Classical Ethical Theories

Note:

Ethical Theories show us that morality exists

Distinguish Good from Evil

These Theories are normative.

Thus create moral disagreements among people.

Each classical ethical theory has its view about the reality of morality.

Each theory gives important truths a bout moral life.

None of the theories can claim to possess the whole truth

Each theory checks the excesses of the other,

Thereby showing the limits of each theory .

Some theories are consequential in Nature,

While others are non-consequential.

Moral Absolutism

Claims that there are absolute standards against which morality can be judged.

We can strive to attain higher norms that apply to all human beings.

Moral absolutism contd

Certain actions are right or wrong irrespective of the context of the act.

Nothing is relative; a crime is a crime regardless of the circumstances.

Moral Absolutism Contd

Therefore right and wrong are universal truths ( ethical standards are applicable to every body everywhere.

Analysis:

From an egoistic view, moral absolutism condones fundamentalism. This can break down society.

This would imply that all people should have the same ethical codes.

Contd

positively:, it allows us to judge the actions of others.

Moral Relativism

There are no universal moral standards; Nothing is good or bad absolutely.

Therefore the truth/ moral principles vary from time to time, group to group place to place

Moral Relativism Contd

Every one should be contented with the morality of their time and place

Two Forms of Relativism

1.Subjectivism: Each individual must act according to what he/she considers appropriate for each situation

Forms of Relativism Contd

2. Cultural Relativism: Good and Bad depends on the ethical values prevailing in the given culture/community.

Analysis

No responsibility, No blame every body/groups have their own moral standards.

Can not Judge others

Laws become impossible to implement

Consequentialism

Actions are judged according to the end / completion / effect.

Sum total good in actions must exceed the evil

Forms of Consequentialism

1.Ethical Egoism

2.Utilitarianism/altruism

3.Pragmatism

4. Feminist Consequentialism

Forms Contd

Ethical Egoism:

What is ethical is that which produces good consequences to the actor.( hedonists/ Thomas Hobbes)

Analysis

Is it possible to avoid pain?

Foregoing sensual pleasure to enjoy higher pleasure; postpone the enjoyment of pleasure

Pleasure generalized; sacrifice, duty, generosity.. Etc

Utilitarianism; Jeremy Bentham & Stuart Mill

Using the principle of utility,(Maximizing the Good) Bentham found pain and pleasure to be the only intrinsic values in the world.

Utilitarianism Contd

Man is governed naturally by pain and pleasure.

Actions and policies should be evaluated on the basis of the benefits and costs they have on society.

Utilitarianism Contd

Correct actions produce greatest net benefits or lowest net costs.

Greatest happiness/good for the greatest number.

Utilitarianism Contd

People affected by actions are stakeholders of the action; therefore businesses should consider all people affected by their businesses as stakeholders in the business.

Utilitarianism Contd

Essentials of Utility

Maximizing good

Theory of value: standard of goodness: intrinsic values- satisfaction of desires- attainment of autonomy-achievement of deep personal relationships

Consequentialism; produce the best utilitarian outcome

Utilitarianism Contd

Impartiality/ Universalism

Analysis

Is it possible to determine pleasure for others?

Is morality for the majority always right?

Analysis contd

Can lead to radical actions, infanticide, exterminate sufferers .. Assisted suicide( euthanasia)

Pragmatism

There is no room for absolutism; ethical standards change according to their usefulness or practicability and their ability to produce good effect.

Pragmatism Contd

Good actions are those that work, profitable, or have practical consequences, help solve a problem, and produce positive results.

Analysis

No common Morality

One can not be certain of the consequences.

Feminist Consequentilism Caro Gilligan/ Ethics of Care

Men use logic and rules/ laws to arrive at moral decisions. They generalize morality while Women see morality as being entailed in communication and relationships. Morality is particular

Ethics of Care Contd

Men see themselves as guilty for doing something wrong while women hold themselves responsible for not doing something to prevent the hurt.

Ethics of Care Contd

Women change rules in order to preserve relationships while men abide by rules and see relationships as replaceable.

Ethics of Care Contd

Therefore actions that are right are those that do not break up relationships, hurt other peoples feelings; and vise versa.

Non-Consequential Theories

Kantian Ethics

Deontology

Virtue Ethics

Deontological Theories

Greek word Deon and logos meaning duty or obligation.

Acting in accordance to ones duty is right.

What are duties?

Hugo Grotius ( 1583-1635) and Samuel Pufendorf ( 1632-1694)

Duties towards God

Towards ones self

Duties Contd

Duty towards others. Family, friends, general social obligations etc

W.D ROSS DUTIES ( 1817-1971)

Fidelity

Gratitude

Justice

Beneficence

Self improvement and Non- maleficence.

Kantian Ethics/Theory

Immanuel Kant : 1724-1804 He is a critique of the Utilitarian's, hedonists,

pragmatists, who never care a bout the motives of actors/agents.

Actions are duty based ( motive) Right actions are those that are done when the

agent possesses good will( a person recognizes that they ought to do these actions)

Categorical Imperative ( unconditional/ command- / essential)

Kant Contd

Act only to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law Universalism

Key Issues:

Duty and Good will

Universalism

Treating Human Beings as an End not Means

Virtue ethics

Virtue is a habitual and firm disposition to do the good.

Virtues allow a person not only to perform good acts to give the best of himself/herself in every thing.

A good person

directs his/herself towards the good with all his/her sensory and spiritual powers.

Virtues contd

A virtuous person stands firm in trying moments

The choice of good acts produces virtue and virtues itself is the source of choosing to do good acts.

Good habits make virtues and bad habits make the vices. ( Virtues= good; Vice= bad)

Virtues Contd

Virtues are therefore necessary for a moral life.

Virtues govern actions, give one a firm and good attitude, perfect the intellect, control passions, and generally make it easy for one to enjoy leading a morally good life.

Virtues are acquired by human effort ( they are the seed and fruit of morally good acts)

Virtues Contd

Classifications of Virtues.

1. Cardinal Virtues/ moral virtues: Main/Major all other virtues originate from them.

Prudence: Right reason-ability to discern true good from every circumstance.

Justice: Fairness; promote equity.

Fortitude: Firmness in difficulty-constant pursuit of good

Virtues Contd

Resistance to temptations

Ability to overcome obstacles.

Temperance: Moderates attraction of pleasures.

2. Super natural : Charity, Hope and Faith

3. Intellectual: wisdom, science, art

Natural Law Tradition

Laws of nature govern the activities of the universe, instruct emotions common to man, like love of offspring, self preservation etc ; Therefore

All rational persons know what kind of actions morality prohibits, requires, discourages and encourages. It is reason which makes us act morally.

What is natural is right/good and vice versa.[

Divine Command Theory

Good actions commanded by God

Communitarianism

Common good

Social Goals

Co-operative Virtues

Community Values

Solidarity: community makes the individual and Vice versa

Society assigns roles. Therefore what is in line with the common good is right and vice versa.

Elements to evaluate an ethical act Object /act End/intention Circumstances Evaluation of acts with a double effect Responsibility for other peoples actions Responsibility for cooperating in other peoples

actions Restrictions to proper use of the intellect.

Ethics

Deontological Right Action Duty Rights

Teleological/conquentialism