WEEK TEN

Dr. Jacqueline LAGUARDIA MARTINEZ

INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONSUNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES

Jacqueline.Laguardia-Martinez@sta.uwi.edu

INRL 6003 SMALL STATES IN THE GLOBAL SYSTEM

Climate Change and SIDS

•What are the implications of climate change for small states?

•How are small states responding to the climate change problematic, particularly in terms of the international political dimensions?

• Is it fair to describe climate change as the most pressing problem facing small states?

Climate change, what is it?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_EWOrZQ3L-c

http://www.skepticalscience.com/empirical-evidence-for-global-warming.htm

http://www.skepticalscience.com/Are-humans-too-insignificant-to-affect-global-climate.htm

http://www.atmo.arizona.edu/students/courselinks/fall12/atmo336/lectures/sec6/implications.html

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http://www.challengetochange.org/climate.htm

http://www.treehugger.com/corporate-responsibility/climate-change-impact-world-map-unveiled.html

http://www.climatechange-foodsecurity.org/science.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_and_gender

http://health.state.tn.us/environmental/climatechange.htm

http://www.grida.no/publications/vg/climate/page/3094.aspx

Climate change is also seen as•A global governance issue•A security issue•A health care•A gender issue•A migration issue

Climate change is a threat to nation-states in terms of their interests, their economies and their borders

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Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)• The IPCC is a scientific body under the auspices of the United Nations

• It is the leading international body for the assessment of climate change

• It is an intergovernmental body

• Currently 195 countries are members of the IPCC

• It was established in 1988 to provide the world with a clear scientific view on the current state of knowledge in climate change and its potential environmental and socio-economic impacts

• The main activity of the IPCC is to provide at regular intervals Assessment Reports of the state of knowledge on climate change

• Mitigation: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gDcGz1iVm6U (Take note of the solutions proposed, useful to Small States)

According to the IPCC• While SIDS account for less than 1% of global greenhouse gas (GHC) emissions, they

are among the most vulnerable of all locations to the potential adverse effects of climate change• Given small states high vulnerability and low adaptive capacity to climate change,

communities in small island states have legitimate concerns about their future on the basis of the past observational record and climate model projections• SIDS are particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change because:a. Relative isolationb. Small land massesc. Concentrations of population and infrastructure in coastal areasd. Limited economic base and dependency on natural resources, combined with

limited financial, technical and institutional capacity for adaptation• Effects: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bq2Ybg_HDYs (Take note of the

similarities with the Caribbean Small States)

How are small states responding to the climate change problematic, particularly in terms of the international political dimensions?

Disengagement is not an option

Dealing with global environmental change will require

•Good, reliable information to monitor change and assess the physical and economic impact of that change• Institutional and managerial framework that incorporates

dynamic change into individual and collective decision-making processes.•Available funds: Global Environmental Facility (GEF), Least

Developed Country Fund, Special Climate Change Fund, World Bank Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility (CRIF)

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)• It was drafted at the UN Conference on the Environment and Development at Rio de Janeiro in

1992• The ultimate objective is to achieve a stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the

atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system• Greenhouse gas inventories are compiled using a consistent methodology developed by the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change• The past focus was on the mitigation of climate change by concentrating on greenhouse gas

emissions• Recent negotiations have placed more emphasis on adaptation to climate change• The convention lacks enforcement if targets are not met• Main reasons: dichotomy between the positions of the North and the South over country

specific emission targets, appropriate technology and funding, lack of certainty over the magnitude and timing of change as well as the aggregate and disaggregate impacts associated with accelerated global warming• In fulfilling this commitment, signatories are required to submit to the Convention a National

Communication on Climate Change

National Communication on Climate ChangeA National Communication will include:

• national circumstances;

• a greenhouse gas inventory;

• a vulnerability assessment;

• a general description of steps to be taken;

• adaptation and mitigation options; and

• financial and technological needs and constraints

National adaptation programs of action (NAPAs) are the principal mechanisms through which low-income developing countries identify adaptation needs and programs

Small States and Climate Change • Because of disproportionately high vulnerabilities, small states must be players in

terms of international protocols and corrective actions to address climate change• Small States do not choose neutral positions, rather they have adopted the most

progressive political position expressed at international climate change talks• Small states are the principal victim of a global problem not of their own making,

small states’ power lies in their powerlessness• Small States can offer global leadership, principally where there is the necessity

of cooperation for the common good• Small states’ main resource is the power of exhortation based on: warnings

concerning an impending tragedy of the commons; historical responsibility; scientific principles; sovereign states’ legal and moral right to existence; and the right to sustainable development

Small States and Climate Change

• Small States has the possibility of being at the vanguard of a political coalition that is not simply reacting to events, balancing powers or petitioning for aid• Small States do not limit their behavior to immediate geographic arena, but

campaign at the global level• Small states’ lobbying has successfully raised awareness, but not enough to fulfil

underlying goals• Small states has obtained value-claiming achievements, but far short of the

resources needed• Because of scale effects, individual or collective actions within individual small

states will do little to curb the global GHG emissions

The advantage of being small• SIDS are ideal locations for pilot projects in renewable energy and other

areas, which can then be rolled out in other countries on a larger scale.

• The Maldives, Tuvalu and several Caribbean island states are working to achieve “climate neutrality” through the use of renewable energy and other approaches

• Tokelau, recently began producing 100% of its energy from solar sources

• SIDS are also leading the way in ocean conservation efforts, and some of the largest Marine Protected Areas in the world are being established in the Pacific and incorporated into the Pacific Island Forum Oceanscape initiative.

Small States: pushing in international fora• On behalf of AOSIS, Trinidad and Tobago was the first Party to submit a draft

protocol under the Berlin Mandate, giving small island states a first-mover advantage in setting the terms of the protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC)• Once the Protocol had been finalized, the Maldives was the first country to sign it• Then, in 2003, it was AOSIS that insisted that climate talks should continue as

scheduled, despite suggestions by the EU that they should be delayed• The most dramatic and overtly effective negotiating tactics adopted by small

states have been their theatrical interventions in the Conference of the Parties (COP) plenary sessions. • In the COP 15 (Copenhagen 2009) with plenary sessions broadcast around the

world, the small island states were supported by powerful NGO rallies

Alliance of Small Developing States (AOSIS) • It was formed in November 1990 as a negotiating body for the first meeting of the

intergovernmental negotiating committee. As a direct result, language on SIDS was included in the final text of the United Nations• AOSIS has 43 members and observers, 37 of which are members of the UN, accounting for 20

% of the UN’s total membership• AOSIS has enabled small islands to negotiate in international fora for positive change from a

collective position. • This has helped to gain greater recognition for the concerns of small islands in the United

Nations organizations but has had limited impact on the global political stage where global core nations (North America, Australasia, Europe and Japan) dominate.• AOSIS usually is slightly ahead of the ‘next most radical’ negotiating position (often held by the

EU), for example updating their temperature and GHG concentration targets to 1.58C and 350 ppm• AOSIS suggested thresholds for sea-level rise and the avoidance of adverse effects on SIDS as a

benchmark for climate change mitigation success• Key members of AOSIS have always been frontrunners, supporting the Alliance position but

separately advocating further action

2014: International Year of Small Island Developing States

• The United Nations will launch the International Year of Small Islands Developing States on the 24th of February to celebrate the economic, social and cultural contributions that this group of countries has made to the world, as well as raise awareness of the challenges they face such as climate change and rising sea levels• Aim to promote the achievement of sustainable development of SIDS• Highlight the common links between small islands developing States and other

countries, and encourage new partnerships to achieve a sustainable future for generations to come

UN Conference on Small Island Developing States 2014• The Third International Conference on Small Island Developing States was held from 1 to 4

September 2014 in Apia, Samoa• It will focus the world’s attention on a group of countries that remain a special case for

sustainable development in view of their unique and particular vulnerabilities• Its overall aim is to promote the sustainable development of SIDS through genuine and

durable partnerships• Conference’s objectives:1. To assess the progress to date and the remaining gaps in the implementation of the Barbados

Programme of Action and the Mauritius Strategy2. To seek a renewed political commitment by focusing on practical and pragmatic actions for

further implementation;3. To identify new and emerging challenges and opportunities for the sustainable

development of SIDS and means of addressing them4. To identify priorities for the sustainable development of SIDS to be considered in the

elaboration of the post-2015 UN development agenda

International conferences/commitments to support SIDS

I. Barbados International Conference on SIDS (25 April – 6 May/1994 – Action Plan), UNGA assessed the Barbados Action Plan (1999)

II. II International Conference on SIDS in Mauritius (new cooperative measures – Mauritius Strategy)

III. III International Conference on SIDS in Samoa, 1 – 4 of September/2014

REGIONAL PREPARATORY PROCESS• Jamaica Regional Preparatory Meeting (July 2013) - KINGSTON OUTCOME

DOCUMENT • Inter-Regional Preparatory SIDS Meeting –Barbados (August 2013)• CARICOM Regional preparatory Meeting– (August 2014)

CARICOM PARTICIPATION IN SAMOA• Heads of Government from Barbados, Grenada, St. Kitts and Nevis• Ministerial/official representation from Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas,

Dominica, Guyana, Jamaica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago.• Barbados PM chaired multi-stakeholder dialogue on Sustainable Economic

Development • CARICOM SG chaired a Side event on Financing for Sustainable Development• Bilateral Meetings held with - UNEP Executive Director & GEF CEO

CARICOM PARTICIPATION in the Third International Conference on SIDS

• Recognition of the insufficiencies related to implementation of the BPOA and MSI• Strengthen implementation framework through: Financing for Sustainable development (new

predictable financial resources); Capitalization of the Caribbean Sustainability Fund; Establishment of dedicated financing mechanism to support projects on sustainable development

• Action related to:• Debt relief: expansion of concessionary financing for small, highly indebted middle income countries • Technology Transfer Facilitation Mechanism to provide environmentally sound and appropriate

technologies (UNFCC decision on Climate Technology Center and Network)• Capacity building to implement MEA commitments• Strengthening of national statistical and information systems (data collection, management and analysis

for decision-making in support of sustainable development)• Operationalization of the Green Climate Fund • Support for the development and utilization of new and renewable energy;• Dedicated financial resources and technological support for the development of a Caribbean SIDS

platform on Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP)• Support to strengthen health systems to address NCDs

Caribbean Priorities (Kingston Outcome Document)

• Barbados: establishment of inter and intra-regional SIDS inter-governmental mechanisms in the three SIDS Regions to facilitate implementation of the SAMOA Pathway. Barbados offered itself as a hub for inter and intra-regional SIDS cooperation.

• Trinidad and Tobago (endorsed by AOSIS): Proposal for a Global Compact reflecting the collective political will of SIDS to support implementation of the SIDS agenda;

• CARICOM1. Convening of follow-up regional meetings of the relevant organs of the Community (COTED

Environment) to review the outcomes of Samoa and chart the regional implementation strategy.2. CARICOM Task Force on Sustainable Development to review outcomes of the SIDS international

meeting and outlining its implications for the region as it relates to the negotiations on the post 2015 development agenda.

3. CARICOM Secretariat to continue its dialogue with Member States, regional institutions and other partners on the next steps relating to the implementation of the SAMOA pathway.

4. Call for urgent dialogue of CARICOM and SIDS Ministers of Finance and Economic Planning on issues pertaining to debt, graduation, financing for sustainable development and the use of Per Capita Gross National Income to confer ‘middle income status’ on developing countries.

As results of the Samoa Conference

THE SIDS PROGRAMME OF ACTION:1.- Climate Change and Sea-level rise 9.- Biodiversity Resources

2.- Natural and Environmental Disasters 10.- National Institutions and Administrative Capacity

3.- Management of Wastes 11.- Regional Institutions and Technical Cooperation

4-. Coastal and Marine Resources 12.- Transport and Communication

5.- Freshwater Resources 13.- Science and Technology6-. Land Resources 14.- Human Resource Development

7.- Energy Resources 15.- Implementation, Monitoring and Review

8.- Tourism

SIDS need

•Reaffirm the validity of the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities to make the international community to be encouraged to base their overall support on SIDS partner countries national strategies, institutions and procedures

• To be FULLY recognized as a group!!!!!

At the national level: strategies to adapt (building resilience)

• Anticipating change• Adjusting economic activities• Switching locations and reducing risks• But no through “militarization of climate change” (becoming a rationale for

military intervention in the failed states, …)

• Questions to be answered1. The identification of who and what is vulnerable to climate change2. The assessment of the capacity to adapt to observed and perceived threats3. The equity and justice of the distribution of these risks

Caribbean Initiatives

20 years after the Barbados Action Plan: Caribbean SIDS experiences PURPOSE: “Building resilience and achieving sustainable development”• Caribbean SIDS are even more vulnerable and fragile (economic, social and environmentally)• International cooperation and multilateral commitments to the region below the requirements

to addressing critical areas: a) capacity constraint issues, b) poverty reduction challenges and, c) the region’s vulnerability to external shocks and climate change impacts.

• Lack of follow-through, lack of finance• Public Health and Caribbean vulnerabilities• Crime and insecurity as one “transversal” problem associated to Caribbean vulnerabilities and

sustained development• Debt – problem with “graduation” – GDP per capita can not be the only “indicator” to legitimize

access to international concessional funds• Current world scenario and certain principles / practices established at the global economic

institutions have diminished the political will and the resources for international development cooperation. Then, Caribbean SIDS should rely much more on their domestic and regional resources than ever before to overcome the economic, social, and environmental challenges ahead.

Caribbean SIDS: What to do?• Regional discussions on SIDS should be anchored in a coordinated approach through a

regional consensus building process at CARICOM• It’s necessary to examine respective national development plans in an effort to identify

similarities (to ventilate regional viewpoints and solidify a Caribbean approach).• NGOs, Civil Society, Private Sector organizations and universities should play a greater role in

the process of regional consensus building and implementation.• Technology transfer is needed• Need to improve data and indicators on “Caribbean vulnerabilities and its social and

economic impacts” – CARICOM project on environmental statistics.• Intra and inter-regional cooperation• In developing countries, capital constraints limit the number of initiatives that can be

undertaken which is why it is important to prioritize projects. • International assistance for technology transfer and funding is essential to expand the scope

of both adaptation and mitigation efforts.

CARICOM Meetings• XXXIII Summit of Heads of State and Government ( St. Lucia, July 2012)

Emphasis on climate change

During the preparatory meeting for the Summit held in Suriname (March 2012) a plan that defined the strategic approach to the region to address climate change and its consequences , for the period 2012, was approved.

• XXXV Regular Meeting of the Conference of Heads of Government of the Caribbean Community (Antigua and Barbuda, July 2014)

The Caribbean Community Strategic Plan (2015-2019)

Caribbean SIDS and regional cooperation: CARICOM

CARICOM1. H of G’s commended the work of the National Emergency Management Organizations for their

effective coordination of relief efforts in their respective jurisdictions; the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA) and the Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology (CIMH) for their rapid and effective response

2. The need to enhance the Region’s engagement in the Climate Change negotiation process and to increase the Region’s access to available Climate Change financial resource

3. They agreed on the establishment of a Task Force on Climate Change and SIDS to provide guidance to Caribbean Climate Change Negotiators, their Ministers and political leaders

4. H of G also lamented the fact that much of the promised resources had not been forthcoming but emphasized the need for the Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (CCCCC) to work with Member States

5. The fortification of the CSME; improving markedly the delivery of air and sea transport; enhancing citizen security; facilitating socio-economic development through ICT; and lifting further the region’s human and social development

ASSOCIATION OF CARIBBEAN STATES (ACS)

1. Global Geo-Spatial Information System (US 4,5 millions)

2. Caribbean Territorial Information System

3. Greater Caribbean Trade Facilitation Project

4. Greater Caribbean Project for a Better Interconnectivity by Sea (“short distances sea-transportation system”)

Caribbean SIDS and regional cooperation: ACS

Caribbean SIDS and regional cooperation: CELAC

CELAC DECLARATION ON SECOND SUMMIT IN HAVANA

(23) Caribbean islands….as most vulnerable sub region from economic, social and environmental point of view.

(24) Regional commitment to support Haiti’s rebuild and development

(25) A comprehensive approach regarding the “Regional Integrated Strategy for Risk Disasters Reduction”

(32) Negative impacts derived from Climate Change to Developing Countries, particularly to Caribbean SIDS.

HAVANA SUMMIT: SPECIAL DECLARATIONS / CARIBBEAN INTERESTS1. CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES OF LATIN AMERICAN AND

CARIBBEAN2. ABOUT THE SMALL ISLANDS DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

3. ABOUT THE INITIATIBE TO BUILD A PERMANENT MONUMENT IN HONOR TO THE SLAVERY’ VICTIMS

4. ON CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE INTEGRATED RISK-REDUCTION MANAGEMENT

5. ABOUT POST 2015 DEVELOPMENT AGENDA6. ABOUT CELAC INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENDA

Caribbean SIDS and regional cooperation: CELAC

Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to Global Climate Change Project (CPACC)

• Initiated in 1997

• The purpose is to co-ordinate and assist countries in preparing their National Communications and financed by the Global Environmental Facility (GEF)

• Antigua and Barbuda; The Bahamas; Barbados; Belize; Dominica; Grenada; Guyana; Jamaica; St. Kitts and Nevis; St. Lucia; St. Vincent and the Grenadines; and Trinidad and Tobago

• The CPACC program has addressed four components of regional nature: design and establishment of sea level/climate monitoring network; establishment of databases and information systems; inventory of coastal resources; and formulation of a policy framework for coastal and marine management

Other initiatives

• Project of the Caribbean Development Bank to develop vulnerability indices

• Climate Institute’s Small Islands Greening Initiative

• Caribbean Association for Sustainable Tourism’s Green House Accreditation Program

• National Disaster Committees established in 17 Caribbean islands: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cuba, Dominica, Haiti, Jamaica, Monserrat, Puerto Rico, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands

Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility (CCRIF)

• The World Bank, together with CARICOM, is presently developing a Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility• CCRIF is a risk pooling facility, owned, operated and registered in the Caribbean

for Caribbean governments• It is designed to limit the financial impact of catastrophic hurricanes and

earthquakes to Caribbean governments by quickly providing short term liquidity when a policy is triggered • It is the world’s first and, to date, only regional fund utilizing parametric

insurance, giving Caribbean governments the unique opportunity to purchase earthquake and hurricane catastrophe coverage with lowest-possible pricing

http://www.ccrif.org/content/about-us

Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility (CCRIF)• CCRIF was developed under the technical leadership of the World Bank and with a grant from

the Government of Japan

• It was capitalized through contributions to a multi-donor Trust Fund by the Government of Canada, the European Union, the World Bank, the governments of the UK and France, the Caribbean Development Bank and the governments of Ireland and Bermuda, as well as through membership fees paid by participating governments

• Sixteen governments are currently members of CCRIF: Anguilla, Antigua & Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Haiti, Jamaica, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent & the Grenadines, Trinidad & Tobago and the Turks & Caicos Islands

• Since the inception of CCRIF in 2007, the Facility has made eight payouts totaling US$32,179,470 to seven member governments.

• All payouts were transferred to the respective governments immediately after the stipulated 14-day waiting period (and in some cases advances were made within a week) after each event

Event Country Affected Payouts (US$)Earthquake, 29 November 2007 Dominica 528,021

Earthquake, 29 November 2007 Saint Lucia 418,976

Tropical Cyclone Ike, September 2008 Turks and Caicos Islands 6,303,913

Earthquake, 12 January 2010 Haiti 7,753,579

Tropical Cyclone Earl, August 2010 Anguilla 4,282,733

Tropical Cyclone Tomas, October 2010 Barbados 8,560,247

Tropical Cyclone Tomas, October 2010 Saint Lucia 3,241,613

Tropical Cyclone Tomas, October 2010 St Vincent & the Grenadines 1,090,388

Total for the Period 2007 - 2013 $32,179,470

How to prepare to hurricanes?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ll-sxjKP_1c

Note useful experiences to spread within the Caribbean

Most of the attention in the region has been given to adaptation measures rather than mitigation

• The aggregate contribution of greenhouse gas emissions from the region is minimal• However, opportunities exist for mitigation particularly in terms of energy

conservation and alternative fuels• Air conditioning in public buildings, hotels and high end housing has become

standard in newer buildings and retrofitted older buildings, replacing the natural trade winds for cooling, to accommodate North American and European tourists and affluent residents.• Solar and wind energy is gaining some acceptance in the region, particularly in

Barbados with an active renewable energy program at UWI Cave Hill campus• These renewable energy resources will probably have longterm potential and

research and development investments may pay substantial dividends

Which are the Small Island Developing States (SIDS)?

UN Members (38)AIMS (Atlantic, Indian Ocean and South China Sea)

1. Bahréin

2. Cape Verde

3. Comores

4. Guinea-Bissau

5. Maldivas

6. Mauricio

7. Sao Tomé y Príncipe

8. Seychelles

9. Singapur

Pacific

10.Fiji

11.Kiribati

12.Islas Marshall

13.Micronesia

14.Nauru

15.Palau

16.Papua Nueva Guinea

17.Samoa

18.Islas Solomon

19.Timor-Leste

20.Tonga

21.Tuvalu

22.Vanuatu

Caribbean

23.Antigua y Barbuda

24.Bahamas

25.Barbados

26.Belice

27.Cuba

28.Dominica

29.República Dominicana

30.Granada

31.Guyana

32.Haití

33.Jamaica

34.San Kitts y Nevis

35.Santa Lucía

36.San Vicente y las Granadinas

37.Surinam

38.Trinidad y Tobago

Non-UN Members/Associate Members of the Regional Commissions (19)

1. American Samoa2. Guadalupe3. Anguilla4. Guam5. Aruba6. Martinica7. Bermuda8. Montserrat9. Islas Vírgenes Británicas

10.Nueva Caledonia11.Islas Caimán12.Niue13.Comunidad de las Marianas14. Puerto Rico15.Islas Cook16. Turcos y Caicos17.Curacao18. Islas Vírgenes U.S. 19.Polinesia Francesa

SIDS are an auto-categorization group

• Some 52 countries and Associate States declare themselves to be SIDS, including 38 UN Member States listed on the website of the Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States.

• There is no accepted definition—three SIDS are not even islands (Guinea-Bissau, Guyana and Surinam)

• SIDS are mainly located in two regions, with 23 in the Caribbean and 20 in the Pacific, and nine in the rest of the world (scattered across Africa, the Indian Ocean, Mediterranean and South China Sea)

• Most of them are Members of AOSIS

Bibliography• W. Neil Adger (2010): “Climate Change, Human Well-Being and Insecurity”, New Political Economy, 15:2,

275-292• Richard Benwell (2011): “The Canaries in the Coalmine: Small States as Climate Change Champions”, The

Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs, 100:413, 199-211• Susan Martin (2010): “Climate Change, Migration, and Governance, Global Governance “16, 397–414• Richard A. Matthew and Anne Hammill (2009): “Sustainable development and climate change”,

International Affairs 85: 6 1117–1128• Max Everest-Phillips (2014): “Small, So Simple? Complexity in Small Island Developing States”, UNDP

Global Centre for Public Service Excellence• London, James B. (2004): “Implications of Climate Change on Small Island Developing States: Experience

in the Caribbean Region”, Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, Vol. 47, No. 4, 491–501• Romero Gómez, Antonio F. (2014): “Regional cooperation to support the Caribbean SIDS: opportunities

from CELAC” paper presented in the Workshop Vulnerabilidad, desafíos y posibilidades de cooperación entre los pequeños Estados insulares: el caso del Caribe, Universidad de La Habana

• Lowe, Michele (2014): “Maximising the Samoa Pathway- A CARICOM Perspective” paper presented in the Workshop “Vulnerabilidad, desafíos y posibilidades de cooperación entre los pequeños Estados insulares: el caso del Caribe”, Universidad de La Habana