aquaculture zoning and monitoring

Adequate site selection and aquaculture zoning can be

important adaptation measures to climate change. When

selecting aquaculture sites it is very important to determine

likely threats through risk assessment analysis, particularly in

coastal and more exposed areas and weather related risks

must be considered.

At the same time, the likelihood of disease spread can be

minimized by increasing the minimum distance between farms

and by implementing tight biosecurity programmes for

aquaculture clusters or zones.

An important adaptation measure is the implementation of

effective integrated monitoring systems. These should provide

adequate information on physical and chemical conditions of

aquatic environments, early detection of diseases and

presence of pest species, including harmful algal blooms. An

example is the monitoring of red tide in Chile, linked to shellfish.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Red tide monitoring in Chile in

Magallanes and Region Antarctica

Website (Spanish). Source: IFOP.

Climate change

implications for

fisheries and

aquaculture.

Considerations for fisheries and aquaculture

Reflections

Communities depending on fishing will be probably some of the most affected by climate change

and variability. In addition, current trends in some areas may mean that their production needs to

become more efficient and ecological.

Improving infrastructure and possibilities for monitoring the status of fisheries and aquaculture will

be important technical components of adaptation for fishing communities. Integration with other

agriculture sectors and planning together with them will be equally important.

What are the most common systems in your area?

How often are they stricken by climatic events? If there have been recent events, are there

records of their cost in terms of infrastructure, life and rehabilitation?

Which of the measures presented in the adaptation measures tables are being implemented?

Which are the constraints for implementation?

Are there water quality monitoring networks in your area? Are you aware of networks in

neighbouring communities? If not, could you organise different communities to set up or request

the set up of such a system?

How are current management practices compared with those considered more efficient?

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Integrated systems towards climate-

smart agriculture

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Integrated systems- Conservation agriculture

• Conservation agriculture is perhaps the closest approach to agriculture that

results in less land degradation, increasing resilience and mitigating climate

change

Conservation Agriculture (CA), is an approach to manage agro-

ecosystems that contributes to preserve ecosystem services by

increasing soil organic matter; reducing erosion; enhancing soil

quality; preserving moisture; and reducing GHG emissions, fuel and

labour. Conservation Agriculture is characterized by:

• Continuous minimum mechanical soil disturbance;

• Permanent organic soil cover (with cover crops or residues);

• Diversification of crops (in sequences and/or associations).

In CA, mechanical soil disturbance is reduced to an absolute

minimum or avoided (reduced or zero tillage) and pesticides and

plant nutrients are applied in ways that do not disrupt biological

processes. CA can be adapted to all agricultural landscapes and

land uses and be the basis for further integration. See more…

Conservation Agriculture avoids

using tillage and burning residues

and keeps the soil covered.

Photos: FAO Conservation Agriculture

website and The paradigm of

conservation agriculture.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Integrated systems- Conservation agriculture

Examples

Conservation agriculture networks

Success stories on Conservation Agriculture

(CA) have been documented all over the

world. Examples can be found in the websites

of national and international networks

promoting CA. Examples include:

FAO Conservation Agriculture projects

Conservation Agriculture Network for

Southeast Asia

The African Conservation Tillage Network

Conservation Agriculture Systems Alliance

Professional Alliance for Conservation

Agriculture

Federaçao Brasileira de Plantio Direto na

PalhaExamples of Conservation Agriculture literature, FAO.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Crop and livestock systems: recycling

• Successful integration involves intentionally creating synergies among crops,

livestock, fish or trees that result in enhanced social, economic and

environmental sustainability

The added value of integrating crops and livestock has been

understood and practised by farmers for thousands of years and yet

these systems can hold a key for a smarter agriculture in the future.

There are multiple ways and scales in which integration can be

implemented. Successful integration involves intentionally creating

synergies between crops, livestock, fish or trees that result in

enhanced social, economic and environmental sustainability.

When managed well, integrated crop-livestock systems (IC-LS)

benefit ecosystems through increased biological diversity, effective

nutrient recycling, improved soil health, preserved ecosystem

services and enhanced forest preservation.

There are examples of functioning IC-LS, including some with trees,

pasture and fish. Combinations with Conservation Agriculture are

likely to become more common.

In integrated crop and livestock

systems synergies result in

recycling and maximum use of

resources.

Source. Integrated crop-livestock

systems, IFAD.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Crop and livestock systems: recycling

Examples

Successful applied research in Nigeria

A successful example of a mixed crop and livestock

system was the introduction of cereal-legume

intercropping to animal husbandry in Bichi, Nigeria.

Crop residues removed from the fields after the grain

harvest are conserved for dry-season livestock

feeding. Cereal stalks may also be used for fuel and

building material. At the onset of each growing

season, livestock manure accumulated during the dry

season is returned to fertilize the fields.

Improved dual-purpose (food and feed) varieties of

sorghum and cowpea, measured daily feeding of

ruminants, improved simple housing for animals (for

manure collection) and intercropping resulted in 100–

300% increases in grain yield, as well as increased

livestock weight.

Source: (Achieving more with less, ILRI).

A farmer in Bichi

village, Nigeria.

Photo:

International

Livestock Research

Institute (ILRI).

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Other examples of

crop-livestock

systems in

Conservation

Agriculture (FAO).

Integrated systems: Agroforestry

• Planting trees in agricultural lands is not only cost effective compared to other

mitigation strategies, but also provides a range of co-•benefits to increase system

resilience and improve rural livelihoods

In broad terms agroforestry is the use of trees and shrubs in crop or

animal production and land management systems.

Growing trees and shrubs can increase farm income, diversify

production and spread risk. It can reduce the impacts of weather

events (e.g. heavy rains, droughts, heat waves and wind storms);

prevent erosion; stabilize soils; incorporate nutrients through

nitrogen fixation; increase water infiltration rates; enrich biodiversity

in the landscape; provide timber and fodder; raise carbon

sequestration in the system; and increase ecosystem stability.

Planting trees in agricultural lands is not only cost effective

compared to other mitigation strategies but also provides a range of

co-•benefits to increase system resilience and improve rural

livelihoods. Agroforestry has also been combined with Conservation

Agriculture systems. See more…

An agroforestry scheme in Peru:

Dagame trees, pasture and

buffalo.

Photo: FAO/A. Brack.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Integrated systems: Agroforestry

Examples

Multi-storey cropping in the Philippines

Farmers can cultivate a mixture of crops with different

heights (multi-storey) and growth characteristics, which

together optimise the use of soil, moisture, space and

increase carbon sequestration.

In this system, perennial crops (coconut, banana,

coffee, papaya, pineapple) and annuals/biennials (root

crops: taro, yam, sweet potato, etc.) are intercropped. It

is applicable where farms are small and the system

needs to be intensive.

In this particular area, coconuts are usually planted first.

When they reach a height of 4.5 m (after 3–4 years),

bananas, coffee and/or papaya are planted underneath.

Black pepper may also be part of the system. After

sufficient space has developed at ground level, in about

three to four years, root crops are planted.

See more...Multi-storey cropping.

Source: C. Pretorius, through WOCAT.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Integrated systems: Fish and crops

• Integrated agriculture-aquaculture offers special advantages in waste recycling

and encourages better water management for agriculture and forestry

The diversification that comes from integrating crops, vegetables,

livestock, trees and fish imparts stability in production, efficiency in

resource use, and conservation of the environment.

In integrated farming, wastes of one enterprise become inputs to

another and, thus, optimize the use of resources and lessen

pollution. Stability in many contrasting habitats permits diversity of

genetic resources and survival of beneficial insects and other

wildlife.

Integrated agriculture-aquaculture offers special advantages over

and above its role in waste recycling and its importance in

encouraging better water management for agriculture and forestry.

In addition, fish are efficient converters of low-grade feed and

wastes into high-value protein.

Source: Integrated agriculture-aquaculture.

A model integrated fish farm in

Vientiane, Laos: a fish pond

integrated with floating

vegetables. The vegetables are

consumed by the farm family and

the surplus is sold at local

markets. Rice cultivation is also

practised at the pond edge.

Photo: FAO/K. Pratt.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Integrated systems: Fish and crops

Examples

India

An integrated system of fish and crops (rice, maize,

sunflower and vegetables) together with poultry and goats

was studied in Karnataka, India, on land previously farmed

with a rice mono-cropping system.

In this system, poultry droppings provided nutrients for

natural food organisms in the water for the fish. After

harvesting the fish, the nutrient-rich water was used to

irrigate the crops, which produced fodder for the goats as

well as food and income for the farmer. The results were

improved crop yields, higher income and lower energy use

compared with the traditional mono-cropping system.

Source: Channabasavanna et al., 2009.

Follow the links for more examples of an integrated fish, crop

and livestock systems in China and Malaysia.

More…

Another example of an integrated fish-rice

system (Madagascar).

Photo: FAO.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Integrated systems- Food in the cities

• Urban and peri-urban agriculture has the potential to enhance resilience of urban

populations to climate change by diversifying food and income sources

Urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) has the potential to enhance

resilience to climate change by reducing the vulnerability of the

urban poor, diversifying food and income sources and making

people more resilient in periods of low food supply from rural areas.

UPA is also a means to keep areas that are vulnerable to flooding or

landslides free from construction and to maintain their natural

functions (enhancing water storage and infiltration, reducing run-off)

resulting in fewer impacts of high rainfall.

To reduce risks of contamination from urban sources, farming

should be practised in low traffic areas or away from factories;

hedges and trees should be planted to minimise the spread of

airborne pollution; and the cultivation of leafy vegetables in proximity

to roads should be avoided. See More…

Video: The Sack Gardens of

Kibera, Nairobi, Kenya.

Source: Solidarités and The

Resource Centres on Urban

Agriculture and Food Security

(RUAF) Foundation.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Integrated systems- Food in the cities

Examples

A FAO programme on urban horticulture in the five main

cities of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has

reduced chronic malnutrition levels in urban areas and

created a surplus with a market value of over US$400

million.

The programme started as a response to mass urban

migration following a five-year conflict in the eastern

DRC; now it assists local urban growers to produce

330,000 t of vegetables annually. This compares to

148,000 t in 2005/2006, an increase of 122% over a

short period of five years.

Less than 10% of the vegetables produced by the

project are consumed by beneficiaries. The remainder,

constituting more than 250,000 t of produce, is sold in

urban markets and supermarkets for up to US$4 a kilo

for the major vegetables produced: tomatoes, sweet

peppers and onions. More…

Growing greener cities in the Democratic

Republic of Congo, FAO, 2010.

Source: Greener cities, Urban and peri-urban

horticulture, FAO.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Integrated systems: Food and energy

• Integrated Food Energy Systems (IFES) can meet basic energy needs by

simultaneously producing food and energy

Integrated Food Energy Systems (IFES) aim at addressing

unsustainable biomass-based energy sources to meet basic energy

needs by simultaneously producing food and energy.

The first combines food and energy crops on the same plot of land,

such as in agroforesty systems (e.g. growing trees for fuelwood and

charcoal).

The second type of IFES is achieved through the use of by-

•products/residues of one product to produce another (e.g. biogas

from livestock residues, animal feed from by•-products of corn

ethanol, or bagasse for energy as a by•-product of sugarcane

products).

Solar thermal, photovoltaic, geothermal, wind and water power are

other options and can be included in IFES, despite the high start•-up

costs and specialized support required. More…

A fuel efficient stove built from

locally available materials by

women in Daudu, Nigeria.

Source: Greenwatch Initiative.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Integrated systems: Food and energy

Examples

Cooking with biogas in China

By turning human and animal waste into methane for lighting

and cooking, a biogas project in China’s Guangxi Province is

reducing poverty and also helping reduce methane’s more

damaging global warming effects (IFAD).

Each household involved has built its own plant to channel

waste from domestic toilets and nearby shelters for animals

(usually pigs) into a sealed tank where waste ferments and is

naturally converted into gas and compost. More…

Anaerobic digestion in India

Anaerobic digestion has the potential to meet the energy

requirements of rural India and counter the effects of reckless

burning of biomass resources. It also offers an alternative to

inefficient and unhealthy dung-burning stoves.

Source: Altenergymag.

A woman cooking with biogas, which

she produces in her yard with the

waste from her pigsty and family

latrine in Sichuan, China.

Photo: FAO/Florita Botts.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Integrated systems

Reflections

Although farmers have been spontaneously implementing mixed systems, these may not be as

efficient as they could be. A key element of successful systems is recycling and saving as much

energy as possible and reducing wastage.

Systems that are enhanced by state of the art research, e.g. the integration of more efficient plant

or stress resistant varieties; the use of local breeds with adapted traits: or highly diversified

systems will perhaps have more opportunities.

How far does the integration of systems go in your area?

Conservation Agriculture has shown good results, although it needs adaptation to local

conditions—are your extension services aware of these systems? Often, early trials fail as not all

elements of CA are used. If it has been attempted in your area, have you integrated the three

principles? Are these systems also integrated with livestock or forestry production?

If you are experimenting with integrated systems, are you documenting them? Documentation

may be an useful way to show your progress and make the case for external help from local or

national institutions. Documentation should include details of how, where, what and whom are

implementing the systems. It is also important to document impacts beyond economic benefits,

e.g. social and ecological benefits.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Increasing efficiency in different

systems

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Reducing GHG emissions from crop production

• Greenhouse gas emissions in the livestock sector can be reduced through

different activities that also lead to more efficient production

Greenhouse gas emissions in crop production can be reduced

through different activities including:

• Managing plant nutrients in a more efficient way, e.g. through the

application of fertilizer/manure according to soils needs, better

nutrient release and application methods, better manure

application methods, application of nutrients according to growth

stage, and better timing application to avoid losses;

• Leaving crop residues in soils, reducing slash and burning and

making more efficient use of fuel, e.g. Conservation Agriculture

adopts these three measures;

• Applying sustainable crop intensification measures in areas

already cultivated to avoid further deforestation, in particular,

increasing efficiency in rice systems will contribute to reduce

CH4 emissions.

Fertilization of aubergines in

holes to save fertilizer. China

Photo: C-RESAP project.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Reducing GHG emissions from livestock

• Greenhouse gas emissions in the livestock sector can be reduced through

different activities that also lead to more efficient production

Greenhouse gas emissions in the livestock sector can be reduced

through different activities that also lead to more efficient

production, including:

• Improved animal feeding management: e.g. using balanced

diets, feeding animals according to their growth stage, using

rotational grazing, feeding livestock high quality forage,

including legumes for grazing and including oils in grain diets;

• Manure management (collection, storage, spreading, treatment);

• Selecting breeds: where resources allow and breeding services

exist, replacing low-producing breeds with animals of higher

yielding breeds, more efficient or better adapted to local

conditions;

• Management of crop production for feed;

• Better grazing land management for carbon sequestration.

A farmer in Egypt feeding cows

with fresh fodder.

Photo: FAO/Giulio Napolitano.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions

Examples

Promising research to reduce greenhouse

gas emissions

Recent research from CIAT shows that one

promising option for GHG mitigation from crop-

livestock systems is contained in the roots of

the tropical forage grass Brachiaria humidicola.

As well as being highly nutritious and palatable

to ruminants, brachiaria inhibits nitrification.

Nitrification is the microbial process in soil that

causes the conversion of fertilizer nitrogen into

nitrous oxide.

Brachiaria’s biological nitrification inhibition

capacity could see the grass take centre stage

in the push to significantly reduce the

greenhouse gas footprint of crop-livestock

systems. Livestock, Climate Change, and Brachiaria.

Source: International Center for Tropical Agriculture, CIAT.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Energy efficiency

• Energy costs may only be a small percentage of turnover in agricultural

businesses but reducing them can increase profits and competitiveness

Energy costs may only be a small percentage of turnover in

agricultural businesses but reducing them can increase profits and

competitiveness. In addition, there are environmental and

reputational advantages to reducing energy use, e.g. consumers

are increasingly asking farmers to demonstrate their green

credentials. Being energy efficient and using renewables to reduce

the carbon footprint can help to enhance business. Farm carbon

accounting can be used to show the impact of reducing energy use

on farm GHG emissions.

Several aspects, from field operations to storage and transport of

produce can be improved, e.g. by considering minimum or no

tillage; regularly maintaining agricultural equipment; keeping

records of fuel use; improving ventilation or insulation in storage

areas; replacing lighting with more efficient lamps; using more

efficient refrigeration; and producing energy from waste.

Planting directly over crop

residues without using tillage

reduces energy consumption.

Source: Conservation agriculture

website

Photo: T. Friedrich.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Energy efficiency

Examples

Low energy fuel efficient fishing

Well-designed and responsibly-used passive

fishing gear such as gill nets, pots, hook and

lines and traps can reduce the requirement for

fossil fuel consumption by as much as 30–40%

over conventional active fishing gear, such as

trawls. Moreover, the use of biodegradable

materials can minimize the amount of ghost

fishing when fishing gear are inadvertently lost

as a result of bad weather.

Other innovations in design of vessels and

fishing equipment coupled with safety training

can minimize accidents and loss of life at sea,

and assist to remove the reputation of fishing

as being the most dangerous occupation in the

world.

Fishermen weaving nets in the Philippines.

Photo: FAO/F. Mattioli.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Reducing postharvest losses

• Reducing postharvest losses will increase in general the efficiency of production

for all agriculture sectors

Postharvest losses of crops can be reduced by treatments including

the use of chemical and biological compounds (e.g. fungicides,

bactericides and insecticides) and the control of temperature, relative

humidity and air, as well as improving infrastructure for packaging,

storage and transport (FAO, 1989 and 1994; Madrid, 2011).

For fisheries, reducing post-harvest losses means wiser use of

resources, reducing spoilage and discards and converting low-value

resources, which are available on a sustainable basis, into products

for direct human consumption. Reducing spoilage requires improved

fish handling on board, processing, preservation, and transportation

(FAO, 2005).

The meat and dairy sector will require more efficient refrigeration in

order to maintain the food cold-chain, to cope with increasing

temperatures resulting from climate change (James, 2010).

Improved method of selling fish

at the wholesale market at

Mercedes, the Philippines. The

fish are displayed on an

insulated ice table.

Photo: FAO/F. Maimone.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Technology options are not enough

Reflections

The section on integrated systems discussed the importance of food-energy systems. Beyond

these, integration is also the need to become more energy efficient and productive and use

renewable energies.

The previous few slides were meant to highlight some of the points where efficiency can be

increased, but they are only the start. There are plenty of possibilities, which vary with local

agriculture and other activities.

What is clear is that no matter how sound technologies are, and how much ecological benefit

they can bring, if they are not economically and socially acceptable, they will not be taken up. In

addition, if the right mechanisms to support change are not in place, this change will be too slow

and will result in further losses for communities.

The final module presents some of the tools and options that will be necessary in many places

to implement climate-smart agriculture. As with practices or technologies, these should be seen

through a climate-focused lens and look for “no-regret” options.

Climate change and all other challenges will need radical changes of mind, often accompanied

by initially tough decisions, but the more informed communities are, the more chances of

acceptance and success there will be.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Resources

References used in this module and further reading

This list contains the references used in this module. You can access the full text of some of

these references through this information package or through their respective websites, by

clicking on references, hyperlinks or images. In the case of material for which we cannot

include the full text due to special copyrights, we provide a link to its abstract in the Internet.

Institutions dealing with the issues covered in the module

In this list you will find resources to identify national and international institutions that might hold

information on the topics covered through out this information package.

Glossary, abbreviations and acronyms

In this glossary you can find the most common terms as used in the context of climate change.

In addition the FAOTERM portal contains agricultural terms in different languages. Acronyms of

institutions and abbreviations used throughout the package are included here.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems

Please select one of the following to continue:

Part I - Agriculture, food security and ecosystems: current and future challenges

Module 1. An introduction to current and future challenges

Module 2. Climate variability and climate change

Module 3. Impacts of climate change on agro-ecosystems and food production

Module 4. Agriculture, environment and health

Part II - Addressing challenges

Module 5. C-RESAP/climate-smart agriculture: technical considerations and

examples of production systems

Module 6. C-RESAP/climate-smart agriculture: supporting tools and policies

About the information package:

How to use

Credits

Contact us

How to cite the information package

C. Licona Manzur and Rhodri P. Thomas (2011). Climate resilient and environmentally sound agriculture

or “climate-smart” agriculture: An information package for government authorities. Institute of Agricultural

Resources and Regional Planning, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences and Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations.

Module 5. Technical considerations and examples of production systems