climate change and its impact on groundwater table fluctuation in precambrian terrain of chitradurga...

International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET), ISSN 0976 – 6308 (Print),

ISSN 0976 – 6316(Online), Volume 6, Issue 3, March (2015), pp. 83-96 © IAEME

83

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON

GROUNDWATER TABLE FLUCTUATION IN

PRECAMBRIAN TERRAIN OF CHITRADURGA

DISTRICT, KARNATAKA, INDIA USING GEOMATICS

APPLICATION

Manjunatha M.C1, Basavarajappa H.T

2, Jeevan L

3

1,2,3Department of Studies in Earth Science, Centre for Advanced Studies in Precambrian Geology,

University of Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysuru-570 006, Karnataka, India

ABSTRACT

The study area falls within the semiarid region and frequently facing water scarcity problems.

Rain is a form of precipitation, snow, sleet, hail and dew. The precipitation occurs when separate

drops of waterfalls on the earth’s surface from clouds. Not all rain reaches the surface, however;

some evaporates while falling through dry air, a type of precipitation called Virga. The precipitated

water percolates to deeper zones to be stored as groundwater. The present study generates the

primary data to map the groundwater table fluctuation in hard rock terrain of Chitradurga District

through Geomatics technique. Efforts have been made to evaluate a total of 20 representative rain

gauge station samples and analyzed the season rainfall variation over a period of 31 years (1981-

2011). 47 representative well samples are collected to study the season-wise groundwater fluctuation

of about 11 years (2000-2011). Rain gauge stations are plotted on a base map with their respective

amount of rainfall. Then the contours of equal rainfall (isohyetes) are drawn using GIS software’s.

The average rainfall between the successive isohyets taken as the average of two isohyetal values is

weighed with the area between the isohyets. The different rainfall intervals obtained (area between

the two adjacent lines) are useful in determining the rainfall variation over the study area. The final

results highlight the impacts of climatic change over groundwater table fluctuation in typical

Precambrian rocks of Chitradurga District, Karnataka, which is a suitable model in similar geological

conditions.

Keywords: Climate Change, Groundwater Table Fluctuation, Chitradurga and Geomatics.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY (IJCIET)

ISSN 0976 – 6308 (Print)

ISSN 0976 – 6316(Online)

Volume 6, Issue 3, March (2015), pp. 83-96

© IAEME: www.iaeme.com/Ijciet.asp

Journal Impact Factor (2015): 9.1215 (Calculated by GISI)

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IJCIET

©IAEME



84

1. INTRODUCTION

Precipitation is the main factor in water cycle that acts as the major source of all water

resources on earth. Rise in temperature increases the evaporation of surface water bodies &

transpiration in wetlands. This results in low precipitation amounts, timings, intensity rate, long-term

climatic variables such as air temperature and moisture content (Basavarajappa et al., a2015).

Climatic changes are also expected to affect the water cycle that impacts on reduction of rainfall on

surface as well as groundwater resources (Alsharifa M Jassim., 2009). Groundwater potential of the

area mainly depends on rainfall. The occurrence, origin and distribution of groundwater are

controlled by the nature of rock formation, geological structure, geomorphological and

hydrometerological conditions (Basavarajappa et al., b2015). Groundwater is an essential part of the

hydrological cycle and valuable natural resource providing the primary source of water for

agriculture, domestic, and industrial uses in many countries (Basavarajappa et al., a2014). Rise and

fall in groundwater table depends on variability in topography, aquifer characteristics, vegetation

dynamics as well as human activities. However, global groundwater resources may be threatened by

human activities and the uncertain consequences of climate change. However, little known about

how subsurface waters in the vadose zone and groundwater that respond to climate change and affect

the current availability and future sustainability of groundwater resources (UNESCO, 2006). Thus,

there are urgent and ongoing needs to address the expected coupled effects of human activities and

climate change on global groundwater resources (Holger et al., 2012).

2. STUDY AREA

The study area lies in between 13°34' to 15°02' N latitude and 76°00' to 77°01' E longitude

with an aerial extent of 8,338 Km2. It include six taluks namely Challakere, Chitradurga, Hiriyur,

Holalkere, Hosadurga and Molakalmuru with general ground elevation of 732 m above MSL (Fig.1)

(Basavarajappa et al., b2014). The study area experiences a hot, seasonally dry, tropical savannah

climate which receives low to moderate rainfall. The maximum temperature recorded 410C and may

falls up to 120C during winter season (CGWB, 2008; 2013).



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3. METHODS & MATERIALS

3.1 Methods

Rainfall data collected by respective rain gauge stations and plotted on a base map with their

respective amount of rainfall. The exact locations of these rain gauge stations are carried out by GPS

during Ground Truth Check (GTC) using geo-referenced Survey of India (SoI) toposheets (1:50,000)

through Erdas Imagine v2013. Contours of equal rainfall (isohyets) lines are drawn using ArcGIS

v10. The average rainfalls between the successive isohyetal values are considered as an average of

two iso-hyetal values (Basavarajappa et al., a2015). The different rainfall intervals obtained (area

between two adjacent lines) are useful to determine the rainfall variation over the study area. Annual

average rainfall of iso-hyetal lines are plotted and digitized in meter level.



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3.2 Materials

� Topomaps: 57A/12; 57B/3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16; 57C/1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 10, 13 of

1:50,000 scale. Source: Survey of India.

� Rainfall (1981 to 2011 - 31 years) and Groundwater table data (2000 to 2011 - 11 years).

Source: Field survey and Ground Truth Check (GTC) and Meteorological Department, Pune.

� GIS Software’s: Erdas Imagine v2013 and ArcGIS v10.

� GPS analysis: Garmin 12 - Ground Truth Check of Rain gauge stations and Observation well

points.

� Methods adopted: Arithmetic mean, Thiessen polygon and Iso-hyetal methods.

4. RAINFALL

Rainfall is the main source for surface as well as sub-surface water bodies. About 31 years

(1981-2011) of rainfall data from 20 representative Rain gauge stations (Fig.2; Table.2) data have

been collected and analyzed for rainfall variation.

4.1 Spatial distribution of Rainfall

The spatial variability of mean annual precipitation depends upon the topographic factors such

as exposure of station to the prevailing wind, elevation, orientation and slope of the mountain (Basist

A and Bell G.D., 1994).

Arithmetic mean is used for measurements of selected duration at all rain gauges are

summed and the total divided by the number of gauges. Arithmetic method is the simplest objective

methods of calculating the average rainfall over the area (Basavarajappa et al., a2015).

Thiessen polygon method provides the individual areas of influence around each set of

points. Thiessen (1911), an American engineer adopted the polygon method for rainfall

measurements at individual gauges as first weighted by the fractions of the catchment area

represented by the gauges, and then summed. Thiessen polygons are the polygons whose boundaries

are mathematically define the area (perpendicular bisectors) that is closest to each point relative to all

other points (Basavarajappa et al., a2015).

Iso-hyetal method is a line drawn on a map connecting points that receive equal amounts of

rainfall. It is one of the convenient methods that views continuous spatial variation of rainfall areas.

The main aim of the method, to draw lines of equal rainfall amount (isohyets) using observed

amounts at stations (Reed W.G and Kincer J.B., 1917). In iso-hyetal map, the x-axis represents East

Longitude, while y-axis represents North Latitude (Basavarajappa et al., a2015).

4.2. Seasonal distribution of Rainfall

Monsoon season contributes the major portion of annual rainfall over the Vedavathi river of

Krishna basin (Subramanyam V.P and Venkatesh H., 1983). Seasonal rainfall data useful to

determine the changes of agricultural activities, irrigation, groundwater recharge, its management

and development (Manjunatha et al., 2015). The rainfall of the study area in a year divided into three

seasons namely; Pre-monsoon, Monsoon and Post monsoon (Dinakar.S., 2005).



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Table.1. Season-wise Average Rain gauge stations data (1981-2011) of the study area Sl

no

Rain gauge stations Latitude Longitude Pre-monsoon Monsoon Post-

monsoon

Annual

Challakere taluk

1 Challakere 14.3140 76.6492 39.6 41.8 50.6 132.0

2 Parasurampura 14.2573 76.8837 58.2 112.4 41.8 212.4

3 Talaku 14.4470 76.6830 143.8 131.0 101.0 375.8

4 Kammathmari kunte 14.2331 76.6621 26.9 100.1 4.2 131.2

Chitradurga taluk

5 Bharamasagara 14.3708 76.1927 110.2 181.3 144.5 436.0

6 Turuvanur 14.4023 76.4410 59.3 261.6 192.9 513.8

7 Medakaripura 14.2300 76.4390 110.4 376.2 99.2 585.8

8 Bhahadurgatta 14.4334 76.1779 141.6 78.6 104.4 324.6

9 Vijapura 14.2910 76.2825 57.1 83.8 61.0 201.9

Hiriyur taluk

10 Bagganadu 13.8665 76.6924 127.6 94.2 141.8 363.6

11 Hiriyur 13.9412 76.6169 147.4 103.0 110.6 361.0

12 Balenahally 14.0219 76.6437 112.9 103.9 16.6 233.4

13 Yelladakere 13.7852 76.5680 78.2 78.8 97.0 254.0

Holalkere taluk

14 Horakedevapura 14.0315 76.3286 30.7 506.7 357.4 1017.7

15 Arehallihatti 14.0345 76.1373 86.0 94.6 106.8 287.4

16 Hirekandavadi 14.1872 76.1980 143.3 139.7 138.0 421.0

Hosadurga taluk

17 Kalkere 13.7015 76.3182 78.2 89.8 71.9 239.9

18 Narasipura 13.8809 76.3002 78.0 227.3 55.2 360.5

Molakalmuru taluk

19 B.G.Kere 14.5924 76.6744 160.6 234.4 151.1 546.1

20 Rampura 14.8817 76.7827 109.8 167.9 0.0 277.7

Average 94.99 160.35 102.3 363.79



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5. SEASON-WISE ANALYSIS OF RAINFALL

5.1 Pre-Monsoon

It starts from January and ends in the month of May, receiving an average rainfall of 94.99

mm. The minimum rainfall received is 26.9 mm (20.50%) at Kammathmari Kunte rain gauge station;

while maximum is 160.6 mm (29.40%) at B.G. Kere rain gauge station. The iso-hyetal map of pre-

monsoon season depicts that the rainfall is decreasing from SW to NE in the study area (Fig.3;

Table.1).

5.2 Monsoon

Any region that receives the majority of the rainfall during a particular season also called as

south west monsoon season (June to Sept). The average rainfall is about 160.35 mm (44.07%) and

provides maximum contribution for normal annual rainfall. The minimum rainfall received is 41.8

mm (31.6%) at Challakere and maximum rainfall is received in Horakedevapura of 506.07 mm

(49.7%). The iso-hyetal map of the season depicts that the rainfall is decreasing from NW to SE parts

of the study area (Fig.4; Table.1).



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Table.2. Season-wise Rainfall data in mm (1981-2011)

Sl no Year Pre-monsoon Monsoon Post-monsoon Annual

1. 1981 74.3 304.4 115.4 494.1

2. 1982 84.7 293.8 150.8 529.3

3. 1983 58.6 302.2 86.8 447.6

4. 1984 92.2 237.1 123.6 566.1

5. 1985 92.1 220.8 47.2 360.1

6. 1986 70.5 380.0 129.2 579.7

7. 1987 65.2 304.4 280.4 650.0

8. 1988 190.1 438.3 29.7 658.1

9. 1989 57.9 405.9 56.0 519.8

10. 1990 102.9 149.2 158.5 410.6

11. 1991 155.8 275.9 156.0 587.7

12. 1992 78.7 328.3 236.4 643.4

13. 1993 57.1 236.1 237.0 530.2

14. 1994 88.6 201.6 204.1 494.3

15. 1995 43.8 202.7 93.3 339.8

16. 1996 45.3 206.5 118.4 370.2

17. 1997 46.3 191.9 194.7 432.9

18. 1998 39.1 297.0 138.2 474.3

19. 1999 103.3 210.5 282.4 596.2

20. 2000 66.7 403.4 193.5 663.6

21. 2001 74.1 348.5 117.0 585.0

22. 2002 88.0 171.3 189.9 458.7

23. 2003 36.0 129.9 166.0 328.5

24. 2004 49.2 206.5 180.6 436.3

25. 2005 129.5 326.5 179.9 635.9

26. 2006 46.2 120.0 106.8 273.0

27. 2007 179.8 253.8 137.7 571.3

28. 2008 170.3 359.7 125.5 655.5

29. 2009 196.5 496.7 161.8 858.9

30. 2010 217.8 387.1 289.8 894.9

31. 2011 101.2 137.8 119.0 362.8

5.3 Post Monsoon

North-East monsoon occurs in the month of October to December. Most of the rainfall during

post monsoon is closely associated with the westward passage of storms and depressions that are

remnants of low pressure systems moving into the Bay of Bengal (Das P.K., 1995). The average

rainfall in this season is 102.3 mm which contribute 28.12% to normal annual rainfall. The minimum

rainfall recorded is 0.0 mm in Rampura and maximum is 357.4 mm (35.11%) in Horakedevapura.

The iso-hyetal map of the season depicts that the rainfall decreasing from NE to SW of the study

area (Fig.5; Table.1). 5.4 Annual Rainfall

The annual rainfall varies from 131.2 mm (Kammathmari Kunte) to 1017.7 mm

(Horakedevapura) and the average normal rainfall is 363.79 mm (Fig.6; Table.1). The iso-hyetal map

of 31 years normal rain gauge stations data indicates that the rainfall decreases from NW to SE part

of the study area. The rainfall is low mainly in pre-monsoon season that affects the vegetation

activities (Basavarajappa et al., a2015).



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6. GROUNDWATER TABLE FLUCTUATION

The groundwater is naturally replenished by surface water from precipitation, streams and

rivers. This is the primary source of fresh water and being consuming faster than it’s naturally

replenished causing decline in water table unremittingly (Basavarajappa et al., a2015). An accurate

estimation of spatial and temporal fluctuation of groundwater table is of prime importance in the

management of subsurface water resource (Rai S.N and Singh R.N., 1985). The water table

fluctuation method provides a point value of recharge, computed from the water level rise in a well

and multiplied by the specific yield of the aquifer (Basavarajappa et al., a2015). 47 representative

bore wells have considered as observation points in the present study to analyze the groundwater

table fluctuation from season to season (Fig.9; Table.3). Seasonal and annual fluctuations of

groundwater level are collected and analyzed over a period of 11 years data (2000-2011) (Table.4).

The minimum water level observed is 1.37 m at Narsipura observation well and the maximum is

42.92 m at Chitralli observation well. Ferdowsian (2001) presented a new approach called

Hydrograph Analysis, Rainfall and Time Trends (HARTT) for statistically estimating groundwater

levels. This method differentiates between the effect of rainfall fluctuations and the underlying trend

of groundwater levels over time.



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6.1 Pre-Monsoon Groundwater Table Fluctuation

The groundwater table shows variation in pre-monsoon season ranges from 2.92 m to 42.35

m with the average of 15.09 m. Groundwater table fluctuation show high in western parts and low in

northern & southern parts (Fig.10; Table.3).

6.2 Monsoon Groundwater Table Fluctuation

The groundwater table variation during south-west monsoon ranges from 2.70 m to 42.92 m

with average of 15.41 m. The groundwater table show high in western parts, but the exploitation of

groundwater seems to be very high in eastern and southern parts of the study area (Fig.11; Table.3).

6.3 Post Monsoon Groundwater Table Fluctuation

The groundwater table variation during south-west monsoon ranges from 1.37 m to 30.01 m.

The general trend of groundwater table shows high in eastern and central parts of the study area.

Groundwater table rises at the end of rainy season, gets lowered progressively and reaches the lowest

level as the summer season advances (Basavarajappa et al., a2015) (Fig.12; Table.3).

6.4 Annual Groundwater Table Fluctuation

The water table depth show high in eastern, central and southern parts of the study area

(Fig.13). However, gneissic rocks are highly weathered and slope varies from nearly level to

moderate gentle slope providing good agriculture activities, especially in Molakalmuru taluk. The

annual average groundwater table ranges from 2.48 m to 33.51 m. Bharamasagara station of

Chitradurga taluk shows high rainfall representing deep groundwater table due to its topography,

slopes and high runoff by many granitic outcrops (Fig.15; Table.3). On other hand, groundwater

table remains constant in western parts in all the seasons due to the perennial Vedavathi River

(Fig.14; Table.3). Groundwater discharge takes place primarily through artificial withdrawal of

water from bore wells and to a lesser extent through lateral flow to lower sections contributing to the

base flow in streams and rivers.



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Table.3. Average Season-wise water level data (2000-10)

Sl

no Observation Well Latitude Longitude

Pre-

monsoon Monsoon

Post-

monsoon

Average

Annual

Challakere taluk

1 Challakere 14.3140 76.6492 11.88 12.28 9.30 11.37

2 Parasurampura 14.2573 76.8837 16.00 17.12 15.76 16.31

3 Talaku 14.4470 76.683 17.75 18.02 16.40 17.50

4 Kammathmari kunte 14.2331 76.6621 13.68 13.99 12.14 13.40

5 Thimmannanaikana Kote 14.1372 76.824 14.61 15.50 13.68 14.67

6 Budnahatti 14.3666 76.656 17.56 17.89 16.32 17.36

7 Dodderi 14.2553 76.6792 14.61 14.61 13.13 14.21

8 Purlehalli 14.2855 76.7986 6.32 7.33 2.84 5.79

9 Nagagondahalli 14.3755 76.8215 7.99 7.92 6.49 7.61

10 Mylanahalli 14.4444 76.8244 13.72 14.82 12.83 13.85

11 Obalapura 14.4702 76.927 20.54 22.94 18.95 20.77

12 Kaparahalli 14.1645 76.692 12.72 13.94 10.42 12.52

Chitradurga taluk

13 Bharamasagara 14.3708 76.1927 34.87 34.43 30.01 33.51

14 Turuvanur 14.4023 76.441 28.38 28.43 24.83 27.50

15 Medakaripura 14.2300 76.439 6.51 5.20 3.95 5.47

16 Kallahalli 14.2493 76.5179 14.13 13.94 11.49 13.40

17 Bhahadurgatta 14.4334 76.1779 28.64 29.16 26.94 28.29

18 Vijapura 14.2910 76.2825 18.31 18.21 16.38 17.79

19 Belagatta 14.3123 76.4556 28.41 28.32 23.12 26.94

20 Bommakkanahalli 14.3713 76.5117 9.98 11.56 8.20 10.02

21 Chikkagondanahalli 14.3330 76.3331 28.42 28.45 25.88 27.76

22 Guddarangavvanahalli 14.2894 76.396 29.51 29.01 26.33 28.73



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Hiriyur taluk

23 Gollahalli 14.1222 76.6544 6.30 6.51 4.50 5.87

24 Bharamagiri 13.9276 76.4972 15.42 16.97 14.14 15.71

25 Bagganadu 13.8665 76.6924 13.02 17.33 12.39 15.10

26 Hiriyur 13.9412 76.6169 6.56 5.72 4.61 5.83

27 Maradihalli 14.1315 76.5276 11.46 11.64 10.32 11.40

28 Hariyabbe 14.0567 76.8159 22.99 24.24 20.58 23.12

29 Yelladakere 13.7852 76.568 4.84 5.05 3.82 4.70

30 Yalakuranahalli 14.0619 76.4541 11.02 10.81 9.54 10.63

31 Guilahalu 14.0483 76.5628 6.71 7.01 4.62 6.40

Holalkere taluk

32 Horakedevapura 14.0315 76.3286 7.03 7.05 5.80 6.79

33 Kummanaghatta 14.0315 76.2967 5.39 5.66 3.56 4.93

34 Arehallihatti 14.0345 76.1373 6.82 6.65 5.27 6.44

35 Amruthapura 14.1370 76.2446 19.55 20.15 17.62 19.10

36 Sasauhala 14.1966 76.116 19.27 18.74 17.64 18.88

37 Hirekandavadi 14.1872 76.198 24.11 23.07 19.44 22.78

38 Chitrahalli 14.1093 76.2668 42.35 42.92 38.45 41.81

Hosadurga taluk

39 Heggere 13.6048 76.4393 8.11 7.23 6.13 7.60

40 G.Nerlakere 13.7837 76.4686 3.73 3.69 2.25 3.36

41 Madadakere 13.8861 76.3863 6.34 4.22 2.16 3.68

42 Seeranakatte 13.8861 76.4268 5.20 5.62 3.33 4.87

43 Narasipura 13.8809 76.3002 2.92 2.70 1.37 2.48

44 Belagur 13.6235 76.2902 11.28 11.93 9.67 11.17

45 Ajjikammasagara 13.7620 76.3878 7.01 7.01 4.50 6.39

Molakalmuru taluk

46 B.G.Kere 14.5924 76.6744 18.34 19.39 17.37 18.33

47 Rampura 14.8817 76.7827 29.34 29.93 28.32 29.36

Average 15.09 15.41 13.03 14.71

Table.4. Season-wise & Annual Average water level data (2000-10)

Sl no Year Pre-monsoon Monsoon Post-monsoon Average

1. 2000 8.81 10.77 12.25 10.61

2. 2001 12.69 9.64 10.47 10.93

3. 2002 12.73 14.71 13.53 13.65

4. 2003 15.25 16.90 15.74 15.96

5. 2004 17.21 17.37 16.96 17.18

6. 2005 18.56 16.05 12.55 15.72

7. 2006 13.20 14.16 14.36 13.90

8. 2007 16.71 16.31 12.62 15.21

9. 2008 14.58 15.07 12.30 13.98

10. 2009 15.18 13.94 9.85 12.99

11. 2010 10.77 9.14 6.65 9.16



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9. CONCLUSIONS

The main source of groundwater recharge is through precipitation and the occurrence &

movement of groundwater is fully controlled by hydrological, hydrogeological and climatological

factors in the study area. Though the maximum rainfall received in Bharamasagara station, the

groundwater prospect is poor due to topography, land pattern and many granitic outcrops. 31 years of

season-wise rainfall data of 20 representative rain gauge stations have been collected; analyzed and

respective iso-hyetal rainfall maps are prepared using ArcGIS v10. The average annual rainfall over

the study area is 1017.7 mm (Horakedevapura station) and monsoon rainfall contributes to a large

extent of about 44.07%. The annual minimum rainfall of 131.2 mm is received in Kammathmari

Kunte rain gauge station and maximum rainfall of 1017.7 mm in Horakedevapura rain gauge station.

Rainfall recorded almost nil during the months of December and January in the study area since from

2001 to 2011 affecting maximum fluctuation in groundwater level. Iso-hyetal map of 31 years

normal average annual rainfall indicates that the precipitation decreases from NW to eastern parts of

the study area. Long-term water table declines are caused by sustained ground water pumping and

needs essential to maintain a proper balance to avoid serious problem for sustainable agricultural

production. Precipitation is the main source of water in the district and return flow from applied

irrigation that occurs in fractures, fault zones and major lineaments under semi-confined to confined

conditions. 11 year annual average groundwater fluctuation shows wide variation between 1.37 m to

42.92 m due to rapid change of climate in the study area.



95

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are indepthly acknowledged Prof. S. Govindaiah, Chairman, DoS in Earth

Science, CAS in Precambrian Geology, Manasagangothri, University of Mysore, Mysuru; Zilla

Panchayath, Chitradurga; CGWB, Bengaluru and UGC-MRP no.42-73(SR)/2012-13, dt: 12.03.2012,

New Delhi for financial support.

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