class xii - india people & economy (geography)

Foreword iii

Unit IUnit IUnit IUnit IUnit I

1. Population : Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition 1-14

2. Migration : Types, Causes and Consequences 15-22

3. Human Development 23-31

Unit IIUnit IIUnit IIUnit IIUnit II

4. Human Settlements 32-39

Unit IIIUnit IIIUnit IIIUnit IIIUnit III

5. Land Resources and Agriculture 40-59

6. Water Resources 60-71

7. Mineral and Energy Resources 72-84

8. Manufacturing Industries 85-103

9. Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context 104-112

Unit IVUnit IVUnit IVUnit IVUnit IV

10. Transport and Communication 113-124

11. International Trade 125-134

Unit VUnit VUnit VUnit VUnit V

12. Geographical Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems 135-145

Appendices 146-156

Glossary 157

References 158-159

Contents

/book_publishing/NEW BOOK 2007/class12/India -People & Economy (Final) (Geog)/Chapter-1.pdf












/book_publishing/NEW BOOK 2007/class12/India -People & Economy (Final) (Geog)/Appendices.pdf

/book_publishing/NEW BOOK 2007/class12/India -People & Economy (Final) (Geog)/glossory.pdf

/book_publishing/NEW BOOK 2007/class12/India -People & Economy (Final) (Geog)/Reference.pdf

Unit IUnit IUnit IUnit IUnit IChapter 1

POPULATION

Distribution, Density, Growthand Composition

The people are very important component of acountry. India is the second most populouscountry after China in the world with its totalpopulation of 1,028 million (2001). India’spopulation is larger than the total populationof North America, South America and Australiaput together. More often, it is argued that sucha large population invariably puts pressureon its limited resources and is also responsiblefor many socio-economic problems in thecountry.

How do you perceive the idea of India? Isit simply a territory? Does this signify anamalgam of people? Is it a territoryinhabited by people living under certaininstitutions of governance?

In this chapter, we will discuss thepatterns of distribution, density, growth andcomposition of India’s population.

Sources of Population DataSources of Population DataSources of Population DataSources of Population DataSources of Population Data

Population data are collected throughCensus operation held every 10 years in ourcountry. The first population Census in Indiawas conducted in 1872 but its first completeCensus was conducted only in 1881.

DistribDistribDistribDistribDistribution ofution ofution ofution ofution of P P P P Populaopulaopulaopulaopulationtiontiontiontion

Examine Fig. 1.1 and try to describe thepatterns of spatial distribution of populationshown on it. It is clear that India has a highlyuneven pattern of population distribution. Thepercentage shares of population of the statesand Union Territories in the country (Appendix–i)show that Uttar Pradesh has the highestpopulation followed by Maharashtra, Bihar,West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.

Looking at the data in Appendix (i) arrange the Indianstates and union territories according to their sizes andpopulation and find out :

2 India : People and Economy

Fig. 1.1 : India – Distribution of Population

Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition 3

States/UTs of large size and large population

States/UTs of large size but small population

States/UTs of smaller size but larger population

Check from the table (Appendix–i) that U.P.,Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, AndhraPradesh along with Tamil Nadu, MadhyaPradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Gujarat,together account for about 76 per cent of the totalpopulation of the country. On the other hand,share of population is very small in the states likeJammu & Kashmir (0.98%), Arunachal Pradesh(0.11%) and Uttaranchal (0.83%) inspite of thesesstates having fairly large geographical area.

Such an uneven spatial distribution ofpopulation in India suggests a close relationshipbetween population and physical, socio-economic and historical factors. As far as thephysical factors are concerned, it is clear thatclimate along with terrain and availability ofwater largely determines the pattern of thepopulation distribution. Consequently, weobserve that the North Indian Plains, deltas andCoastal Plains have higher proportion ofpopulation than the interior districts of southernand central Indian States, Himalayas, some ofthe north eastern and the western states.However, development of irrigation (Rajasthan),availability of mineral and energy resources(Jharkhand) and development of transportnetwork (Peninsular States) have resulted inmoderate to high proportion of population inareas which were previously very thinlypopulated (Fig. 1.1).

Among the socio-economic and historicalfactors of distribution of population, importantones are evolution of settled agriculture andagricultural development; pattern of humansettlement; development of transport network,industrialisation and urbanisation. It isobserved that the regions falling in the riverplains and coastal areas of India have remainedthe regions of larger population concentration.Even though the uses of natural resources likeland and water in these regions have shownthe sign of degradation, the concentration ofpopulation remains high because of an earlyhistory of human settlement and development

of transport network. On the other hand, theurban regions of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata,Bangalore, Pune, Ahmedabad, Chennai andJaipur have high concentration of populationdue to industrial development andurbanisation drawing a large numbers ofrural-urban migrants.

Density ofDensity ofDensity ofDensity ofDensity of P P P P Populaopulaopulaopulaopulationtiontiontiontion

Density of population, is expressed as numberof persons per unit area. It helps in getting abetter understanding of the spatial distributionof population in relation to land. The density ofpopulation in India (2001) is 313 persons persq km and ranks third among the most denselypopulated countries of Asia followingBangladesh (849 persons) and Japan (334persons). There has been a steady increase ofabout 200 persons per sq km over the last 50years as the density of population increasedfrom 117 persons/ sq km in 1951 to 313persons/sq km in 2001.

The data shown in Appendix (i) give an ideaof spatial variation of population densities in thecountry which ranges from as low as 13 personsper sq km in Arunachal Pradesh to 9,340persons in the National Capital Territory of Delhi.Among the northern Indian States, West Bengal(903), Bihar (880) and Uttar Pradesh (690) havehigher densities, while Kerala (819) and TamilNadu (480) have higher densities among thepeninsular Indian states. States like Assam,Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Jharkhand,Orissa have moderate densities. The hill statesof the Himalayan region and North eastern statesof India (excluding Assam) have relatively lowdensities while the Union Territories (excludingAndaman and Nicobar islands) have very highdensities of population (Fig. 1.2).

The density of population, as discussedin the earlier paragraph, is a crude measureof human and land relationship. To get a betterinsight into the human-land ratio in terms ofpressure of population on total cultivable land,the physiological and the agricultural densitiesshould be found out which are significant fora country like India having a large agriculturalpopulation.


Fig. 1.2 : India – Density of Population


Physiological density = total population /net cultivated area

Agricultural density = total agriculturalpopulation / net cultivable area

Agricultural population includes cultivatorsand agricultural labourers and their familymembers.

With the help of data given in Appendix (ii), Calculatethe Physiological and Agricultural densities ofpopulation of Indian States and Union Territories.Compare them with density of population and see howare these different?

GrGrGrGrGrowth ofowth ofowth ofowth ofowth of P P P P Populaopulaopulaopulaopulationtiontiontiontion

Growth of population is the change in thenumber of people living in a particular areabetween two points of time. Its rate is expressedin percentage. Population growth has twocomponents namely; natural and induced.While the natural growth is analysed byassessing the crude birth and death rates, the

induced components are explained by thevolume of inward and outward movement ofpeople in any given area. However, in the presentchapter, we will only discuss the natural growthof India’s population.

The decadal and annual growth rates ofpopulation in India are both very high andsteadily increasing over time. The annualgrowth rate of India’s population is 2.4 per cent.At this current rate of increase, it is estimatedthat the country’s population will double itselfin another 36 years and even surpasspopulation of China.

Population Doubling TimePopulation Doubling TimePopulation Doubling TimePopulation Doubling TimePopulation Doubling Time

Population doubling time is the time takenby any population to double itself at itscurrent annual growth rate.

The growth rate of population in India overthe last one century has been caused by annualbirth rate and death rate and rate of migrationand thereby shows different trends. There arefour distinct phases of growth identified withinthis period:

* Decadal growth rate: 2 1

2

p -pg = ×100

p

Where P1 = population of the base yearP2 = population of the present year

Table 1.1 : Decadal Growth Rates in India, 1901-2001

Census Total Population Growth Rate*

Years Absolute Number % of Growth

1901 238396327 ------------ ------------

1911 252093390 (+) 13697063 (+) 5.75

1921 251321213 (-) 772117 (-) 0.31

1931 278977238 (+) 27656025 (+) 11.60

1941 318660580 (+) 39683342 (+) 14.22

1951 361088090 (+) 42420485 (+) 13.31

1961 439234771 (+) 77682873 (+) 21.51

1971 548159652 (+) 108924881 (+) 24.80

1981 683329097 (+) 135169445 (+) 24.66

1991 846302688 (+) 162973591 (+) 23.85

2001 1028610328 (+) 182307640 (+) 21.54


Fig. 1.3 : India – Growth of Population


Phase I : The period from 1901-1921 isreferred to as a period of stagnantor stationary phase of growth ofIndia’s population, since in thisperiod growth rate was very low,even recording a negative growthrate during 1911-1921. Both thebirth rate and death rate were highkeeping the rate of increase low(Appendix–iii). Poor health andmedical services, illiteracy of peopleat large and inefficient distributionsystem of food and other basicnecessities were largely responsiblefor a high birth and death rates inthis period.

Phase II : The decades 1921-1951 arereferred to as the period of steadypopulation growth. An overallimprovement in health andsanitation throughout the countrybrought down the mortality rate. Atthe same time better transport andcommunication system improveddistribution system. The crudebirth rate remained high in thisperiod leading to higher growth ratethan the previous phase. This isimpressive at the backdrop of GreatEconomic Depression, 1920s andWorld War II.

Phase III : The decades 1951-1981 arereferred to as the period ofpopulation explosion in India,which was caused by a rapid fallin the mortality rate but a highfertility rate of population in thecountry. The average annualgrowth rate was as high as 2.2 percent. It is in this period, after theIndependence, that developmentalactivities were introduced througha centralised planning process andeconomy started showing upensuring the improvement of livingcondition of people at large.Consequently, there was a highnatural increase and higher growthrate. Besides, increasedinternational migration bringing in

Tibetans, Bangladeshis, Nepaliesand even people from Pakistancontributed to the high growth rate.

Phase IV : In the post 1981 till present, thegrowth rate of country’s populationthough remained high, has startedslowing down gradually (Table 1.1).A downward trend of crude birthrate is held responsible for such apopulation growth. This was, inturn, affected by an increase in themean age at marriage, improvedquality of life particularly educationof females in the country.

The growth rate of population is, however,still high in the country, and it has beenprojected by World Development Report thatpopulation of India will touch 1,350 million by2025.

The analysis done so far shows the averagegrowth rate, but the country also has widevariation (Appendix–iv) in growth rates from onearea to another which is discussed below.

RRRRReeeeegional Vgional Vgional Vgional Vgional Variaariaariaariaariation in Ption in Ption in Ption in Ption in Populaopulaopulaopulaopulation Grtion Grtion Grtion Grtion GrowthowthowthowthowthThe growth rate of population during 1991-2001 in Indian States and Union Territoriesshows very obvious pattern.

The States like Kerala, Karnataka, TamilNadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Pondicherry,and Goa show a low rate of growth not exceeding20 per cent over the decade. Kerala registeredthe lowest growth rate (9.4) not only in this groupof states but also in the country as a whole.

A continuous belt of states from west toeast in the north-west, north , and north centralparts of the country has relatively high growthrate than the southern states. It is in this beltcomprising Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan,Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal,Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam, West Bengal,Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand, the growthrate on the average remained 20-25 per cent.

Why have the north-eastern states on theone hand and some of the Union Territorieson the other (leaving Pondicherry,Lakshadweep, and Andaman and Nicobarislands) very high growth rates?


Take the population growth data of the districts/selecteddistricts of your respective state for total male and femalepopulation and represent them with the help ofComposite Bar Graph.

An important aspect of population growthin India is the growth of its adolescents. Atpresent the share of adolescents i.e. up to theage group of 10-19 years is about 22 per cent(2001), among which male adolescentsconstitute 53 per cent and female adolescentsconstitute 47 per cent. The adolescentpopulation, though, regarded as the youthfulpopulation having high potentials, but at thesame time they are quite vulnerable if not guidedand channelised properly. There are manychallenges for the society as far as theseadolescents are concerned, some of which arelower age at marriage, illiteracy – particularlyfemale illiteracy, school dropouts, low intake ofnutrients, high rate of maternal mortality ofadolescent mothers, high rates of HIV/AIDSinfections, physical and mental disability orretardedness, drug abuse and alcoholism, juveniledelinquency and commitence of crimes, etc.

In view of these, the Government of Indiahas undertaken certain policies to impartproper education to the adolescent groups sothat their talents are better channelised andproperly utilised. The National Youth Policy isone example which has been designed to lookinto the overall development of our large youthand adolescent population.

The National Youth Policy of Governmentof India, launched in 2003, stresses on an all-round improvement of the youth andadolescents enabling them to shoulderresponsibility towards constructivedevelopment of the country. It also aims atreinforcing the qualities of patriotism andresponsible citizenship.

The thrust of this policy is youthempowerment in terms of their effectiveparticipation in decision making and carryingthe responsibility of an able leader. Specialemphasis was given in empowering women andgirl child to bring parity in the male-femalestatus. Moreover, deliberate efforts were made

to look into youth health, sports andrecreation, creativity and awareness about newinnovations in the spheres of science andtechnology.

It appears from the above discussion thatthe growth rate of population is widely variantover space and time in the country and alsohighlights various social problems related to thegrowth of population. However, in order to havea better insight into the growth pattern ofpopulation it is also necessary to look into thesocial composition of population.

PPPPPopulaopulaopulaopulaopulation Compositiontion Compositiontion Compositiontion Compositiontion Composition

Population composition is a distinct field ofstudy within population geography with a vastcoverage of analysis of age and sex, place ofresidence, ethnic characteristics, tribes,language, religion, marital status, literacy andeducation, occupational characteristics, etc. Inthis section, the composition of Indianpopulation with respect to their rural-urbancharacteristics, language, religion and patternof occupation will be discussed.

Rural – Urban Composition

Composition of population by their respectiveplaces of residence is an important indicator ofsocial and economic characteristics. This becomeseven more significant for a country where about72 per cent of its total population lives in villages.

Using the data given in Appendix (iv), calculate thepercentages of rural population of the states in Indiaand represent them cartographically on a map of India.

Do you know that India has 638,588villages according to the Census 2001 out ofwhich 593,731 (93 per cent) are inhabitedvillages? However, the distribution of ruralpopulation is not uniform throughout thecountry. You might have noted that the stateslike Bihar and Sikkim have very highpercentage of rural population. The states ofGoa and Maharashtra have only little over halfof their total population residing in villages.

The Union Territories, on the other hand,have smaller proportion of rural population,


except Dadra and Nagar Haveli (77.1 per cent).The size of villages also varies considerably. Itis less than 200 persons in the hill states ofnorth-eastern India, Western Rajasthan andRann of Kuchchh and as high as 17 thousandpersons in the states of Kerala and in parts ofMaharashtra. A thorough examination of thepattern of distribution of rural population ofIndia reveals that both at intra-State and inter-State levels, the relative degree of urbanisationand extent of rural-urban migration regulatethe concentration of rural population.

You have noted that contrary to ruralpopulation, the proportion of urban population(27.8 per cent) in India is quite low but it isshowing a much faster rate of growth over thedecades. In fact since 1931, the growth rate ofurban population has accelerated due toenhanced economic development andimprovement in health and hygienic conditions.

The distribution of urban population too,as in the case of total population, has a widevariation throughout the country (Appendix–iv).

Look at the data of Appendix (iv) and identify the states/UTs with very high and very low proportion of urbanpopulation.

It is, however, noticed that in almost all thestates and Union Territories, there has been aconsiderable increase of urban population.This indicates both development of urban areasin terms of socio-economic conditions and anincreased rate of rural-urban migration. Therural-urban migration is conspicuous in thecase of urban areas along the main road linksand railroads in the North Indian Plains, theindustrial areas around Kolkata, Mumbai,Bangalore – Mysore, Madurai – Coimbatore,Ahmedabad – Surat, Delhi – Kanpur andLudhiana – Jalandhar. In the agriculturallystagnant parts of the middle and lower GangaPlains, Telengana, non-irrigated WesternRajasthan, remote hilly, tribal areas of north-east, along the flood prone areas of PeninsularIndia and along eastern part of MadhyaPradesh, the degree of urbanisation hasremained low.

Linguistic Composition

India is a land of linguistic diversity. Accordingto Grierson (Linguistic Survey of India, 1903 –1928) there were 179 languages and as manyas 544 dialects in the country. In the context ofmodern India, there are about 18 scheduledlanguages (1991 census) and a number of non-scheduled languages. See how many languagesappear on a ten Rs note. Among the scheduledlanguages, the speakers of Hindi have thehighest percentage (40.42). The smallestlanguage groups are Kashmiri and Sanskritspeakers (0.01 per cent each). However, it isnoticed that the linguistic regions in thecountry do not maintain a sharp and distinctboundary, rather they gradually merge andoverlap in their respective border zones.

Linguistic Classification

The speakers of major Indian languagesbelong to four language families, which havetheir sub-families and branches or groups.This can be better understood from Table 1.2.

Religious Composition

Religion is one of the most dominant forcesaffecting the cultural and political life of the mostof Indians. Since religion virtually permeatesinto almost all the aspects of people’s family andcommunity lives, it is important to study thereligious composition in detail.

The spatial distribution of religiouscommunities in the country (Appendix–v) showsthat there are certain states and districts havinglarge numerical strength of one religion, whilethe same may be very negligibly represented inother states.

Hindus are distributed as a major group inmany states (ranging from 70 - 90 per cent andabove) except the districts of states along Indo-Bangladesh border, Indo-Pak border, Jammu &Kashmir, Hill States of North-East and in scatteredareas of Deccan Plateau and Ganga Plain.

Muslims, the largest religious minority, areconcentrated in Jammu & Kashmir, certaindistricts of West Bengal and Kerala, manydistricts of Uttar Pradesh , in and around Delhiand in Lakshadweep. They form majority inKashmir valley and Lakshadweep.


major concentration in the urban areas ofRajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra, while theBuddhists are concentrated mostly inMaharashtra. The other areas of Buddhistmajority are Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh,Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir, Tripura, andLahul and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh.

Family Sub-Family Branch/Group Speech Areas

Austric(Nishada)1.38%

Austro-Asiatic Mon-Khmer Meghalaya, Nicobar Islands

Munda West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Assam,Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra

Austro- Nesian Outside India

South-Dravidian Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala

Central Dravidian Andhra Pradesh, M.P., Orissa,Maharashtra

Dravidian(Dravida)

20% North Dravidian Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal,Madhya Pradesh

Sino-Tibetan(Kirata)0.85%

Tibeto – Myanmari Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,Sikkim

Tibeto-Himalayan

Arunachal PradeshNorth Assam

Siamese-Chinese Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram,Tripura, Meghalaya

Assam- Myanmari

Indo –European

(Aryan) 73%

Indo-Aryan Outside IndiaIranian

Jammu & KashmirDardic

Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, HimachalPradesh, U.P., Rajasthan, Haryana, M.P.,Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam,Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa.

Indo-Aryan

Table 1.2 : Classification of Modern Indian Languages

Source : Ahmed, A. (1999) : Social Geography, Rawat Publication, New Delhi

The Christian population is distributedmostly in rural areas of the country. The mainconcentration is observed along the Westerncoast around Goa, Kerala and also in the hillstates of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland,Chotanagpur area and Hills of Manipur.

Sikhs are mostly concentrated in relativelysmall area of the country, particularly in thestates of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi.

Jains and Buddhists, the smallest religiousgroups in India have their concentration onlyin selected areas of the country. Jains have

Look at Table 1.2 and prepare a pie diagram of linguisticcomposition of India showing the sectoral shares ofeach linguistic group.

Or

Prepare a qualitative symbol map of India showing thedistribution of different linguistic groups in the country.

Table 1.3 : Religious Communities of India, 2001

Religious 2001

Groups Population % of Total (in million)

Hindus 827.6 80.5

Muslims 138.2 13.5

Christians 24.1 2.3

Sikhs 19.2 1.9

Buddhists 8.0 0.9

Jains 4.2 0.4

Others 6.6 0.6


The other religions of India includeZoroastrians, tribal and other indigenous faithsand beliefs. These groups are concentrated insmall pockets scattered throughout the country.

Composition of Working Population

The population of India according to theireconomic status is divided into three groups,namely; main workers, marginal workers andnon-workers.

Standard Census DefinitionStandard Census DefinitionStandard Census DefinitionStandard Census DefinitionStandard Census Definition

Main Worker is a person who works foratleast 183 days in a year.

Marginal Worker is a person who works forless than 183 days in a year.

It is observed that in India, the proportionof workers (both main and marginal) is only 39per cent (2001) leaving a vast majority of 61per cent as non-workers. This indicates aneconomic status in which there is a largerproportion of dependent population, furtherindicating possible existence of large numberof unemployed or under employed people.

What is work participation rate?

The proportion of working population, ofthe states and Union Territories show amoderate variation from about 25 per cent inGoa to about 53 per cent in Mizoram. The stateswith larger percentages of workers are HimachalPradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, AndhraPradesh, Karnataka, Arunachal Pradesh,Nagaland, Manipur and Meghalaya. Among theUnion Territories, Dadra and Nagar Haveli andDaman and Diu have higher participation rate.It is understood that, in the context of a countrylike India, the work participation rate tends tobe higher in the areas of lower levels of economicdevelopment since number of manual workersare needed to perform the subsistence or nearsubsistence economic activities.

The occupational composition (see box)of India’s population (which actually meansengagement of an individual in farming,manufacturing trade, services or any kind ofprofessional activities) shows a large proportionof primary sector workers compared tosecondary and tertiary sectors. About 58.2 percent of total working population are cultivatorsand agricultural labourers, whereas only 4.2%of workers are engaged in household industriesand 37.6 % are other workers including non-household industries, trade, commerce,construction and repair and other services. Asfar as the occupation of country’s male andfemale population is concerned, male workersout-number female workers in all the threesectors (Fig.1.4 and Table 1.4).

Occupational Categories

The 2001 Census has divided the workingpopulation of India into four major categories:

1. Cultivators

2. Agricultural Labourers

3. Household Industrial Workers

4. Other Workers.

The number of female workers is relativelyhigh in primary sector, though in recent yearsthere has been some improvement in workparticipation of women in secondary andtertiary sectors.

Religion and LandscapeReligion and LandscapeReligion and LandscapeReligion and LandscapeReligion and Landscape

Formal expression of religions onlandscape is manifested through sacredstructures, use of cemetries andassemblages of plants and animals, grovesof trees for religious purposes. Sacredstructures are widely distributed throughoutthe country. These may range frominconspicuous village shrines to large Hindutemples, monumental masjids or ornatelydesigned cathedrals in large metropolitancities. These temples, masjids, gurudwaras,monastries and churches differ in size,form, space – use and density, whileattributing a special dimension to the totallandscape of the area.


Fig. 1.4 : India – Occupational Structure, 2001

Identify some issues in whichIndia is ahead of or laggingbehind its neighbours.


Categories Population

Persons % to Male FemaletotalWorkers

Primary 234088181 58.2 142745598 91342583

Secondary 16956942 4.2 8744183 8212759

Tertiary 151189601 37.6 123524695 27664906

Table 1.4 : Sectoral Composition of work force in India, 2001

Consequently, the participation rate insecondary and tertiary sector has registered anincrease. This indicates a shift of dependence ofworkers from farm-based occupations to non-farm based ones, indicating a sectoral shift inthe economy of the country.

The spatial variation of work participationrate in different sectors in the country(Appendix–v) is very wide. For instance, the stateslike Himachal Pradesh and Nagaland have verylarge shares of cultivators. On the other handstates like Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,

Orissa, Jharkhand, West Bengal andMadhya Pradesh have higherproportion of agricultural labourers.The highly urbanised areas likeDelhi, Chandigarh and Pondicherryhave a very large proportion ofworkers being engaged in otherservices. This indicates not onlyavailability of limited farming land,but also large scale urbanisation andindustrialisation requiring moreworkers in non-farm sectors.

EXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES

1 . Choose the right answers of the followings from the given options.

(i) India’s population as per 2001 census is :

(a) 1028 million (c) 3287 million

(b) 3182 million (d) 20 million

(ii) Which one of the following states has the highest density of population inIndia?

(a) West Bengal (c) Uttar Pradesh

(b) Kerala (d) Punjab

(iii) Which one of the following states has the highest proportion of urbanpopulation in India according to 2001 Census?

(a) Tamil Nadu (c) Kerala

(b) Maharashtra (d) Gujarat

Prepare composite bar graphs, one for India and theother for your respective states showing the proportionof male and female workers in agriculture, householdindustries and other sectors, and compare.

It is important to note that the proportionof workers in agricultural sector in India hasshown a decline over the last few decades(66.85% in 1991 to 58.2% in 2001).


(iv) Which one of the following is the largest linguistic group of India?

(a) Sino – Tibetan (c) Austric

(b) Indo – Aryan (d) Dravidian

2 . Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) Very hot and dry and very cold and wet regions of India have low densityof population. In this light, explain the role of climate on the distributionof population.

(ii) Which states have large rural population in India? Give one reason forsuch large rural population.

(iii) Why do some states of India have higher rates of work participation thanothers?

(iv) ‘The agricultural sector has the largest share of Indian workers.’ – Explain.

3 . Answer the following questions in about 150 words.

(i) Discuss the spatial pattern of density of population in India.

(ii) Give an account of the occupational structure of India’s population.


MIGRATIONTypes, Causes andConsequences

Ram Babu, working as an engineer in BhilaiSteel Plant, Chhattisgarh, was born in a smallvillage of district Bhojpur, Bihar. At an earlyage of twelve he moved to a nearby town Ara tocomplete his intermediate level studies. He wentto Sindri, Jharkhand for his engineering degreeand he got a job at Bhilai, where he is living forthe last 31 years. His parents were illiterate andthe only source of their livelihood was meagreincome from agriculture. They spent their wholelife in that village.

Ram Babu has three children who got theireducation up to the intermediate level at Bhilaiand then moved to different places for highereducation. First one studied at Allahabad andMumbai and is presently working in Delhi as ascientist. The second child got her highereducation from different universities in Indiaand is now working in USA. The third one afterfinishing her education settled at Surat aftermarriage.

This is not a story of only Ram Babu andhis children but such movements areincreasingly becoming universal trend. Peoplehave been moving from one village to another,from villages to towns, from smaller towns tobigger towns and from one country to another.

In your Book Fundamentals of HumanGeography you have already learnt about theconcept and definition of migration. Migrationhas been an integral part and a very importantfactor in redistributing population over timeand space. India has witnessed the waves ofmigrants coming to the country from Centraland West Asia and also from Southeast Asia.In fact, the history of India is a history of wavesof migrants coming and settling one afteranother in different parts of the country. In thewords of a renowned poet Firaque Gorakhpuri;

SAR ZAMIN-E-HIND PAR AQWAM-E-ALAM KEFIRAQUE

CARVAN BASTE GAYE, HINDOSTAN BANTAGAYA

(The carvans of people from all parts of theworld kept on coming and settling in India andled to the formation of India.)

Similarly, large numbers of people fromIndia too have been migrating to places in search


of better opportunities specially to the countriesof the Middle-East, Western Europe, America,Australia and East and South East Asia.

Indian DiasporaIndian DiasporaIndian DiasporaIndian DiasporaIndian Diaspora

During colonial period (British period)millions of the indentured labourers weresent to Mauritius, Caribbean islands(Trinidad, Tobago and Guyana), Fiji andSouth Africa by British from Uttar Pradeshand Bihar; to Reunion Island, Guadeloupe,Martinique and Surinam by French andDutch and by Portuguese from Goa, Damanand Diu to Angola, Mozambique to work asplantation workers. All such migrations werecovered under the time-bound contractknown as Girmit Act (Indian Emigration Act).However, the living conditions of theseindentured labourers were not better thanthe slaves.

The second wave of migrants ventured out intothe neighbouring countries in recent times asprofessionals, artisans, traders and factoryworkers, in search of economic opportunitiesto Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia,Brunei and African countries, etc. and thetrend still continues. There was a steadyoutflow of India’s semi-skilled and skilled labourin the wake of the oil boom in West Asia inthe 1970s. There was also some outflow ofentrepreneurs, storeowners, professionals,businessmen to Western Countries.

Third wave, of migrant was comprisedprofessionals like doctors, engineers (1960sonwards), software engineers, managementconsultants, financial experts, mediapersons (1980s onwards), and othersmigrated to countries such as USA, Canada,UK, Australia, New Zealand and Germany,etc. These professional enjoy the distinctionof being one of highly educated, the highestearning and prospering groups. Afterliberalisation, in the 90s education andknowledge–based Indian emigration hasmade Indian Diaspora one of the mostpowerful diasporas in the world.

In all these countries, Indian diaspora hasbeen playing an important role in thedevelopment of the respective countries.

MigrationMigrationMigrationMigrationMigration

You are familiar with Census in India. It containsinformation about migration in the country.Actually migration was recorded beginningfrom the first Census of India conducted in1881. This data were recorded on the basis ofplace of birth. However, the first majormodification was introduced in 1961 Censusby bringing in two additional components viz;place of birth i.e. village or town and durationof residence (if born elsewhere). Further in1971, additional information on place of lastresidence and duration of stay at the place ofenumeration were incorporated. Information onreasons for migration were incorporated in1981 Census and modified in consecutiveCensuses.

In the Census the following questions areasked on migration :

• Is the person born in this village ortown? If no, then further informationis taken on rural/urban status of theplace of birth, name of district and stateand if outside India then name of thecountry of birth.

• Has the person come to this village ortown from elsewhere? If yes, thenfurther questions are asked about thestatus (rural/urban) of previous placeof residence, name of district and stateand if outside India then name of thecountry.

In addition, reasons for migration from theplace of last residence and duration of residencein place of enumeration are also asked.

In the Census of India migration isenumerated on two bases : (i) place of birth, ifthe place of birth is different from the place ofenumeration (known as life-time migrant);(ii) place of residence, if the place of lastresidence is different from the place ofenumeration (known as migrant by place of lastresidence). Can you imagine the proportion ofmigrants in the population of India? As per2001 census, out of 1,029 million people in thecountry, 307 million (30 per cent) were reportedas migrants by place of birth. However, thisfigure was 315 million (31 per cent) in case ofplace of last residence.

Migration: Types, Causes and Consequences 17

Conduct a survey of five households in yourneighbourhood to find out their migration status. Ifmigrants, classify these on the basis of the two criteriamentioned in the text.

Streams of Migration

A few facts pertaining to the internalmigration (within the country) andinternational migration (out of the countryand into the country from other countries)are presented here. Under the internal

The distribution of male and femalemigrants in different streams of intra-state andinter -state migration is presented inFig. 2.1 a and 2.1 b. It is clearly evident thatfemales predominate the streams of shortdistance rural to rural migration in both typesof migration. Contrary to this, men predominatethe rural to urban stream of inter-statemigration due to economic reasons.

Apart from these streams of internalmigration, India also experiences immigrationfrom and emigration to the neighbouringcountries. Table 2.1 presents the details ofmigrants from neighbouring countries. Indian

migration, four streams are identified: (a)rural to rural (R-R); (b) rural to urban (R-U);(c) urban to urban (U-U); and (d) urban torural (U-R). In India, during 2001, out of315 million migrants, enumerated on thebasis of the last residence, 98 million hadchanged their place of residence in the lastten years. Out of these, 81 million were intra-state migrants. The stream was dominatedby female migrants. Most of these weremigrants related to marriage.

Census 2001 has recorded that more than 5million person have migrated to India fromother countries. Out of these, 96 per cent camefrom the neighbouring countries: Bangladesh(3.0 million) followed by Pakistan (0.9 million)and Nepal (0.5 million). Included in this are 0.16million refugees from Tibet, Sri Lanka,Bangladesh, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, andMyanmar. As far as emigration from India isconcerned it is estimated that there are around20 million people of Indian Diaspora, spreadacross 110 countries.

Source: Census of India, 2001

Fig. 2.1 a : Intra State Migration by Place ofLast Residence Indicating Migration Streams

(Duration 0-9 years), India, 2001

Fig. 2.1 b : Inter State Migration by Place ofLast Residence Indicating Migration Streams

(Duration 0-9 years), India, 2001

Examine Fig. 2.1 a and 2.1 b showing intra-state and inter-state migration in India according to the Census 2001and find out:

(i) Why are the numbers of females migrating from rural to rural areas in both the diagrams higher?

(ii) Why is the male migration higher from rural to urban?


Countries% No of % ofimmigrants total

immigrants

Total internationalmigration 5,155,423 100

Migration from

neighbouring

countries 4,918,266 95.5

Afghanistan 9,194 0.2

Bangladesh 3,084,826 59.8

Bhutan 8,337 0.2

China 23,721 0.5

Myanmar 49,086 1.0

Nepal 596,696 11.6

Pakistan 997,106 19.3

Sri Lanka 149,300 2.9

Table 2.1 : Immigrants by last residencefrom neighbouring countries by all

duration in India, 2001

Source : Census of India, 2001

Represent the data given in Table 2.1 by pie diagramsassuming the migration from neighbouring countries(4,918,266 persons as 100 per cent).

Spatial Variation in Migration

Some states like Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat andHaryana attract migrants from other states suchas Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, etc. (see Appendix–vii fordetail). Maharashtra occupied first place in thelist with 2.3 million net in-migrants, followed byDelhi, Gujarat and Haryana. On the other hand,Uttar Pradesh (-2.6 million) and Bihar(-1.7 million) were the states, which had the largestnumber of net out-migrants from the state.

Among the urban agglomeration (UA),Greater Mumbai received the higher number ofin migrants. Intra-states migration constitutedthe largest share in it. These differences arelargely due to the size of the state in which theseUrban Agglomeration are located.

From the given newsitems try to identifythe political andeconomic causes ofmigration.


Statewise in-migration and out-migration data are givenin Appendix (vii). Calculate net migration for all the statesof India.

Causes of Migration

People, generally are emotionally attached totheir place of birth. But millions of people leavetheir places of birth and residence. There could

be variety of reasons. These reasons can be putinto two broad categories : (i) push factor, thesecause people to leave their place of residence ororigin; and (ii) pull factors, which attract thepeople from different places.

In India people migrate from rural to urbanareas mainly due to poverty, high populationpressure on the land, lack of basic infrastructuralfacilities like health care, education, etc. Apartfrom these factors, natural disasters such as,flood, drought, cyclonic storms, earthquake,

The four stories describe different situations of migrants.

Enumerate the push and pull factors for Aarif?

What are the pull factors for Mohan Singh?

Study the story of Subbalakshmi and Manish Gawarkar. Compare their cases on the basis of types ofmigration, causes of migration and their living conditions.


tsunami, wars and local conflicts also give extrapush to migrate. On the other hand, there arepull factors which attract people from rural areasto cities. The most important pull factor formajority of the rural migrants to urban areas isthe better opportunities, availability of regularwork and relatively higher wages. Betteropportunities for education, better healthfacilities and sources of entertainment, etc. arealso quite important pull factors.

Examine the reasons for migration formales and females separately in Fig. 2.2. Onthe basis of the figures, it can be seen thatreason for migration of males and females aredifferent. For example, work and employmenthave remained the main cause for malemigration (38 per cent) while it is only three percent for the females. Contrary to this, about 65per cent of females move out from their parentalhouses following their marriage. This is themost important cause in the rural areas of Indiaexcept in Meghalaya where reverse is the case.

Why is the female marriage migration lawin Meghalaya different?

In comparison to these marriage migrationof the male, is only 2 per cent in the country.

Consequences of Migration

Migration is a response to the unevendistribution of opportunities over space. Peopletend to move from place of low opportunity andlow safety to the place of higher opportunityand better safety. This, in turn, creates bothbenefits and problems for the areas, peoplemigrate from and migrate to. Consequences canbe observed in economic, social, cultural,political and demographic terms.

Economic Consequences

A major benefit for the source region is theremittance sent by migrants. Remittances fromthe international migrants are one of the majorsources of foreign exchange. In 2002, Indiareceived US$ 11 billion as remittances frominternational migrants. Punjab, Kerala andTamil Nadu receive very significant amount

from their international migrants. The amountof remittances sent by the internal migrants isvery meagre as compared to internationalmigrants, but it plays an important role in thegrowth of economy of the source area.Remittances are mainly used for food,repayment of debts, treatment, marriages,children’s education, agricultural inputs,construction of houses, etc. For thousands ofthe poor villages of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa,Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, etc.remittance works as life blood for their economy.Migration from rural areas of Eastern UttarPradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissato the rural areas of Punjab, Haryana, WesternUttar Pradesh accounted for the success of theirgreen revolution strategy for agriculturaldevelopment. Besides this, unregulatedmigration to the metropolitan cities of India hascaused overcrowding. Development of slums inindustrially developed states such asMaharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Naduand Delhi is a negative consequence ofunregulated migration within the country.

Can you name some other positive andnegative consequences of migration?

Demographic Consequences

Migration leads to the redistribution of thepopulation within a country. Rural urbanmigration is one of the important factorscontributing to the population growth of cities.Age and skill selective out migration from therural area have adverse effect on the ruraldemographic structure. However, high outmigration from Uttaranchal, Rajasthan,Madhya Pradesh and Eastern Maharashtrahave brought serious imbalances in age andsex composition in these states. Similarimbalances are also brought in the recipientsstates. What is the cause of imbalance in sexratio in the place of origin and destination ofthe migrants?

Social Consequences

Migrants act as agents of social change. Thenew ideas related to new technologies, family


planning, girl’s education, etc. get diffused fromurban to rural areas through them.

Migration leads to intermixing of peoplefrom diverse cultures. It has positivecontribution such as evolution of compositeculture and breaking through the narrowconsiderations and widens up the mentalhorizon of the people at large. But it also hasserious negative consequences such asanonimity, which creates social vacuum andsense of dejection among individuals.Continued feeling of dejection may motivatepeople to fall in the trap of anti-social activitieslike crime and drug abuse.

Environmental Consequences

Overcrowding of people due to rural-urbanmigration has put pressure on the existingsocial and physical infrastructure in the urbanareas. This ultimately leads to unplannedgrowth of urban settlement and formation ofslums shanty colonies.

Apart from this, due to over-exploitationof natural resources, cities are facing the acuteproblem of depletion of ground water, air

pollution, disposal of sewage and managementof solid wastes.

Others

Migration (even excluding the marriagemigration) affects the status of women directlyor indirectly. In the rural areas, male selectiveout migration leaving their wives behind putsextra physical as well mental pressure on thewomen. Migration of ‘women’ either foreducation or employment enhances theirautonomy and role in the economy but alsoincreases their vulnerability.

If remittances are the major benefits ofmigration from the point of view of the sourceregion, the loss of human resourcesparticularly highly skilled people is the mostserious cost. The market for advanced skillshas become truly a global market and themost dynamic industrial economies areadmitting and recruiting significantproportions of the highly trained professionalsfrom poor regions. Consequently, the existingunderdevelopment in the source region getsreinforced.

Fig. 2.2 a : Reasons for Male Migration by LastResidence with Duration (0-9 years), India, 2001

Fig. 2.2 b : Reasons for Female Migration by lastResidence with Duration (0-9 years), India, 2001



1. Choose the right answers of the following from the given options.

(i) Which one of the following is the main reason for male migration in India?

(a) Education (c) Work and employment

(b) Business (d) Marriage

(ii) Which one of the following states receives maximum number ofimmigrants?

(a) Uttar Pradesh (c) Maharashtra

(b) Delhi (d) Bihar

(iii) Which one of the following streams is dominated by male migrants inIndia?

(a) Rural-rural (c) Rural-urban

(b) Urban-rural (d) Urban-Urban

(iv) Which one of the following urban agglomeration has the highest share ofin migrant population?

(a) Mumbai UA (c) Bangalore UA

(b) Delhi UA (d) Chennai UA

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) Differentiate between life-time migrant and migrant by last residence.

(ii) Identify the main reason for male/female selective migration.

(iii) What is the impact of rural-urban migration on the age and sex structureof the place of origin and destination?


(i) Discuss the consequences of international migration in India.

(ii) What are the socio demographic consequences of migration?


HUMAN

DEVELOPMENT

Sixty years ago, Rekha was born in a family ofsmall farmer in Uttaranchal. She helped hermother in household chores. While her brotherswent to school, she did not receive anyeducation. She was dependent on her in lawsafter she was widowed immediately aftermarriage. She could not be economicallyindependent and faced neglect. Her brotherhelped her to migrate to Delhi.

For the first time, she travelled by bus andtrain and was exposed to a large city like Delhi.After a while, the same city which attracted herwith its buildings, roads, avenues and facilitiesand amenities disillusioned her.

With greater familiarity of the city, shecould comprehend the paradoxes. The jhuggiand slum clusters, traffic jams, congestion,crimes, poverty, small children begging ontraffic lights, people sleeping on footpaths,polluted water and air revealed another face ofdevelopment. She used to think whetherdevelopment and under-development coexist?Whether development help some segments ofpopulation more than the other? Doesdevelopment create haves and have nots? Letus examine these paradoxes and try tounderstand the phenomena.

Of all the paradoxes of our timesmentioned in the story, development is the mostsignificant one. Development of a few regions,individuals brought about in a short span oftime leads to poverty and malnutrition for manyalong with large scale ecological degradation.Is development class biased?

Apparently, it is believed that“Development is freedom” which is oftenassociated with modernisation, leisure, comfortand affluence. In the present context,computerisation, industrialisation, efficienttransport and communication network, largeeducation system, advanced and modernmedical facilities, safety and security ofindividuals, etc. are considered as the symbolsof development. Every individual, communityand government measures its performance orlevels of development in relation to theavailability and access to some of these things.But, this may be partial and one-sided view ofdevelopment. It is often called the western oreuro-centric view of development. For a


existence of our society. Consequently, the poorare being subjected to three inter-relatedprocesses of declining capabilities; i.e. (1) socialcapabilities – due to displacement andweakening social ties (social capital),(2) environmental capabilities – due to pollutionand, (3) personal capabilities – due toincreasing incidence of diseases and accidents.This, in turn, has adverse effects on their qualityof life and human development.

Based on the above experiences, it can besaid that the present development has not beenable to address the issues of social injustice,regional imbalances and environmentaldegradation. On the contrary, it is being widelyconsidered as the prime cause of the socialdistributive injustices, deterioration in thequality of life and human development,ecological crisis and social unrest. Doesdevelopment create, reinforce and perpetuatethese crises? Thus, it was thought to take uphuman development as a separate issue againstthe prevalent western views of developmentwhich considers development as the remedy toall the ills including human development,regional disparities and environmental crisis.

Concerted efforts were made to look atdevelopment critically at various times in thepast. But, most systematic effort towards thiswas the publication of the First HumanDevelopment Report by United NationsDevelopment Programme (UNDP) in 1990.Since then, this organisation has been bringingout World Human Development Report everyyear. This report does not only define humandevelopment, make amendments and changesits indicators but also ranks all the countries

postcolonial country like India, colonisation,marginalisation, social discrimination andregional disparity, etc. show the other face ofdevelopment.

Thus, for India, development is a mixedbag of opportunities as well as neglect anddeprivations. There are a few areas like themetropolitan centres and other developedenclaves that have all the modern facilitiesavailable to a small section of its population. Atthe other extreme of it, there are large ruralareas and the slums in the urban areas that donot have basic amenities like potable water,education and health infrastructure availableto majority of this population. The situation ismore alarming if one looks at the distributionof the development opportunities amongdifferent sections of our society. It is a well-established fact that majority of the scheduledcastes, scheduled tribes, landless agriculturallabourers, poor farmers and slums dwellers, etc.are the most marginalised lot. A large segmentof female population is the worst sufferersamong all. It is also equally true that the relativeas well as absolute conditions of the majorityof these marginalised sections have worsenedwith the development happening over the years.Consequently, vast majority of people arecompelled to live under abject poverty and sub-human conditions.

There is yet another inter-related aspectof development that has direct bearings on thedeteriorating human conditions. It pertains tothe environmental pollution leading toecological crisis. Air, soil, water and noisepollutions have not only led to the ‘tragedy ofcommons’ but these have also threatened the

What is Human Development?What is Human Development?What is Human Development?What is Human Development?What is Human Development?

“Human development is a process of enlarging the range of people’s choices, increasing theiropportunities for education, health care, income and empowerment and covering the full range ofhuman choices from a sound physical environment to economic, social and political freedom.”

Thus, enlarging the range of people’s choices is the most significant aspect of human development.People’s choices may involve a host of other issues, but, living a long and healthy life, to be educatedand have access to resources needed for a decent standard of living including political freedom,guaranteed human rights and personal self-respect, etc. are considered some of the non-negotiableaspects of the human development.

25Human Development

of the world based on the calculated scores.According to the Human Development Report1993, “progressive democratisation andincreasing empowerment of people are seen asthe minimum conditions for humandevelopment”. Moreover, it also mentions that“development must be woven around people,not the people around development” as was thecase previously.

You have already studied the concepts,indicators and approaches to humandevelopment and methods of calculating theindex in your book, “Fundamentals of HumanGeography.” In this chapter, let us try tounderstand the applicability of these conceptsand indicators to India.

Human Development in IndiaHuman Development in IndiaHuman Development in IndiaHuman Development in IndiaHuman Development in India

India with a population of over 1.09 billion isranked 127 among 172 countries of the worldin terms of the Human Development Index(HDI). With the composite HDI value of O.602India finds herself grouped with countriesshowing medium human development(UNDP 2005).

Low scores in the HDI is a matter of seriousconcern but, some reservations have beenexpressed about the approach as well asindicators selected to calculate the index valuesand ranking of the states/countries. Lack ofsensitivity to the historical factors likecolonisation, imperialism and neo-imperialism,socio-cultural factors like human rightsviolation, social discrimination on the basis ofrace, religion, gender and caste, social problemslike crimes, terrorism, and war and politicalfactors like nature of the state, forms of thegovernment (democracy or dictatorship) levelof empowerment are some factors that are verycrucial in determining the nature of humandevelopment. These aspects have specialsignificance in case of India and many otherdeveloping countries.

Using the indicators selected by the UNDP,the Planning Commission of India alsoprepared the Human Development Report forIndia. It used states and the Union Territoriesas the units of analysis. Subsequently, eachstate government also started preparing thestate level Human Development Reports, usingdistricts as the units of analysis. Although, thefinal HDI by the Planning Commission of Indiahas been calculated by taking the threeindicators as discussed in the book entitled,“Fundamentals of Human Geography”, yet,this report also discussed other indicators likeeconomic attainment, social empowerment,social distributive justice, accessibility, hygieneand various welfare measures undertaken bythe state. Some of the important indicators havebeen discussed in the following pages.

Indicators of Economic Attainments

Rich resource base and access to theseresources by all, particularly the poor, downtrodden and the marginalised is the key toproductivity, well-being and humandevelopment. Gross National Product (GNP)and its per capita availability are taken asmeasures to assess the resource base/endowment of any country. For India, it isestimated that its GDP was Rs. 3200 thousandcrores (at current Price) and accordingly, percapita income was Rs. 20,813 at current prices.Apparently, these figures indicate an impressive

Country HDI value

Norway 0.963

Australia 0.955

Sweden 0.949

Switzerland 0.947

U.S.A. 0.944

Japan 0.943

U.K. 0.939

France 0.938

Germany 0.93

Argentina 0.863

Cuba 0.817

Russia 0.795

Brazil 0.792

Country HDI value

Thailand 0.778

Sri Lanka 0.751

Iran 0.736

Indonesia 0.697

Egypt 0.659

India 0.602

Myanmar 0.578

Pakistan 0.527

Nepal 0.526

Bangladesh 0.52

Kenya 0.474

Zambia 0.394

Chad 0.341

Niger 0.281

Table 3.1 : Human Development IndexValues of India and some other Countries

Source: UNDP Human Development Report 2005, OxfordUniversity Press. pp.219-222.


performance but, prevalence of poverty,deprivation, malnutrition, illiteracy, varioustypes of prejudices and above all socialdistributive injustices and large-scale regionaldisparities belie all the so-called economicachievements.

There are a few developed States likeMaharashtra, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat andDelhi that have per capita income more thanRs. 4,000 (figure at 1980-81 prices) per yearand there are a large number of poorer Stateslike Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, MadhyaPradesh, Assam, Jammu and Kashmir, etc.which have recorded per capita income lessthan Rs. 2,000. Corresponding to thesedisparities, the developed states have higher percapita consumption expenditure as comparedto the poorer states. It was estimated to be morethan Rs. 690 per capita per month in Stateslike Punjab, Haryana, Kerala, Maharashtra andGujarat and below Rs. 520 per capita permonth in States like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,Orissa and Madhya Pradesh, etc. Thesevariations are indicative of some other deep-seated economic problems like poverty,unemployment and under-employment.

The disaggregated data of poverty forthe states show that there are States likeOrissa and Bihar which have recorded morethan 40 per cent of their population livingbelow the poverty line. The States of MadhyaPradesh, Sikkim, Assam, Tripura, ArunachalPradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland have morethan 30 per cent of their population belowpoverty l ine. “Poverty is a state ofdeprivation. In absolute terms it reflects theinability of an individual to satisfy certainbasic needs for a sustained, healthy andreasonably productive living.” Employmentrate for educated youth is 25 per cent. Joblessgrowth and rampant unemployment are some

State % of Populationbelow

poverty line

Andhra Pradesh 15.77

Arunachal Pradesh 33.47

Assam 36.09

Bihar 42.60

Goa 4.40

Gujarat 14.07

Haryana 8.47

Himachal Pradesh 7.63

West Bengal 27.02

Andaman & Nicobar 20.99

Chandigarh 5.75

Jammu & Kashmir 3.48

Karnataka 20.04

Kerala 12.72

Madhya Pradesh 37.43

Maharashtra 25.02

Manipur 28.54

Meghalaya 33.87

Mizoram 19.47

Dadra & Nagar Haveli 17.14

Daman & Diu 4.44

Delhi 8.23

Nagaland 32.67

Orissa 47.15

Punjab 6.16

Rajasthan 15.28

Sikkim 36.55

Tamil Nadu 21.12

Tripura 34.44

Uttar Pradesh 31.15

Lakshadweep 15.60

Pondichery 21.67

India 26.10

Source: Planning Commission of India, (2001): IndiaNational Human Development Report, p.166.

Table 3.2 : Poverty in India, 1999-2000

Which one of the states in India has the highest proportion of population below poverty line?

Arrange the states on the basis of their percentage of population below poverty line in ascending order.

Select 10 states which have the high proportion of population below poverty line and represent the data by bardiagram.

27Human Development

of the important reasons for higher incidencesof poverty in India.

Indicators of a Healthy LifeIndicators of a Healthy LifeIndicators of a Healthy LifeIndicators of a Healthy LifeIndicators of a Healthy Life

Life free from illness and ailment and living areasonably long life span are indicative of ahealthy life. Availability of pre and post natalhealth care facilities in order to reduce infantmortality and post delivery deaths amongmothers, old age health care, adequate nutritionand safety of individual are some importantmeasures of a healthy and reasonably long life.India has done reasonably well in some of thehealth indicators like decline in death rate from25.1 per thousand in 1951 to 8.1 per thousandin 1999 and infant mortality from 148 perthousand to 70 during the same period.Similarly, it also succeeded in increasing lifeexpectancy at birth from 37.1 years to 62.3years for males and 36.2 to 65.3 years forfemales from 1951 to 1999. Though, these aregreat achievements, a lot needs to be done.Similarly, it has also done reasonably well inbringing down birth rate from 40.8 to 26.1during the same years, but it still is much higherthan many developed countries.

The situation is more alarming when seenin the context of gender specific and rural andurban health indicators. India has recordeddeclining female sex ratio. The findings of 2001Census of India are very disturbing particularlyin case of child sex ratio between 0-6 agegroups. The other significant features of thereport are, with the exception of Kerala, thechild sex ratio has declined in all the statesand it is the most alarming in the developedstate of Haryana and Punjab where it isbelow 800 female children per thousandmale children. What factors are responsible forit? Is it the social attitude or scientific methodsof sex-determination?

Indicators of Social Empowerment

“Development is freedom”. Freedom fromhunger, poverty, servitude, bondage,ignorance, illiteracy and any other forms ofdomination is the key to human development.Freedom in real sense of the term is possibleonly with the empowerment and participation

of the people in the exercise of their capabilitiesand choices in the society. Access to knowledgeabout the society and environment are

State Total Femaleliteracy literacy

Andaman & Nicobar 81.18 75.29

Andhra Pradesh 61.11 51.17

Arunachal Pradesh 54.74 44.24

Assam 64.28 56.03

Bihar 47.53 33.57

Chandigarh 85.65 76.65

Chhattisgarh 65.18 52.4

Dadra & Nagar Haveli 60.03 42.99

Daman & Diu 81.09 70.37

Delhi 81.82 75

Goa 82.32 75.51

Gujarat 69.97 58.6

Haryana 68.59 56.31

Himachal Pradesh 77.13 68.08

Jammu & Kashmir 54.46 41.82

Jharkhand 54.13 39.38

Karnataka 67.04 57.45

Kerala 90.92 87.86

Lakshadweep 87.52 81.56

Madhya Pradesh 64.11 50.28

Maharashtra 77.27 67.51

Manipur 68.87 59.7

Meghalaya 63.31 60.41

Mizoram 88.49 86.13

Nagaland 67.11 61.92

Orissa 63.61 50.97

Pondicherry 81.49 74.13

Punjab 69.95 63.55

Rajasthan 61.03 44.34

Sikkim 69.68 61.46

Tamil Nadu 73.47 64.55

Tripura 73.66 65.41

Uttar Pradesh 57.36 42.98

Uttaranchal 72.28 60.26

West Bengal 69.22 60.22

India 65.38 54.16

Table 3.3 : India Literacy Rates, 2001

Source: Census of India, 2001; Provisional PopulationTables Series -1, p.142.


fundamental to freedom. Literacy is thebeginning of access to such a world ofknowledge and freedom.

Represent the literacy rates for states having more thanthe national average by bar diagram after arranging thedata in descending order.

Why is the total literacy rates in Kerala, Mizoram,Lakshadweep and Goa are higher than other states?

Can literacy reflect the status of Human Developments?Debate.

Table 3.3 showing the percentage ofliterates in India reveals some interestingfeatures:

• Overall literacy in India isapproximately 65. 4 per cent (2001).while female literacy is 54.16 per cent.

• Total literacy as well as female literacyis higher than the national average inmost of the states from south India.

• There are wide regional disparities inliteracy rate across the states of India.There is a state like Bihar which hasvery low (47.53 per cent) literacy andthere are states like Kerala andMizoram which have literacy rates of90.92 and 88.49 per cent respectively.

Apart from the spatial variations,percentage of literates in the rural areas andamong the marginalised sections of our societysuch as females, scheduled castes, scheduledtribes, agricultural labourers, etc. is very low.It is worth mentioning here that though, therehas been improvement in the percentage ofliterates among the marginalised section yet thegap between the richer and the marginalisedsections of the population has increased overthe years.

Human Development Index in IndiaHuman Development Index in IndiaHuman Development Index in IndiaHuman Development Index in IndiaHuman Development Index in India

In the backdrop of the above-mentionedimportant indicators the Planning Commissioncalculated the human development index bytaking states and union territories as the unitof analysis.

India has been placed among thecountries showing medium humandevelopment. What is the rank of India amongthe 172 countries of the world? As indicatedin table 3.4 Kerala with the composite indexvalue of 0.638 is placed at the top rankfollowed by Punjab (0.537), Tamil Nadu (0.531)Maharashtra (0.523) and Haryana (0.509). Asexpected, states like Bihar (0.367), Assam(0.386), Uttar Pradesh (0.388), MadhyaPradesh (0.394) and Orissa (0.404) are at thebottom among the 15 major states in India.

There are several socio-political, economicand historical reasons for such a state ofaffairs. Kerala is able to record the highest valuein the HDI largely due to its impressiveperformance in achieving near hundred percent literacy (90.92 per cent) in 2001. In adifferent scenario the states like Bihar, MadhyaPradesh, Orissa, Assam and Uttar Pradeshhave very low literacy. For example, totalliteracy rate for Bihar was as low as 60.32 percent during the same year. States showinghigher total literacy rates have less gapsbetween the male and female literacy rates. ForKerala, it is 6.34 per cent, while it is 26.75 percent in Bihar and 25.95 per cent in MadhyaPradesh.

State HDI Value

Andhra Pradesh 0.416

Assam 0.386

Bihar 0.367

Gujarat 0.479

Haryana 0.509

Karnataka 0.478

Kerala 0.638

Madhya Pradesh 0.394

Maharashtra 0.523

Orissa 0.404

Punjab 0.537

Rajasthan 0.424

Tamil Nadu 0.531

Uttar Pradesh 0.388

West Bengal 0.472

Table 3.4 : India – Human DevelopmentIndex-2001

Source: Planning Commission of India (2001): IndiaNational Human Development Report 2001, p.25

29Human Development

Apart from the educational attainment, thelevels of economic development too playsignificant impacts on HDI. Economicallydeveloped states like Maharashtra, Tamil Naduand Punjab and Haryana have higher value ofHDI as compared to states like Assam, Bihar,Madhya Pradesh, etc.

Regional distortions and socialdisparities which developed during thecolonial period continue to play an importantrole in the Indian economy, polity and society.The Government of India has made concertedefforts to institutionalise the balanceddevelopment with its main focus on socialdistributive justice through planneddevelopment. It has made significantachievements in most of the fields but, theseare still below the desired level.

PPPPPopulaopulaopulaopulaopulation, tion, tion, tion, tion, EEEEEnnnnnvirvirvirvirvironment and Deonment and Deonment and Deonment and Deonment and Devvvvvelopmentelopmentelopmentelopmentelopment

Development in general and humandevelopment in particular is a complex conceptused in social sciences. It is complex becausefor ages it was thought that development is asubstantive concept and once it is achieved itwill address all the socio-cultural andenvironmental ills of the society. Though,development has brought in significantimprovement in the quality of life in more thanone way but increasing regional disparities,social inequalities, discriminations, deprivations,displacement of people, abuse of human rightsand undermining human values andenvironmental degradation have also increased.

Considering the gravity and sensitivity ofthe issues involved, the UNDP in its Human

Can you find out thecauses of the aboveproblems?


Development Report 1993, tried to amend someof the implicit biases and prejudices which wereentrenched in the concept of development.People’s participation and their security were themajor issues in the Human Development Reportof 1993. It also emphasised on progressivedemocratisation and increasing empowermentof people as minimum conditions for humandevelopment. The report recognised greaterconstructive role of ‘Civil Societies’ in bringingabout peace and human development. The civilsociety should work for building up opinion forreduction in the military expenditure, de-mobilisation of armed forces, transition fromdefence to production of basic goods and servicesand particularly disarmament and reduction inthe nuclear warheads by the developedcountries. In a nuclearised world, peace andwell-being are major global concerns.

At the other extreme of this approach liethe views expressed by the Neo-Malthusians,environmentalists and radical ecologists. Theybelieve that for a happy and peaceful social lifeproper balance between population andresources is a necessary condition. Accordingto these thinkers, the gap between the resourcesand population has widened after eighteenthcentury. There have been marginal expansionin the resources of the world in the last threehundred years but there has been phenomenalgrowth in the human population. Developmenthas only contributed in increasing the multipleuses of the limited resources of the world whilethere has been enormous increase in the demandfor these resources. Therefore, the prime taskbefore any development activity is to maintainparity between population and resources.

Scholar like Sir Robert Malthus was the firstone to voice his concern about the growing

scarcity of resources as compared to the humanpopulation. Apparently this argument lookslogical and convincing, but a critical look willreveal certain intrinsic flaws such as resourcesare not a neutral category. It is not theavailability of resources that is as important astheir social distribution. Resources everywhereare unevenly distributed. Rich countries andpeople have access to large resource basketswhile the poor find their resources shrinking.Moreover, unending pursuit for the control ofmore and more resources by the powerful anduse of the same for exhibiting ones prowess isthe prime cause of conflicts as well as theapparent contradictions between population-resource and development.

Indian culture and civilisation have beenvery sensitive to the issues of population,resource and development for a long time. Itwould not be incorrect to say that the ancientscriptures were essentially concerned about thebalance and harmony among the elements ofnature. Mahatma Gandhi in the recent timesadvocated the reinforcement of the harmony andbalance between the two. He was quiteapprehensive about the on-going developmentparticularly the way industrialisation hasinstitutionalised the loss of morality, spirituality,self-reliance, non-violence and mutual co-operation and environment. In his opinion,austerity for individual, trusteeship of socialwealth and non-violence are the key to attainhigher goals in the life of an individual as well asthat of a nation. His views were also re-echoedin the Club of Rome Report “Limits to Growth”(1972), Schumacher’s book “Small isBeautiful” (1974), Brundtland Commission’sReport “Our Common Future” (1987) andfinally in the “Agenda-21 Report of the RioConference” (1993).

31Human Development



(i) Which one of the following is India’s rank in terms of Human DevelopmentIndex among the countries of the world in 2005?

(a) 126 (c) 128

(b) 127 (d) 129

(ii) Which one of the following states of India has the highest rank in theHuman Development Index?

(a) Tamil Nadu (c) Kerala

(b) Punjab (d) Haryana

(iii) Which one of the following states of India has the lowest female literacy?

(a) Jamu and Kashmir (c) Jharkhand

(b) Arunachal Pradesh (d) Bihar

(iv) Which one of the following states of India has the lowest female child sexratio 0-6 years?

(a) Gujarat (c) Punjab

(b) Haryana (d) Himachal Pradesh

(v) Which one of the following Union Territories of India has the highestliteracy rate?

(a) Lakshadweep (c) Daman and Diu

(b) Chandigarh (d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands


(i) Define Human Development.

(ii) Give two reasons for low levels of Human Development in most of theNorthern States of India.

(iii) Give two reasons for declining child sex ratio in India.


(i) Discuss the spatial patterns of female literacy in India in 2001 and bringout the reasons responsible for it.

(ii) Which factors have caused spatial variations in the levels of HumanDevelopment among the 15 major states in India?

Unit IIUnit IIUnit IIUnit IIUnit IIChapter 4

HUMAN

SETTLEMENTS

Human Settlement means cluster of dwellingsof any type or size where human beings live.For this purpose, people may erect houses andother structures and command some area orterritory as their economic support-base. Thus,the process of settlement inherently involvesgrouping of people and apportioning of territoryas their resource base.

Settlements vary in size and type. Theyrange from a hamlet to metropolitan cities. Withsize, the economic character and social structureof settlements changes and so do its ecology andtechnology. Settlements could be small andsparsely spaced; they may also be large andclosely spaced. The sparsely located smallsettlements are called villages, specialising inagriculture or other primary activities. On theother hand, there are fewer but larger settlementswhich are termed as urban settlementsspecialising in secondary and tertiary activities.The basic differences between rural and urbansettlements are as follows :

• The rural settlements derive their lifesupport or basic economic needs fromland based primary economic activities,whereas, urban settlements, depend onprocessing of raw materials andmanufacturing of finished goods on theone hand and a variety of services on theother.

• Cities act as nodes of economic growth,provide goods and services not only tourban dwellers but also to the people ofthe rural settlements in their hinterlandsin return for food and raw materials. Thisfunctional relationship between the urbanand rural settlements takes place throughtransport and communication network.

• Rural and urban settlements differ interms of social relationship, attitude andoutlook. Rural people are less mobile andtherefore, social relations among them areintimate. In urban areas, on the otherhand, way of life is complex and fast, andsocial relations are formal.

TTTTTypes ofypes ofypes ofypes ofypes of R R R R Rururururural Settlemental Settlemental Settlemental Settlemental Settlement

Types of the settlement are determined by theextent of the built-up area and inter-house

Semi-Clustered Settlements

Semi-clustered or fragmented settlements mayresult from tendency of clustering in arestricted area of dispersed settlement. Moreoften such a pattern may also result fromsegregation or fragmentation of a large compactvillage. In this case, one or more sections ofthe village society choose or is forced to live alittle away from the main cluster or village. Insuch cases, generally, the land-owning anddominant community occupies the central partof the main village, whereas people of lowerstrata of society and menial workers settle onthe outer flanks of the village. Such settlementsare widespread in the Gujarat plain and someparts of Rajasthan.

distance. In India compact or clustered villageof a few hundred houses is a rather universalfeature, particularly in the northern plains.However, there are several areas, which haveother forms of rural settlements. There arevarious factors and conditions responsible forhaving different types of rural settlements inIndia. These include: (i) physical features –nature of terrain, altitude, climate andavailability of water (ii) cultural and ethenicfactors – social structure, caste and religion(iii) security factors – defence against thefts androbberies. Rural settlements in India canbroadly be put into four types:

• Clustered, agglomerated or nucleated,• Semi-clustered or fragmented,• Hamleted, and• Dispersed or isolated.

Clustered Settlements

The clustered rural settlement is a compact orclosely built up area of houses. In this type ofvillage the general living area is distinct andseparated from the surrounding farms, barnsand pastures. The closely built-up area and its

intervening streets present some recognisablepattern or geometric shape, such asrectangular, radial, linear, etc. Such settlementsare generally found in fertile alluvial plains andin the northeastern states. Sometimes, peoplelive in compact village for security or defencereasons, such as in the Bundelkhand region ofcentral India and in Nagaland. In Rajasthan,scarcity of water has necessitated compactsettlement for maximum utilisation of availablewater resources.

Hamleted Settlements

Sometimes settlement is fragmented into severalunits physically separated from each otherbearing a common name. These units are locallycalled panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc. invarious parts of the country. This segmentationof a large village is often motivated by socialand ethnic factors. Such villages are morefrequently found in the middle and lower Gangaplain, Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of theHimalayas.

Dispersed Settlements

Dispersed or isolated settlement pattern in Indiaappears in the form of isolated huts or hamletsof few huts in remote jungles, or on small hills

Fig. 4.1 : Clustered Settlements in the North-eastern states

Fig. 4.2 : Semi-clustered settlements

Human Settlements 33


Ancient Towns

There are number of towns in India havinghistorical background spanning over 2000years. Most of them developed as religious andcultural centres. Varanasi is one of the importanttowns among these. Prayag (Allahabad),Pataliputra (Patna), Madurai are some otherexamples of ancient towns in the country.

Medieval Towns

About 100 of the existing towns have their rootsin the medieval period. Most of them developedas headquarters of principalities and kingdoms.These are fort towns which came up on theruins of ancient towns. Important among themare Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agraand Nagpur.

Modern Towns

The British and other Europeans havedeveloped a number of towns in India.Starting their foothold on coastal locations,they first developed some trading ports suchas Surat, Daman, Goa, Pondicherry, etc. TheBritish later consolidated their hold aroundthree principal nodes – Mumbai (Bombay),Chennai (Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta) –and built them in the British style. Rapidly

with farms or pasture on the slopes. Extremedispersion of settlement is often caused byextremely fragmented nature of the terrain andland resource base of habitable areas. Manyareas of Meghalaya, Uttaranchal, HimachalPradesh and Kerala have this type of settlement.

Urban SettlementsUrban SettlementsUrban SettlementsUrban SettlementsUrban Settlements

Unlike rural settlements, urban settlementsare generally compact and larger in size.They are engaged in a variety of non-agricultural, economic and administrativefunctions. As mentioned earlier, cities arefunctionally linked to rural areas aroundthem. Thus, exchange of goods and servicesis performed sometimes directly andsometimes through a series of market townsand cities. Thus, cities are connected directlyas well as indirectly with the villages and alsowith each other. You can see the definition oftowns in Chapter 10 of the book,“Fundamentals of Human Geography.”

Evolution of Towns in India

Towns flourished since prehistoric times inIndia. Even at the time of Indus valleycivilisation, towns like Harappa andMohanjodaro were in existence. The followingperiod has witnessed evolution of towns. Itcontinued with periodic ups and downs untilthe arrival of Europeans in India in theeighteenth century. On the basis of theirevolution in different periods, Indian towns maybe classified as:

• Ancient towns, • Medieval towns, and• Modern towns.

extending their domination either directly orthrough control over the princely states, theyestablished their administrative centres, hill-towns as summer resorts, and added new civil,

Fig. 4.3 : Dispersed settlements in Nagaland

Fig. 4.4 : A view of the modern city


Fig. 4.5 : India – Metropolitan Cities, 2001


Year Number of Urban Population % of Total DecennialTowns/UAs (in Thousands) Population Growth (%)

1901 1,827 25,851.9 10.84 —-

1911 1,815 25,941.6 10.29 0.35

1921 1,949 28,086.2 11.18 8.27

1931 2,072 33,456.0 11.99 19.12

1941 2,250 44,153.3 13.86 31.97

1951 2,843 62,443.7 17.29 41.42

1961 2,365 78,936.6 17.97 26.41

1971 2,590 1,09,114 19.91 38.23

1981 3,378 1,59,463 23.34 46.14

1991 4,689 2,17,611 25.71 36.47

2001 5,161 2,85,355 27.78 31.13

Table 4.1 : India – Trends of Urbanisation 1901-2001

administrative and military areas to them.Towns based on modern industries alsoevolved after 1850. Jamshedpur can be citedas an example.

After independence, a large number oftowns have been developed as administrativeheadquarters, e.g. Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar,Gandhinagar, Dispur, etc. and industrialcentres such as Durgapur, Bhilai, Sindri,Barauni. Some old towns also developedas satellite towns around metropolitancities such as Ghaziabad, Rohtak, Gurgaonaround Delhi. With increasing investmentin rural areas, a large number of mediumand small towns have developed all overthe country.

Urbanisation in IndiaUrbanisation in IndiaUrbanisation in IndiaUrbanisation in IndiaUrbanisation in India

The level of urbanisation is measured interms of percentage of urban population tototal population. The level of urbanisationin India in 2001 was 28 per cent, which isquite low in comparison to developedcountries. Total urban population hasincreased eleven fold during twentiethcentury. Enlargement of urban centres andemergence of new towns have played asignificant role in the growth of urbanpopulat ion and urbanisat ion in thecountry. (Table 4.1). But the growth rate ofurbanisation has slowed down during lasttwo decades.

Classification of Towns on the basis ofPopulation Size

Census of India classifies urban centres intosix classes as presented in Table 4.2. Urbancentre with population of more than one lakhis called a city or class I town. Citiesaccommodating population size between oneto five million are called metropolitan cities andmore than five million are mega cities. Majorityof metropolitan and mega cities are urbanagglomerations. An urban agglomeration mayconsist of any one of the following three

India : Class-wise distribution of urbanpopulation (%), 2001

Fig. 4.6 : Class-wise Distribution of UrbanPopulation of India, 2001


combinations: (i) a town and its adjoiningurban outgrowths, ( i i ) two or morecontiguous towns with or without theiroutgrowths, and (iii) a city and one or moreadjoining towns with their outgrowthstogether forming a contiguous spread.Examples of urban outgrowth are railwaycolonies, university campus, port area,military cantonment, etc. located within therevenue limits of a village or villagescontiguous to the town or city.

It is evident from Table 4.2 that more than60 per cent of urban population in India livesin Class I towns. Out of 423 cities, 35 cities/urban agglomerations are metropolitan cities(Fig.4.6). Six of them are mega cities withpopulation over five million each. More thanone-fifth (21.0%) of urban population lives inthese mega cities.

Among them, Greater Mumbai is thelargest agglomeration with 16.4 millionpeople. Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Bangaloreand Hyderabad are other mega cities in thecountry.

Functional Classification of Towns

Apart from their role as central or nodal places,many towns and cities perform specialisedservices. Some towns and cities specialise incertain functions and they are known forsome specific activities, products or services.However, each town performs a number offunctions. On the basis of dominant orspecialised functions, Indian cities and townscan be broadly classified as follows:

Class Population Size Number Population % of total % Growth(Million) Urban 1991-2001

Population

All classesTotal 5161 285.35 100 31.13I 1,00,000 and more 423 172.04 61.48 23.12II 50,000 – 99,999 498 34.43 12.3 43.45III 20,000 – 49,999 1386 41.97 15.0 46.19IV 10,000 – 9,999 1560 22.6 8.08 32.94V 5,000 – 9,999 1057 7.98 2.85 41.49VI Less than 5,000 227 0.8 0.29 21.21

Table 4.2 : India – Class-wise number of towns and citiesand their population, 2001

Administrative towns and cities

Towns supporting administrative headquartersof higher order are administrative towns, suchas Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong,Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar, Gandhinagar,Jaipur Chennai, etc.

Industrial towns

Industries constitute prime motive force of thesecities such as Mumbai, Salem, Coimbatore,Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc.

Transport Cities

They may be ports primarily engaged in exportand import activities such as Kandla, Kochchi,Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc. or hubs ofinland transport such as Agra, Dhulia, MughalSarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.

Commercial towns

Towns and cities specialising in trade andcommerce are kept in this class. Kolkata,Saharanpur, Satna, etc. are some examples.

Mining towns

These towns have developed in mineral richareas such as Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi,Ankaleshwar, Singrauli, etc.

Garrisson Cantonment towns

These towns emerged as garrisson towns suchas Ambala, Jalandhar, Mhow, Babina,Udhampur, etc.


Rank Name of Urban PopulationAgglomeration/ (in million)

Cities

1 Greater Mumbai 16.372 Kolkata 13.223 Delhi 12.794 Chennai 6.425 Bangalore 5.696 Hyderabad 5.537 Ahmedabad 4.528 Pune 3.769 Surat 2.81

10 Kanpur 2.6911 Jaipur 2.3212 Lucknow 2.2713 Nagpur 2.1214 Patna 1.7115 Indore 1.6416 Vadodara 1.4917 Bhopal 1.4518 Coimbatore 1.4519 Ludhiana 1.3920 Kochchi 1.3621 Vishakhapatnam 1.3322 Agra 1.3223 Varanasi 1.2124 Madurai 1.1925 Meerut 1.1726 Nashik 1.1527 Jabalpur 1.1228 Jamshedpur 1.1029 Asansol 1.0930 Dhanbad 1.0631 Faridabad 1.0532 Allahabad 1.0533 Amritsar 1.0134 Vijayawada 1.0135 Rajkot 1.00

Total 107.88

Table 4.3 : India – Population of Millionplus Cities/Urban Agglomeration, 2001

Educational towns

Starting as centres of education, some of thetowns have grown into major campus townssuch as Roorki, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani,Allahabad etc.

Religious and cultural towns

Varanasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Puri,Ajmer, Pushkar, Tirupati, Kurukshetra,Haridwar, Ujjain came to prominence due totheir religious/cultural significance.

Tourist towns

Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi,Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udagamandalam (Ooty),Mount Abu are some of the tourist destinations.

The cities are not static in their function. Thefunctions change due to their dynamic nature.

Even specialised cities, as they grow intometropolises become multifunctional whereinindustry, business, administration, transport,etc. become important. The functions get sointertwined that the city can not be categorisedin a particular functional class.

List the urban agglomerations/cities state-wise and see the state-wise populationunder this category of cities.



(i) Which one of the following towns is NOT located on a river bank?

(a) Agra (c) Patna

(b) Bhopal (d) Kolkata


(ii) Which one of the following is NOT the part of the definition of a town asper the census of India?

(a) Population density of 400 persons per sq km.

(b) Presence of municipality, corporation, etc.

(c) More than 75% of the population engaged in primary sector.

(d) Population size of more than 5,000 persons.

(iii) In which one of the following environments does one expect the presenceof dispersed rural settlements?

(a) Alluvial plains of Ganga

(b) Arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan

(c) Lower valleys of Himalayas

(d) Forests and hills in north-east

(iv) Which one of the following group of cities have been arranged in thesequence of their ranks i.e. 1, 2, 3 and 4 in size?

(a) Greater Mumbai, Bangalore, Kolkata, Chennai

(b) Delhi, Greater Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata

(c) Kolkata, Greater Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata

(d) Greater Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai


(i) What are garrisson towns? What is their function?

(ii) How can one identify an urban agglomeration?

(iii) What are the main factors for the location of villages in desert regions?

(iv) What are metropolitan cities? How are they different from urbanagglomerations?


(i) Discuss the features of different types of rural settlements. What are thefactors responsible for the settlement patterns in different physicalenvironments?

(ii) Can one imagine the presence of only one-function town? Why do thecities become multi-functional?

Unit IIIUnit IIIUnit IIIUnit IIIUnit IIIChapter 5

LAND RESOURCES

AND AGRICULTURE

You must have observed that the land aroundyou is put to different uses. Some land isoccupied by rivers, some may have trees andon some parts roads and buildings have beenbuilt. Different types of lands are suited todifferent uses. Human beings thus, use landas a resource for production as well as residenceand recreation. Thus, the building of yourschool, roads on which you travel, parks inwhich you play, fields in which crops are grownand the pastures where animals graze representdifferent uses to which land is put.

Land Use CategoriesLand Use CategoriesLand Use CategoriesLand Use CategoriesLand Use Categories

Land-use records are maintained by landrevenue department. The land use categoriesadd up to reporting area, which is somewhatdifferent from the geographical area. TheSurvey of India is responsible for measuringgeographical area of administrative units inIndia. Have you ever used a map prepared bySurvey of India? The difference between the twoconcepts are that while the former changessomewhat depending on the estimates of theland revenue records, the latter does not changeand stays fixed as per Survey of Indiameasurements. You may be familiar with landuse categories as they are also included in yourSocial Science textbook of Class X.

The land-use categories as maintained inthe Land Revenue Records are as follows :

(i) Forests : It is important to note thatarea under actual forest cover isdifferent from area classified as forest.The latter is the area which theGovernment has identified anddemarcated for forest growth. The landrevenue records are consistent withthe latter definition. Thus, there maybe an increase in this category withoutany increase in the actual forest cover.

(ii) Land put to Non-agricultural Uses :Land under settlements (rural andurban), infrastructure (roads, canals,etc.), industries, shops, etc. areincluded in this category. An expansionin the secondary and tertiary activities

would lead to an increase in thiscategory of land-use.

(iii) Barren and Wastelands : The landwhich may be classified as awasteland such as barren hillyterrains, desert lands, ravines, etc.normally cannot be brought undercultivation with the availabletechnology.

(iv) Area under Permanent Pastures andGrazing Lands : Most of this type landis owned by the village ‘Panchayat’ orthe Government. Only a smallproportion of this land is privatelyowned. The land owned by the villagepanchayat comes under ‘CommonProperty Resources’.

(v) Area under Miscellaneous TreeCrops and Groves(Not included isNet sown Area) : The land underorchards and fruit trees are includedin this category. Much of this land isprivately owned.

(vi) Culturable Waste-Land : Any landwhich is left fallow (uncultivated) formore than five years is included in thiscategory. It can be brought undercultivation after improving it throughreclamation practices.

(vii) Current Fallow : This is the landwhich is left without cultivation for oneor less than one agricultural year.Fallowing is a cultural practice adoptedfor giving the land rest. The landrecoups the lost fertility through naturalprocesses.

(viii) Fallow other than Current Fallow :This is also a cultivable land which isleft uncultivated for more than a yearbut less than five years. If the land isleft uncultivated for more than fiveyears, it would be categorised asculturable wasteland.

(ix) Net Area Sown : The physicalextent of land on which crops aresown and harvested is known as netsown area.

Land-use Changes in IndiaLand-use Changes in IndiaLand-use Changes in IndiaLand-use Changes in IndiaLand-use Changes in India

Land-use in a region, to a large extent, isinfluenced by the nature of economicactivities carried out in that region. However,while economic activities change over time,land, like many other natural resources, isfixed in terms of its area. At this stage, oneneeds to appreciate three types of changesthat an economy undergoes, which affectland-use.

(i) The size of the economy (measuredin terms of value for all the goods andservices produced in the economy)grows over time as a result ofincreasing population, change inincome levels, available technologyand associated factors. As a result, thepressure on land will increase withtime and marginal lands would comeunder use.

(ii) Secondly, the composition of theeconomy would undergo a change overtime. In other words, the secondary andthe tertiary sectors usually grow muchfaster than the primary sector, specificallythe agricultural sector. This type ofchange is common in developingcountries like India. This process wouldresult in a gradual shift of land fromagricultural uses to non-agriculturaluses. You would observe that suchchanges are sharp around large urbanareas. The agricultural land is being usedfor building purposes.

(iii) Thirdly, though the contribution of theagricultural activities reduces over time,the pressure on land for agriculturalactivities does not decline. The reasonsfor continued pressure on agriculturalland are:

(a) In developing countries, theshare of population dependenton agriculture usually declinesmuch more slowly compared tothe decline in the sector’s sharein GDP.

(b) The number of people that theagricultural sector has to feed isincreasing day by day.

Land Resources and Agriculture 41


Compare the change in shares of primary, secondaryand tertiary sectors in GDP between 1960-61 and 1999-2000 with the changes of land-use between 1960-61and 2002-03 using Appendix (viii) tables 1 and 2.

India has undergone major changes withinthe economy over the past four or five decades,and this has influenced the land-use changesin the country. These changes between 1960-61 and 2002-03 have been shown in Fig. 5.1.There are two points that you need to rememberbefore you derive some meaning from thisfigure. Firstly, the percentages shown in thefigure have been derived with respect to thereporting area. Secondly, since even thereporting area has been relatively constant overthe years, a decline in one category usuallyleads to an increase in some other category.

Three categories have undergoneincreases, while four have registered declines.Share of area under forest, area under non-agricultural uses and current fallow lands haveshown an increase. The following observationscan be made about these increases:

(i) The rate of increase is the highest in caseof area under non-agricultural uses. Thisis due to the changing structure ofIndian economy, which is increasinglydepending on the contribution from

industrial and services sectors andexpansion of related infrastructuralfacilities. Also, an expansion of areaunder both urban and rural settlementshas added to the increase. Thus, the areaunder non-agricultural uses isincreasing at the expense of wastelandsand agricultural land.

(ii) The increase in the share under forest,as explained before, can be accountedfor by increase in the demarcated areaunder forest rather than an actualincrease in the forest cover in the country.

(iii) The increase in the current fallow cannotbe explained from informationpertaining to only two points. The trendof current fallow fluctuates a great dealover years, depending on the variabilityof rainfall and cropping cycles.

The four categories that have registered adecline are barren and wasteland, culturablewasteland, area under pastures and tree cropsand net area sown.

The following explanations can be givenfor the declining trends:

(i) As the pressure on land increased, bothfrom the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors, the wastelands andculturable wastelands have witnesseddecline over time.

(ii) The decline in net area sown is a recent

Note : Categories (iv) and (v) of Section I have been clubbed together in the graph.

Fig. 5.1


phenomenon that started in the latenineties, before which it was registeringa slow increase. There are indicationsthat most of the decline has occurreddue to the increases in area under non-agricultural use. (Note : the expansionof building activity on agricultural landin your village and city).

(iii) The decline in land under pastures andgrazing lands can be explained bypressure from agricultural land. Illegalencroachment due to expansion ofcultivation on common pasture lands islargely responsible for this decline.

What is the difference between actual increase andrate of increase? Work out the actual increase andrate of increases for all the land use categories between1960-61 and 2002-03 from the data given in the Appendix(viii) (Table 1). Explain the results.

Note for Teacher

For calculating actual increase, the difference of theland-use categories should be worked out over the twoperiods.

For deriving the rate of increase, simple growth rate i.e.(difference of values between the two time points i.e.value of terminal year minus base year / base year or1960-61 value) should be used, e.g.

100Net sown Area in 2002-03 Net sown Area in 1960-61

Net sown Area in 1960-61

Common PrCommon PrCommon PrCommon PrCommon Properoperoperoperoperty Rty Rty Rty Rty Resouresouresouresouresourcescescescesces

Land, according to its ownership can broadlybe classified under two broad heads – privateland and common property resources (CPRs).While the former is owned by an individual or agroup of individuals, the latter is owned by thestate meant for the use of the community. CPRsprovide fodder for the livestock and fuel for thehouseholds along with other minor forestproducts like fruits, nuts, fibre, medicinalplants, etc. In rural areas, such land is ofparticular relevance for the livelihood of thelandless and marginal farmers and other

weaker sections since many of them depend onincome from their livestock due to the fact thatthey have limited access to land. CPRs also areimportant for women as most of the fodder andfuel collection is done by them in rural areas.They have to devote long hours in collecting fueland fodder from a degraded area of CPR.

CPRs can be defined as community’s naturalresource, where every member has the right ofaccess and usage with specified obligations,without anybody having property rights overthem. Community forests, pasture lands, villagewater bodies and other public spaces where agroup larger than a household or family unitexercises rights of use and carries responsibilityof management are examples of CPRs.

Agricultural Land Use in IndiaAgricultural Land Use in IndiaAgricultural Land Use in IndiaAgricultural Land Use in IndiaAgricultural Land Use in India

Land resource is more crucial to thelivelihood of the people depending onagriculture:

(i) Agriculture is a purely land basedactivity unlike secondary and tertiaryactivities. In other words, contributionof land in agricultural output is morecompared to its contribution in theoutputs in the other sectors. Thus, lackof access to land is directly correlatedwith incidence of poverty in rural areas.

(ii) Quality of land has a direct bearing onthe productivity of agriculture, which isnot true for other activities.

(iii) In rural areas, aside from its value as aproductive factor, land ownership has asocial value and serves as a security forcredit, natural hazards or lifecontingencies, and also adds to the socialstatus.

An estimation of the total stock ofagricultural land resources (i.e. total cultivableland can be arrived at by adding up net sownarea, all fallow lands and culturable wasteland.It may be observed from Table 5.1 that over theyears, there has been a marginal decline in theavailable total stock of cultivable land as apercentage to total reporting area. There hasbeen a greater decline of cultivated land, in spiteof a corresponding decline of cultivablewasteland.


It is clear from the above discussion thatthe scope for bringing in additional land undernet sown area in India is limited. There is, thus,an urgent need to evolve and adopt land-savingtechnologies. Such technologies can be classifiedunder two heads – those which raise the yieldof any particular crop per unit area of land andthose which increase the total output per unitarea of land from all crops grown over oneagricultural year by increasing land-useintensity. The advantage of the latter kind oftechnology is that along with increasing outputfrom limited land, it also increases the demandfor labour significantly. For a land scarce butlabour abundant country like India, a highcropping intensity is desirable not only for fullerutilisation of land resource, but also forreducing unemployment in the rural economy.

The cropping intensity (CI) is calculated asfollows :

100GCACropping Intensity in percentage

NSA

Cropping Seasons in India

There are three distinct cropseasons in the northern andinterior parts of country, namelykharif, rabi and zaid. The kharifseason largely coincides withSouthwest Monsoon under whichthe cultivation of tropical cropssuch as rice, cotton, jute, jowar,bajra and tur is possible. The rabiseason begins with the onset ofwinter in October-November andends in March-April. The lowtemperature conditions during

this season facilitate the cultivation of temperateand subtropical crops such as wheat, gram andmustard. Zaid is a short duration summercropping season beginning after harvesting ofrabi crops. The cultivation of watermelons,cucumbers, vegetables and fodder crops duringthis season is done on irrigated lands. However,this type of distinction in the cropping seasondoes not exist in southern parts of the country.Here, the temperature is high enough to growtropical crops during any period in the yearprovided the soil moisture is available.Therefore, in this region same crops can begrown thrice in an agricultural year providedthere is sufficient soil moisture.

Types of Farming

On the basis of main source of moisture forcrops, the farming can be classified as irrigatedand rainfed (barani). There is difference in thenature of irrigated farming as well based onobjective of irrigation, i.e. protective orproductive. The objective of protective irrigationis to protect the crops from adverse effects of soil

Agricultural Land-use As a percentage of As a percentage to Reporting Area Total Cultivated land

Categories 1960-61 2002-03 1960-61 2002-03

Culturable Wasteland 6.23 4.41 10.61 7.52

Fallow other than Current Fallow 3.5 3.82 5.96 6.51

Current Fallow 3.73 7.03 6.35 11.98

Net Area Sown 45.26 43.41 77.08 73.99

Total Cultivable Land 58.72 58.67 100.00 100.00

Table 5.1 : Composition of Total Cultivable Land

Cropping Season Major Crops Cultivated

Northern States Southern States

Kharif Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Rice, Maize, Ragi,June-September Maize, Jowar, Tur Jowar, Groundnut

Rabi Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds Rice, Maize, Ragi,October – March and Mustard, Barley Groundnut, Jowar

Zaid Vegetables, Fruits, Rice, Vegetables, April–June Fodder Fodder

Table 5.2 : Cropping Seasons in India


moisture deficiency which often means thatirrigation acts as a supplementary source of waterover and above the rainfall. The strategy of thiskind of irrigation is to provide soil moisture tomaximum possible area. Productive irrigation ismeant to provide sufficient soil moisture in thecropping season to achieve high productivity. Insuch irrigation the water input per unit area ofcultivated land is higher than protective irrigation.Rainfed farming is further classified on the basisof adequacy of soil moisture during croppingseason into dryland and wetland farming. InIndia, the dryland farming is largely confinedto the regions having annual rainfall less than 75cm. These regions grow hardy and droughtresistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong, gramand guar (fodder crops) and practise variousmeasures of soil moisture conservation and rainwater harvesting. In wetland farming, therainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirementof plants during rainy season. Such regions mayface flood and soil erosion hazards. These areasgrow various water intensive crops such as rice,jute and sugarcane and practise aquaculture inthe fresh water bodies.

CrCrCrCrCropping Popping Popping Popping Popping Paaaaatterntterntterntternttern

Foodgrains

The importance of foodgrains in Indianagricultural economy may be gauged from thefact these crops occupy about two-third of totalcropped area in the country. Foodgrains aredominant crops in all parts of the countrywhether they have subsistence or commercialagricultural economy. On the basis of thestructure of grain the foodgrains are classifiedas cereals and pulses.

Cereals

The cereals occupy about 54 per cent of totalcropped area in India. The country producesabout 11 per cent cereals of the world and ranksthird in production after China and U.S.A. Indiaproduces a variety of cereals, which areclassified as fine grains (rice, wheat) and coarsegrains (jowar, bajra, maize, ragi), etc. Accountof important cereals has been given in thefollowing paragraphs :

Rice

Rice is a staple food for the overwhelmingmajority of population in India. Though, it isconsidered to be a crop of tropical humid areas,it has about 3,000 varieties which are grown indifferent agro-climatic regions. These aresuccessfully grown from sea level to about2,000 m altitude and from humid areas ineastern India to dry but irrigated areas ofPunjab, Haryana, western U.P. and northernRajasthan. In southern states and West Bengalthe climatic conditions allow the cultivation oftwo or three crops of rice in an agricultural year.In West Bengal farmers grow three crops of ricecalled ‘aus ’, ‘aman ’ and ‘boro ’. But inHimalayas and northwestern parts of thecountry, it is grown as a kharif crop duringsouthwest Monsoon season.

India contributes 22 per cent of riceproduction in the world and ranks second afterChina. About one-fourth of the total croppedarea in the country is under rice cultivation.West Bengal, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, AndhraPradesh and Tamil Nadu were five leading riceproducing states in the country in 2002-03. Theyield level of rice is high in Punjab, Tamil Nadu,Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal andKerala. In the first four of these states almostthe entire land under rice cultivation is irrigated.Punjab and Haryana are not traditional rice

growing areas. Rice cultivation in the irrigatedareas of Punjab and Haryana was introducedin 1970s following the Green Revolution.Genetically improved varieties of seed, relativelyhigh usage of fertilisers and pesticides and lowerlevels of susceptibility of the crop to pests due to

Fig. 5.2 : Rice transplantation in southern parts of India


Fig. 5.3 : India – Distribution of Rice


dry climatic conditions are responsible for higheryield of rice in this region. The yield of this cropis very low in rainfed areas of Madhya Pradesh,Chhattisgarh and Orissa.

Wheat

Wheat is the second most important cereal cropin India after rice. India produces about 12 percent of total wheat production of world. It isprimarily a crop of temperate zone. Hence, itscultivation in India is done during winter i.e.rabi season. About 85 per cent of total areaunder this crop is concentrated in north andcentral regions of the country i.e. Indo-GangeticPlain, Malwa Plateau and Himalayas up to2,700 m altitude. Being a rabi crop, it is mostlygrown under irrigated conditions. But it is arainfed crop in Himalayan highlands and partsof Malwa plateau in Madhya Pradesh.

About 14 per cent of the total cropped areain the country is under wheat cultivation. UttarPradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan andMadhya Pradesh are five leading wheatproducing states. The yield level of wheat isvery high (above 4,000 k.g. per ha) in Punjaband Haryana whereas, Uttar Pradesh,Rajasthan and Bihar have moderate yields. Thestates like Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradeshand Jammu and Kashmir growing wheat underrainfed conditions have low yield.

Jowar

The coarse cereals together occupy about16.50 per cent of total cropped area in thecountry. Among these, jowar or sorghum aloneaccounts for about 5.3 per cent of totalcropped area. It is main food crop in semi-aridareas of central and southern India.Maharashtra alone produces more than halfof the total jowar production of the country.Other leading producer states of jowar areKarnataka, Madhya Pradesh and AndhraPradesh. It is sown in both kharif and rabiseasons in southern states. But it is a kharifcrop in northern India where it is mostly grownas a fodder crop. South of Vindhyachal it is arainfed crop and its yield level is very low inthis region.

Bajra

Bajra is sown in hot and dry climatic conditionsin northwestern and western parts of thecountry. It is a hardy crop which resists frequentdry spells and drought in this region. It iscultivated alone as well as part of mixedcropping. This coarse cereal occupies about 5.2per cent of total cropped area in the country.Leading producers of bajra are the states ofMaharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthanand Haryana. Being a rainfed crop, the yield levelof this crop is low in Rajasthan and fluctuates alot from year to year. Yield of this crop hasincreased during recent years in Haryana andGujarat due to introduction of drought resistantvarieties and expansion of irrigation under it.

Maize

Maize is a food as well as fodder crop grownunder semi-arid climatic conditions and overinferior soils. This crop occupies only about3.6 per cent of total cropped area. Maizecultivation is not concentrated in any specificregion. It is sown all over India except easternand north-eastern regions. The leadingproducers of maize are the states of MadhyaPradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Yield level ofmaize is higher than other coarse cereals. It ishigh in southern states and declines towardscentral parts.

Pulses

Pulses are a very important ingredient ofvegetarian food as these are rich sources ofproteins. These are legume crops whichincrease the natural fertility of soils throughnitrogen fixation. India is a leading producer ofpulses and accounts for about one-fifth of thetotal production of pulses in the world. Thecultivation of pulses in the country is largelyconcentrated in the drylands of Deccan andcentral plateaus and northwestern parts of thecountry. Pulses occupy about 11 per cent ofthe total cropped area in the country. Being therainfed crops of drylands, the yields of pulsesare low and fluctuate from year to year. Gramand tur are the main pulses cultivated in India.


Fig. 5.4 : India – Distribution of Wheat


Gram

Gram is cultivated in subtropical areas. It ismostly a rainfed crop cultivated during rabiseason in central, western and northwestern partsof the country. Just one or two light showers orirrigations are required to grow this cropsuccessfully. It has been displaced from thecropping pattern by wheat in Haryana, Punjaband northern Rajasthan following the greenrevolution. At present, gram covers only about2.8 per cent of the total cropped area in thecountry. Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthanare the main producers of this pulse crop. Theyield of this crop continues to be low and fluctuatesfrom year to year even in irrigated areas.

Tur (Arhar)

Tur is the second important pulse crop in thecountry. It is also known as red gram or pigeonpea. It is cultivated over marginal lands andunder rainfed conditions in the dry areas ofcentral and southern states of the country. Thiscrop occupies only about 2 per cent of totalcropped area of India. Maharashtra alonecontributes about one-third of the totalproduction of tur. Other leading producer statesare Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat andMadhya Pradesh. Per hectare output of this cropis very low and its performance is inconsistent.

Differentiate between different foodgrains. Mix grains ofvarious kinds and separate cereals from pulses. Also,separate fine from coarse cereals.

Oilseeds

The oilseeds are produced for extracting edibleoils. Drylands of Malwa plateau, Marathwada,Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana and Rayalseemaregion of Andhra Pradesh and Karnatakaplateau are oilseeds growing regions of India.These crops together occupy about 14 per centof total cropped area in the country.Groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, soyabeanand sunflower are the main oilseed crops grownin India.

Groundnut

India produces about 17 per cent the total ofgroundnut production in the world. It is largelya rainfed kharif crop of drylands. But insouthern India, it is cultivated during rabiseason as well. It covers about 3.6 per cent oftotal cropped area in the country. Gujarat, TamilNadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka andMaharashtra are the leading producers. Yieldof groundnut is comparatively high in TamilNadu where it is partly irrigated. But its yieldis low in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.

Rapeseed and Mustard

Rapeseed and mustard comprise several oilseedsas rai, sarson, toria and taramira. These aresubtropical crops cultivated during rabi seasonin north-western and central parts of India.These are frost sensitive crops and their yieldsfluctuate from year to year. But with theexpansion of irrigation and improvement in seedtechnology, their yields have improved andstabilised to some extent. About two-third of thecultivated area under these crops is irrigated.These oilseeds together occupy only 2.5 per centof total cropped area in the country. Rajasthancontributes about one-third production whileother leading producers are Uttar Pradesh,Haryana, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh.Yields of these crops are comparatively high inHaryana and Rajasthan.

Other Oilseeds

Soyabean and sunflower are other importantoilseeds grown in India. Soyabean is mostlygrown in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

Fig. 5.5 : Farmers sowing soyabean seeds in Amravati,Maharashtra


Fig. 5.6 : India – Distribution of Cotton and Jute


These two states together produce about 90 percent of total output of soyabean in the country.Sunflower cultivation is concentrated inKarnataka, Andhra Pradesh and adjoiningareas of Maharashtra. It is a minor crop innorthern parts of the country where its yield ishigh due to irrigation.

Fibre Crops

These crops provide us fibre for preparing cloth,bags, sacks and a number of other items.Cotton and jute are two main fibre crops grownin India.

Cotton

Cotton is a tropical crop grown in kharif seasonin semi-arid areas of the country. India lost alarge proportion of cotton growing area toPakistan during partition. However, its acreagehas increased considerably during the last 50years. India grows both short staple (Indian)cotton as well as long staple (American) cottoncalled ‘narma’ in north-western parts of thecountry. Cotton requires clear sky duringflowering stage.

in south. Leading producers of this crop areMaharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,Punjab and Haryana. Per hectare output ofcotton is high under irrigated conditions innorth-western region of the country. Its yieldis very low in Maharashtra where it is grownunder rainfed conditions.

Jute

Jute is used for making coarse cloth, bags, sacksand decorative items. It is a cash crop in WestBengal and adjoining eastern parts of thecountry. India lost large jute growing areas toEast Pakistan (Bangladesh) during partition. Atpresent, India produces about three-fifth of juteproduction of the world. West Bengal accountsfor about three-fourth of the production in thecountry. Bihar and Assam are other jute growingareas. Being concentrated only in a few states,this crop accounts for only about 0.5 per cent oftotal cropped area in the country.

Other Crops

Sugarcane, tea and coffee are other importantcrops grown in India.

Sugarcane

Sugarcane is a crop of tropical areas. Underrainfed conditions, it is cultivated in sub-humidand humid climates. But it is largely an irrigatedcrop in India. In Indo-Gangetic plain, itscultivation is largely concentrated in UttarPradesh. Sugarcane growing area in western Indiais spread over Maharashtra and Gujarat. In

India ranks fourth in the world in theproduction of cotton after China, U.S.A. andPakistan and accounts for about 8.3 per centof production of cotton in the world. Cottonoccupies about 4.7 per cent of total croppedarea in the country. There are three cottongrowing areas, i.e. parts of Punjab, Haryana andnorthern Rajasthan in north-west, Gujarat andMaharashtra in the west and plateaus ofAndhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu

Fig. 5.7 : Cotton Cultivation

Fig. 5.8 : Sugarcane Cultivation


Fig. 5.9 : India – Distribution of Sugarcane


southern India, it is cultivated in irrigated tractsof Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

India is the second largest producer ofsugarcane after Brazil. It accounts for about23 per cent of the world production ofsugarcane. But it occupies only 2.4 per cent oftotal cropped area in the country. Uttar Pradeshproduces about two-fifth of sugarcane of thecountry. Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Naduand Andhra Pradesh are other leadingproducers of this crop where yield level ofsugarcane is high. Its yield is low in northernIndia.

Tea

Tea is a plantation crop used as beverage. Blacktea leaves are fermented whereas green tea leavesare unfermented. Tea leaves have rich content ofcaffeine and tannin. It is an indigenous crop ofhills in northern China. It is grown overundulating topography of hilly areas and well-drained soils in humid and sub-humid tropicsand sub-tropics. In India, tea plantation startedin 1840s in Brahmaputra valley of Assam whichstill is a major tea growing area in the country.Later on, its plantation was introduced in thesub-Himalayan region of West Bengal (Darjiling,Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar districts). Tea is alsocultivated on the lower slopes of Nilgiri andCardamom hills in Western Ghats. India is a

after Sri Lanka and China. Assam accounts forabout 53.2 per cent of the total cropped areaand contributes more than half of totalproduction of tea in the country. West Bengaland Tamil Nadu are the other leading producersof tea.

Coffee

Coffee is a tropical plantation crop. Its seedsare roasted, ground and are used for preparinga beverage. There are three varieties of coffeei.e. arabica, robusta and liberica. India mostlygrows superior quality coffee, arabica, whichis in great demand in International market. ButIndia produces only about 4.3 per cent coffeeof the world and ranks sixth after Brazil,Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia and Mexico.Coffee is cultivated in the highlands of WesternGhats in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.Karnataka alone accounts for more than two-third of total production of coffee in the country.

Agricultural Development in IndiaAgricultural Development in IndiaAgricultural Development in IndiaAgricultural Development in IndiaAgricultural Development in India

Agriculture continues to be an important sectorof Indian economy. In 2001 about 53 per centpopulation of the country was dependent on it.The importance of agricultural sector in Indiacan be gauged from the fact that about 57 percent of its land is devoted to crop cultivation,whereas, in the world, the corresponding shareis only about 12 per cent. In spite of this, thereis tremendous pressure on agricultural landin India, which is reflected from the fact thatthe land-human ratio in the country is only 0.31ha which is almost half of that of the world as awhole (0.59 ha). Despite various constraints,Indian agriculture has marched a long waysince Independence.

Strategy of Development

Indian agricultural economy was largelysubsistence in nature before Independence. Ithad dismal performance in the first half oftwentieth century. This period witnessed severedroughts and famines. During partition aboutone-third of the irrigated land in undividedIndia went to Pakistan. This reduced theproportion of irrigated area in Independent

Fig. 5.10 : Tea Farming

leading producer of tea and accounts for about28 per cent of total production in the world.India’s share in the international market of teahas declined substantially. At present, it ranksthird among tea exporting countries in the world


Fig. 5.11 : India – Distribution of Tea and Coffee


India. After Independence, the immediate goalof the Government was to increase foodgrainsproduction by (i) switching over from cashcrops to food crops; (ii) intensification ofcropping over already cultivated land; and (iii)increasing cultivated area by bringing cultivableand fallow land under plough. Initially, thisstrategy helped in increasing foodgrainsproduction. But agricultural productionstagnated during late 1950s. To overcome thisproblem, Intensive Agricultural DistrictProgramme (IADP) and Intensive AgriculturalArea Programme (IAAP) were launched. But twoconsecutive droughts during mid-1960sresulted in food crisis in the country.Consequently, the foodgrains were importedfrom other countries.

New seed varieties of wheat (Mexico) andrice (Philippines) known as high yieldingvarieties (HYVs) were available for cultivationby mid-1960s. India took advantage of this andintroduced package technology comprisingHYVs, along with chemical fertilizers in irrigatedareas of Punjab, Haryana, Western UttarPradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat. Assuredsupply of soil moisture through irrigation wasa basic pre-requisite for the success of this newagricultural technology. This strategy ofagricultural development paid dividendsinstantly and increased the foodgrainsproduction at very fast rate. This spurt ofagricultural growth came to be known as‘Green Revolution’. This also gave fillip to thedevelopment of a large number of agro-inputs,agro-processing industries and small-scaleindustries. This strategy of agriculturaldevelopment made the country self-reliant infoodgrain production. But green revolution wasinitially confined to irrigated areas only. Thisled to regional disparities in agriculturaldevelopment in the country till the seventies,after which the technology spread to the Easternand Central parts of the country.

The Planning Commission of Indiafocused its attention on the problems ofagriculture in rainfed areas in 1980s. Itinitiated agro-climatic planning in 1988 toinduce regionally balanced agriculturaldevelopment in the country. It also emphasised

the need for diversification of agriculture andharnessing of resources for development ofdairy farming, poultry, horticulture, livestockrearing and aquaculture.

Initiation of the policy of liberalisation andfree market economy in 1990s is likely toinfluence the course of development of Indianagriculture. Lack of development of ruralinfrastructure, withdrawal of subsidies andprice support, and impediments in availing ofthe rural credits may lead to inter-regional andinter-personal disparities in rural areas.

Growth of Agricultural Output and Technology

There has been a significant increase inagricultural output and improvement intechnology during the last fifty years.

• Production and yield of many cropssuch as rice and wheat has increased atan impressive rate. Among the othercrops, the production of sugarcane,oilseeds and cotton has also increasedappreciably. India ranks first in theproduction of pulses, tea, jute, cattleand milk. It is the second largestproducer of rice, wheat, groundnut,sugarcane and vegetables.

• Expansion of irrigation has played a verycrucial role in enhancing agriculturaloutput in the country. It provided basisfor introduction of modern agriculturaltechnology such as high yielding varietiesof seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides andfarm machinery. The net irrigated area inthe country has increased from 20.85 to54.66 million ha over the period 1950-51to 2000-01. Over these 50 years, areairrigated more than once in an agriculturalyear has increased from 1.71 to 20.46million ha.

• Modern agricultural technology hasdiffused very fast in various areas of thecountry. Consumption of chemicalfertilizers has increased by 15 times sincemid-sixties. In 2001-02, per hectareconsumption of chemical fertilizers in Indiawas 91 kg which was equal to its averageconsumption in the world (90 kg). But inthe irrigated areas of Punjab and Haryana,


Low productivity

The yield of the crops in the country is low incomparison to the international level. Perhectare output of most of the crops such asrice, wheat, cotton and oilseeds in India ismuch lower than that of U.S.A., Russia andJapan. Because of the very high pressure onthe land resources, the labour productivityin Indian agriculture is also very low incomparison to international level. The vastrainfed areas of the country, particularlydrylands which mostly grow coarse cereals,pulses and oilseeds have very low yields.

Why is agricultural productivity low in dryregions?

Constraints of Financial Resources andIndebtedness

The inputs of modern agriculture are veryexpensive. This resource intensive approach hasbecome unmanageable for marginal and smallfarmers as they have very meagre or no savingto invest in agriculture. To tide over thesedifficulties, most of such farmers have resortedto availing credit from various institutions andmoney lenders. Crop failures and low returnsfrom agriculture have forced them to fall in thetrap of indebtedness.

What are the implications of severeindebtedness? Do you feel that the recentincidents of farmers’ suicides in differentstates of the country are the result ofindebtedness?

Lack of Land Reforms

Indian peasantry had been exploited for along time as there had been unequaldistribution of land. Among the threerevenue systems operational during Britishperiod i.e. Mahalwari, R yotwari andZamindari, the last one was most exploitativefor the peasants. After independence, landreforms were accorded priority, but these

the consumption of chemical fertilizers perunit area is three to four times higher thanthat of the national average. Since the highyielding varieties are highly susceptible topests and diseases, the use of pesticideshas increased significantly since 1960s.

Fig. 5.12 : Roto Till Drill - A modern agricultural equipment

PrPrPrPrProboboboboblems lems lems lems lems ofofofofof Indian Ag Indian Ag Indian Ag Indian Ag Indian AgriculturriculturriculturriculturricultureeeeeThe nature of problems faced by Indianagriculture varies according to agro-ecologicaland historical experiences of its different regions.Hence, most of the agricultural problems in thecountry are region specific. Yet, there are someproblems which are common and range fromphysical constraints to institutional hindrances.A detailed discussion on these problems follows:

Dependence on Erratic Monsoon

Irrigation covers only about 33 per cent of thecultivated area in India. The crop productionin rest of the cultivated land directly dependson rainfall. Poor performance of south-westMonsoon also adversely affects the supply ofcanal water for irrigation. On the other hand,the rainfall in Rajasthan and other droughtprone areas is too meagre and highly unreliable.Even the areas receiving high annual rainfallexperience considerable fluctuations. Thismakes them vulnerable to both droughts andfloods. Drought is a common phenomenon inthe low rainfall areas which may also experienceoccasional floods. The flash floods in drylandsof Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Rajasthan in2006 are examples of this phenomenon.Droughts and floods continue to be twin menacein Indian agriculture.


reforms were not implemented effectively dueto lack of strong political will. Most of the stategovernments avoided taking politically toughdecisions which went against strong politicallobbies of landlords. Lack of implementationof land reforms has resulted in continuationof inequitous distribution of cultivable landwhich is detrimental to agriculturaldevelopment.

Small Farm Size and Fragmentation ofLandholdings

There are a large number of marginal and smallfarmers in the country. More than 60 per centof the ownership holdings have a size smallerthan one (ha). Furthermore, about 40 per centof the farmers have operational holding sizesmaller than 0.5 hectare (ha). The average size

of land holding is shrinking further underincreasing population pressure. Furthermore,in India, the land holdings are mostlyfragmented. There are some states whereconsolidation of holding has not been carriedout even once. Even the states where it has beencarried out once, second consolidation isrequired as land holdings have fragmentedagain in the process of division of land amongthe owners of next generations. The small sizefragmented landholdings are uneconomic.

Lack of Commercialisation

A large number of farmers produce crops forself-consumption. These farmers do not haveenough land resources to produce more thantheir requirement. Most of the small andmarginal farmers grow foodgrains, which are

What changes have you noticed inagricultural sector and croppingpattern? Discuss in the class.




(i) Which one of the following is NOT a land-use category?

(a) Fallow land (c) Net Area Sown

(b) Marginal land (d) Culturable Wasteland

(ii) What one of the following is the main reason due to which share of foresthas shown an increase in the last forty years?

(a) Extensive and efficient efforts of afforestation

(b) Increase in community forest land

(c) Increase in notified area allocated for forest growth

(d) Better peoples’ participation in managing forest area.

(iii) Which one of the following is the main form of degradation in irrigatedareas?

(a) Gully erosion (c) Salinisation of soils

(b) Wind erosion (d) Siltation of land

meant for their own family consumption.Modernisation and commercialisation ofagriculture have however, taken place in theirrigated areas.

Vast Under-employment

There is a massive under-employment in theagricultural sector in India, particularly in theun-irrigated tracts. In these areas, there is aseasonal unemployment ranging from 4 to 8months. Even in the cropping season work isnot available throughout, as agriculturaloperations are not labour intensive. Hence, thepeople engaged in agriculture do not have theopportunity to work round the year.

Degradation of Cultivable Land

One of the serious problems that arises out offaulty strategy of irrigation and agriculturaldevelopment is degradation of land resources.This is serious because it may lead todepletion of soil fertility. The situation isparticularly alarming in irrigated areas. A large

tract of agricultural land has lost its fertilitydue to alkalisation and salinisation of soils andwaterlogging. Alkalinity and salinity havealready affected about 8 million ha land.Another 7 million ha land in the country haslost its fertility due to waterlogging. Excessiveuse of chemicals such as insecticides andpesticides has led to their concentration in toxicamounts in the soil profile. Leguminous cropshave been displaced from the cropping patternin the irrigated areas and duration of fallowhas substantially reduced owing to multiplecropping. This has obliterated the process ofnatural fertilization such as nitrogen fixation.Rainfed areas in humid and semi-arid tropicsalso experience degradation of several typeslike soil erosion by water and wind erosionwhich are often induced by human activities.

Prepare a list of agricultural problems in your ownregion. How similar or different are these problemscompared to the problems mentioned in this chapter?


(iv) Which one of the following crops is not cultivated under dryland farming?

(a) Ragi (c) Groundnut

(b) Jowar (d) Sugarcane

(v) In which of the following group of countries of the world, HYVs of wheatand rice were developed?

(a) Japan and Australia (c) Mexico and Philippines

(b) U.S.A. and Japan (d) Mexico and Singapore


(i) Differentiate between barren and wasteland and culturable wasteland.

(ii) How would you distinguish between net sown area and gross croppedarea?

(iii) Why is the strategy of increasing cropping intensity important in acountry like India?

(iv) How do you measure total cultivable land?

(v) What is the difference between dryland and wetland farming?


(i) What are the different types of environmental problems of land resourcesin India?

(ii) What are the important strategies for agricultural development followedin the post-independence period in India?


WATER RESOURCES

Do you think that what exists today willcontinue to be so, or the future is going to bedifferent in some respects? It can be said withsome certainty that the societies will witnessdemographic transition, geographical shift ofpopulation, technological advancement,degradation of environment and water scarcity.Water scarcity is possibly to pose the greatestchallenge on account of its increased demandcoupled with shrinking supplies due to overutilisation and pollution. Water is a cyclicresource with abundant supplies on the globe.Approximately, 71 per cent of the earth’ssurface is covered with it but fresh waterconstitutes only about 3 per cent of the totalwater. In fact, a very small proportion of freshwater is effectively available for human use. Theavailability of fresh water varies over space andtime. The tensions and disputes on sharing andcontrol of this scare resource are becomingcontested issues among communities, regions,and states. The assessment, efficient use andconservation of water, therefore, becomenecessary to ensure development. In thischapter, we shall discuss water resources inIndia, its geographical distribution, sectoralutilisation, and methods of its conservation andmanagement.

Water Resources of IndiaWater Resources of IndiaWater Resources of IndiaWater Resources of IndiaWater Resources of India

India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world’ssurface area, 4 per cent of the world’s waterresources and about 16 per cent of world’spopulation. The total water available fromprecipitation in the country in a year is about4,000 cubic km. The availability from surfacewater and replenishable groundwater is 1,869cubic km. Out of this only 60 per cent can beput to beneficial uses. Thus, the total utilisablewater resource in the country is only 1,122cubic km.

Surface Water Resources

There are four major sources of surface water.These are rivers, lakes, ponds, and tanks. Inthe country, there are about 10,360 riversand their tributaries longer than 1.6 km each.The mean annual flow in all the river basinsin India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km.

harnessed, but it is yet to be done in theBrahmaputra and the Ganga basins.

Groundwater Resources

The total replenishable groundwaterresources in the country are about 432 cubickm. Table 6.1 shows that the Ganga and theBrahamaputra basins, have about 46 percent of the total replenishable groundwaterresources. The level of groundwaterutilisation is relatively high in the river basinslying in north-western region and parts ofsouth India.

The groundwater utilisation is very highin the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,and Tamil Nadu. However, there are States likeChhattisgarh, Orissa, Kerala, etc., which utiliseonly a small proportion of their groundwaterpotentials. States like Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh,Bihar, Tripura and Maharashtra are utilisingtheir ground water resources at a moderaterate. If the present trend continues, the

However, due to topographical, hydrologicaland other constraints, only about 690 cubickm (32 per cent) of the available surface watercan be utilised. Water flow in a river dependson size of its catchment area or river basinand rainfall within its catchment area. Youhave studied in your Class XI textbook “India: Physical Environment” that precipitation inIndia has very high spatial variation, and it ismainly concentrated in Monsoon season. Youalso have studied in the textbook that someof the rivers in the country like the Ganga,the Brahmaputra, and the Indus have hugecatchment areas. Given that precipitation isrelatively high in the catchment areas of theGanga, the Brahmaputra and the Barakrivers, these rivers, although account for onlyabout one-third of the total area in thecountry, have 60 per cent of the total surfacewater resources. Much of the annual waterflow in south Indian rivers like the Godavari,the Krishna, and the Kaveri has been

S. Name of Basin Total Replenishable Level of GroundwaterNo. Ground Water Resources Utilisation (%)

1. Brahmani with Baitarni 4.05 8.45

2. Brahmaputra 26.55 3.37

3. Chambal Composite 7.19 40.09

4. Kaveri 12.3 55.33

5. Ganga 170.99 33.52

6. Godavari 40.65 19.53

7. Indus 26.49 77.71

8. Krishna 26.41 30.39

9. Kuchchh and Saurashtra including river Luni 11.23 51.14

10. Chennai and South Tamil Nadu 18.22 57.68

11. Mahanadi 16.46 6.95

12. Meghna (Barak & Others) 8.52 3.94

13. Narmada 10.83 21.74

14. Northeast Composite 18.84 17.2

15. Pennar 4.93 36.6

16. Subarnrekha 1.82 9.57

17. Tapi 8.27 33.05

18. Western Ghat 17.69 22.88

Total 431.42 31.97

Table 6.1 : Basinwise Ground water Potential and Utilisation in India (Cubic Km/Year)

Source: Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India, New Delhi;http://wrmin.nic.in/resource/gwresource1.htm

Water Resources 61


Fig. 6.1 : India – River Basins

Water Resources 63

demands for water would need the supplies.And such situation, will be detrimental todevelopment, and can cause social upheavaland disruptions.

Exercise based on Table 6.1 :

1. Which river basin has the highest totalreplenishable ground water resource?

2. In which river basin is the level of groundwater utilisation the highest?

3. Which river basin has the lowest totalreplenishable ground water resource?

4. In which river basin is the level of groundwater utilisation the lowest?

5. Draw a bar diagram to show the totalreplenishable ground water resourcesin 10 major river basins.

6. Draw a bar diagram to show the levelsof ground water utilisation of the same10 major river basins for which you havemade the first bar diagram.

of lagoons and lakes have formed. The States likeKerala, Orissa and West Bengal have vast surfacewater resources in these lagoons and lakes.Although, water is generally brackish in thesewater-bodies, it is used for fishing and irrigatingcertain varieties of paddy crops, coconut, etc.

Water Demand and Utilisation

India has traditionally been an agrarianeconomy, and about two-third of its populationhave been dependent on agriculture. Hence,development of irrigation to increase agriculturalproduction has been assigned a very highpriority in the Five Year Plans, and multipurposeriver valleys projects like the Bhakra-Nangal,Hirakud, Damodar Valley, Nagarjuna Sagar,Indira Gandhi Canal Project, etc. have been takenup. In fact, India’s water demand at present isdominated by irrigational needs.

As shown in Fig. 6.2 and 6.3, agricultureaccounts for most of the surface and groundwater utilisation, it accounts for 89 per cent ofthe surface water and 92 per cent of thegroundwater utilisation. While the share ofindustrial sector is limited to 2 per cent of thesurface water utilisation and 5 per cent of theground-water, the share of domestic sector ishigher (9 per cent) in surface water utilisationas compared to groundwater. The share of

Fig. 6.2 : Sectoral Usage of Surface Water

Source: Earth Trend 2001, World Resource Institute, as given in Govt. of India (2002) Report

Lagoons and Backwaters

India has a vast coastline and the coast is veryindented in some states. Due to this, a number

Fig. 6.3 : Sectoral Usage of Groundwater


agricultural sector in total water utilisation ismuch higher than other sectors. However, infuture, with development, the shares ofindustrial and domestic sectors in the countryare likely to increase.

Demand of Water for Irrigation

In agriculture, water is mainly used forirrigation. Irrigation is needed because ofspatio-temporal variability in rainfall in thecountry. The large tracts of the country aredeficient in rainfall and are drought prone.North-western India and Deccan plateauconstitute such areas. Winter and summerseasons are more or less dry in most part ofthe country. Hence, it is difficult to practiseagriculture without assured irrigation duringdry seasons. Even in the areas of ample

rainfall like West Bengal and Bihar, breaks inmonsoon or its failure creates dry spellsdetrimental for agriculture. Water need ofcertain crops also makes irrigation necessary.For instance, water requirement of rice,sugarcane, jute, etc. is very high which canbe met only through irrigation.

Provision of irrigation makes multiplecropping possible. It has also been found thatirrigated lands have higher agriculturalproductivity than unirrigated land. Further, thehigh yielding varieties of crops need regularmoisture supply, which is made possible onlyby a developed irrigation systems. In fact, thisis why that green revolution strategy ofagriculture development in the country haslargely been successful in Punjab, Haryana andwestern Uttar Pradesh.

Fig. 6.4 : The Ganga and its Tributaries and Towns Located on them

Water Resources 65

State Percentage

Gujarat 86.6

Rajasthan 77.2

Madhya Pradesh 66.5

Maharashtra 65

Uttar Pradesh 58.21

West Bengal 57.6

Tamil Nadu 54.7

Table 6.2 : Percentage of net irrigated areato total by wells and Tube-wells

In Punjab, Haryana and Western UttarPradesh more than 85 per cent of their netsown area is under irrigation. Wheat and riceare grown mainly with the help of irrigation inthese states. Of the total net irrigated area 76.1per cent in Punjab and 51.3 per cent in Haryanaare irrigated through wells and tube wells. Thisshows that these states utilise large proportionof their ground water potential which hasresulted in ground water depletion in thesestates. The share of area irrigated through wellsand tube wells is also very high in the statesgiven in table 6.2.

What is the pattern of well and Tube-wellirrigation discernible from the above table?

What are the implications of using groundwater in drought prone area of Rajasthan,Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu?

The over-use of ground water resourceshas led to decline in ground water table in thesestates. In fact, over withdrawals in some stateslike Rajasthan, and Maharashtra has increasedfluoride concentration in ground-water, and thispractice has led to increase in concentration ofarsenic in parts of West Bengal and Bihar.

Intensive irrigation in Punjab, Haryana and western UttarPradesh is increasing salinity in the soil and depletionof ground water irrigation. Discuss its likely impacts onagriculture.

Emerging Water Problems

The per capita availability of water is dwindlingday by day due to increase in population. Theavailable water resources are also gettingpolluted with industrial, agricultural anddomestic effluents, and this, in turn, is furtherlimiting the availability of usable waterresources.

Deterioration of Water QualityDeterioration of Water QualityDeterioration of Water QualityDeterioration of Water QualityDeterioration of Water Quality

Water quality refers to purity of water, or waterwithout unwanted foreign substances. Watergets polluted by foreign matters such as micro-organisms, chemicals, industrial and otherwastes. Such matters deteriorate the quality ofwater and render it unfit for human use. Whentoxic substances enter lakes, steams, rivers,ocean and other water bodies, they get dissolvedor lie suspended in water. This results in pollutionof water whereby quality of water deterioratesaffecting aquatic systems. Sometimes, thesepollutants also seep down and pollutegroundwater. The Ganga and the Yamuna arethe two highly polluted rivers in the country.

Find out which are the major towns/cities located onthe bank of the Ganga and its tributaries and majorindustries they have.

Water Conservation and Management

Since there is a declining availability of freshwater and increasing demand, the need hasarisen to conserve and effectively manage thisprecious life giving resource for sustainabledevelopment. Given that water availability fromsea/ocean, due to high cost of desalinisation,is considered negligible, India has to take quicksteps and make effective policies and laws, andadopt effective measures for its conservation.Besides developing water saving technologiesand methods, attempts are also to be made toprevent the pollution. There is need toencourage watershed development, rainwaterharvesting, water recycling and reuse, andconjunctive use of water for sustaining watersupply in long run.


Discuss the issues highlighted in thenews items.

Prevention of Water Pollution

Available water resources are degradingrapidly. The major rivers of the countrygenerally retain better water quality in lessdensely populated upper stretches in hillyareas. In plains, river water is used intensivelyfor irrigation, drinking, domestic and industrialpurposes. The drains carrying agricultural(fertilisers and insecticides), domestic (solid andliquid wastes), and industrial effluents join therivers. The concentration of pollutants in rivers,especially remains very high during the summerseason when flow of water is low.

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)in collaboration with State Pollution ControlBoards has been monitoring water quality ofnational aquatic resources at 507 stations. The

data obtained from these stations show thatorganic and bacterial contamination continuesto be the main source of pollution in rivers. TheYamuna river is the most polluted river in thecountry between Delhi and Etawah. Otherseverely polluted rivers are: the Sabarmati atAhmedabad, the Gomti at Lucknow, the Kali, theAdyar, the Cooum (entire stretches), the Vaigaiat Madurai and the Musi of Hyderabad and theGanga at Kanpur and Varanasi. Groundwaterpollution has occurred due to highconcentrations of heavy/toxic metals, fluorideand nitrates at different parts of the country.

The legislative provisions such as the Water(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974,and Environment Protection Act 1986 have notbeen implemented effectively. The result is thatin 1997, 251 polluting industries were located

Water Resources 67

along the rivers and lakes. The Water Cess Act,1977, meant to reduce pollution has also mademarginal impacts. There is a strong need togenerate public awareness about importance ofwater and impacts of water pollution. The publicawareness and action can be very effective inreducing the pollutants from agriculturalactivities, domestic and industrial discharges.

Recycle and Reuse of Water

Another way through which we can improvefresh water availability is by recycle and reuse.Use of water of lesser quality such as reclaimedwaste-water would be an attractive option forindustries for cooling and fire fighting to reducetheir water cost. Similarly, in urban areas waterafter bathing and washing utensils can be usedfor gardening. Water used for washing vehiclecan also be used for gardening. This wouldconserve better quality of water for drinkingpurposes. Currently, recycling of water is practisedon a limited scale. However, there is enormousscope for replenishing water through recycling.

Observe the quantity of water used at your home invarious activities and enlist the ways in which the watercan be reused and recycled in various activities.

Class teachers should organise a discussion on recycleand reuse of water.

Watershed ManagementWatershed ManagementWatershed ManagementWatershed ManagementWatershed Management

Watershed management basically refers toefficient management and conservation ofsurface and groundwater resources. It involvesprevention of runoff and storage and rechargeof groundwater through various methods likepercolation tanks, recharge wells, etc. However,in broad sense watershed management includesconservation, regeneration and judicious use ofall resources – natural (like land, water, plantsand animals) and human with in a watershed.Watershed management aims at bringing aboutbalance between natural resources on the onehand and society on the other. The success ofwatershed development largely depends uponcommunity participation.

The Central and State Governments haveinitiated many watershed development andmanagement programmes in the country. Someof these are being implemented by non-governmental organisations also. Haryali is awatershed development project sponsored bythe Central Government which aims at enablingthe rural population to conserve water fordrinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation.The Project is being executed by GramPanchayats with people’s participation.

Neeru-Meeru (Water and You) programme(in Andhra Pradesh) and Arvary Pani Sansad(in Alwar, Rajasthan) have taken upconstructions of various water-harvestingstructures such as percolation tanks, dug outponds (Johad), check dams, etc. throughpeople’s participation. Tamil Nadu has madewater harvesting structures in the housescompulsory. No building can be constructedwithout making structures for water harvesting.

Watershed development projects in someareas have been successful in rejuvenatingenvironment and economy. However, there areonly a few success stories. In majority of cases,the programme is still in its nascent stage. Thereis a need to generate awareness regardingbenefits of watershed development andmanagement among people in the country, andthrough this integrated water resourcemanagement approach water availability can beensured on sustainable basis.

Rainwater HarvestingRainwater HarvestingRainwater HarvestingRainwater HarvestingRainwater HarvestingRain water harvesting is a method to captureand store rainwater for various uses. It is alsoused to recharge groundwater aquifers. It is alow cost and eco-friendly technique forpreserving every drop of water by guiding therain water to bore well, pits and wells. Rainwaterharvesting increases water availability, checksthe declining ground water table, improves thequality of groundwater through dilution ofcontaminants like fluoride and nitrates,prevents soil erosion, and flooding and arrestssalt water intrusion in coastal areas if used torecharge aquifers.

Rainwater harvesting has been practisedthrough various methods by differentcommunities in the country for a long time.


Watershed Development in Ralegan Siddhi, Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra:Watershed Development in Ralegan Siddhi, Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra:Watershed Development in Ralegan Siddhi, Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra:Watershed Development in Ralegan Siddhi, Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra:Watershed Development in Ralegan Siddhi, Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra:

A Case StudyA Case StudyA Case StudyA Case StudyA Case Study

Ralegan Siddhi is a small village in the district of Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra. It has become anexample for watershed development throughout the country.

In 1975, this village was caught in a web of poverty and illicit liquor trade. The transformation took placewhen a retired army personnel, settled down in the village and took up the task of watershed development.He convinced villagers about the importance of family planning and voluntary labour; preventing opengrazing, felling trees, and liquor prohibition.

Voluntary labour was necessary to ensure minimum dependence on the government for financialaids. “It socialised the costs of the projects.” explained the activist. Even those who were workingoutside the village contributed to the development by committing a month’s salary every year.

Work began with the percolation tank constructed in the village. In 1975, the tank could not holdwater. The embankment wall leaked. People voluntarily repaired the embankment. The seven wellsbelow it swelled with water in summer for the first time in the living memory of the people. The peoplereposed their faith in him and his visions.

A youth group called Tarun Mandal was formed. The group worked to ban the dowry system, castediscrimination and untouchability. Liquor distilling units were removed and prohibition imposed. Opengrazing was completely banned with a new emphasis on stall-feeding. The cultivation of water-intensivecrops like sugarcane was banned. Crops such as pulses, oilseeds and certain cash crops with lowwater requirements were encouraged.

All elections to local bodies began to be heldon the basis of consensus. “It made thecommunity leaders complete representativesof the people.” A system of Nyay Panchayats(informal courts) were also set up. Since then,no case has been referred to the police.

A Rs.22 lakh school building was constructedusing only the resources of the village. Nodonations were taken. Money, if needed, wasborrowed and paid back. The villagers took pridein this self-reliance. A new system of sharinglabour grew out of this infusion of pride andvoluntary spirit. People volunteered to help each other in agricultural operation. Landless labourers also

gained employment. Today the village plans tobuy land for them in adjoining villages.

At present, water is adequate; agriculture isflourishing, though the use of fertilisers andpesticides is very high. The prosperity also bringsthe question of ability of the present generationto carry on the work after the leader of themovement who declared that, “The process ofRalegan’s evolution to an ideal village will notstop. With changing times, people tend to evolvenew ways. In future, Ralegan might present adifferent model to the country.”

What a mitigation approach can do? A success story.

Ralegan Siddhi before mitigation approach

Ralegan Siddhi after mitigation approach

Water Resources 69

Fig. 6.5 : Various Methods of Rainwater Harvesting

Traditional rain water harvesting in rural areasis done by using surface storage bodies likelakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, etc. In Rajasthan,rainwater harvesting structures locally knownas Kund or Tanka (a covered undergroundtank) are constructed near or in the house orvillage to store harvested rainwater (see Fig. 6.5

to understand various ways of rainwaterharvesting).

There is a wide scope to use rainwaterharvesting technique to conserve preciouswater resource. It can be done by harvestingrainwater on rooftops and open spaces.Harvesting rainwater also decreases the




(i) Which one of the following types describes water as a resource?

(a) Abiotic resource (c) Biotic Resource

(b) Non-renewable Resources (d) Cyclic Resource

Highlights of India’s National Water Policy, 2002Highlights of India’s National Water Policy, 2002Highlights of India’s National Water Policy, 2002Highlights of India’s National Water Policy, 2002Highlights of India’s National Water Policy, 2002

The National Water Policy 2002 stipulates water allocation priorities broadly in the following order:drinking water; irrigation, hydro-power, navigation, industrial and other uses. The policy stipulatesprogressive new approaches to water management. Key features include:

• Irrigation and multi-purpose projects should invariably include drinking water component, whereverthere is no alternative source of drinking water.

• Providing drinking water to all human beings and animals should be the first priority.

• Measures should be taken to limit and regulate the exploitation of groundwater.

• Both surface and groundwater should be regularly monitored for quality. A phased programmeshould be undertaken for improving water quality.

• The efficiency of utilisation in all the diverse uses of water should be improved.

• Awareness of water as a scarce resource should be fostered.

• Conservation consciousness should be promoted through education, regulation, incentives anddisincentives.

Source : Govt. of India (2002), ‘India’s Reform Initiatives in Water Sector’, Ministry for Rural Development, New Delhi

community dependence on groundwater fordomestic use. Besides bridging the demand-supply gap, it can also save energy to pumpgroundwater as recharge leads to rise ingroundwater table. These days rainwaterharvesting is being taken up on massive scalein many states in the country. Urban areascan specially benefit from rainwaterharvesting as water demand has alreadyoutstripped supply in most of the cities andtowns.

Apart from the above mentioned factors,the issue desalinisation of water particularlyin coastal areas and brackish water in arid andsemi-arid areas, transfer of water from watersurplus areas to water deficit areas throughinter linking of rivers can be importantremedies for solving water problem in India(read more about inter linking of rivers).However, the most important issue from thepoint of view of individual users, householdand communities is pricing of water.

Water Resources 71

(ii) Which one of the following rivers has the highest replenishable groundwater resource in the country?

(a) The Indus (c) The Ganga

(b) The Brahmaputra (d) The Godavari

(iii) Which of the following figures in cubic kilometres correctly shows thetotal annual precipitation in India?

(a) 2,000 (c) 4,000

(b) 3,000 (d) 5,000

(iv) Which one of the following south Indian states has the highestgroundwater utilisation (in per cent) of its total ground water potential?

(a) Tamil Nadu (c) Andhra Pradesh

(b) Karnataka (d) Kerala

(v) The highest proportion of the total water used in the country is in whichone of the following sectors?

(a) Irrigation (c) Domestic use

(b) Industries (d) None of the above


(i) It is said that the water resources in India have been depleting very fast.Discuss the factors responsible for depletion of water resources?

(ii) What factors are responsible for the highest groundwater developmentin the states of Punjab, Haryana, and Tamil Nadu?

(iii) Why the share of agricultural sector in total water used in the country isexpected to decline?

(iv) What can be possible impacts of consumption of contaminated/uncleanwater on the people?


(i) Discuss the availability of water resources in the country and factorsthat determine its spatial distribution?

(ii) The depleting water resources may lead to social conflicts and disputes.Elaborate it with suitable examples?

(iii) What is watershed management? Do you think it can play an importantrole in sustainable development?


MINERAL AND

ENERGY

RESOURCES

India is endowed with a rich variety of mineralresources due to its varied geological structure.Bulk of the valuable minerals are products ofpre-palaezoic age (Refer: Chapter 2 of Class XI,Textbook: “Fundamentals of PhysicalGeography” and are mainly associated withmetamorphic and igneous rocks of thepeninsular India. The vast alluvial plain tractof north India is devoid of minerals of economicuse. The mineral resources provide the countrywith the necessary base for industrialdevelopment. In this chapter, we shall discussthe availability of various types of mineral andenergy resources in the country.

A mineral is a natural substance of organicor inorganic origin with definite chemical andphysical properties.

TTTTTypes ofypes ofypes ofypes ofypes of Miner Miner Miner Miner Mineral Ral Ral Ral Ral Resouresouresouresouresourcescescescesces

On the basis of chemical and physicalproperties, minerals may be grouped under twomain categories of metallics and non-metallicswhich may further be classified as follows :

Fig. 7.1 : Classification of Minerals

As, it is clear from the Fig. 7.1 metallicminerals are the sources of metals. Iron ore,copper, gold produce metal and are includedin this category. Metallic minerals are furtherdivided into ferrous and non-ferrous metallicminerals. Ferrous, as you know, refers to iron.All those minerals which have iron content areferrous such as iron ore itself and those whichdo not have iron content are non-ferrous suchas copper, bauxite, etc.

Non-metallic minerals are either organicin origin such as fossil fuels also known as mineralfuels which are derived from the buried animaland plant life such as coal and petroleum. Othertype of non-metallic minerals are inorganic inorigin such as mica, limestone and graphite, etc.

Minerals have certain characteristics. Theseare unevenly distributed over space. There isinverse relationship in quality and quantity ofminerals i.e. good quality minerals are less inquantity as compared to low quality minerals.The third main characteristic is that all mineralsare exhaustible over time. These take long todevelop geologically and they cannot bereplenished immediately at the time of need.Thus, they have to be conserved and notmisused as they do not have the second crop.

Agencies involved in theAgencies involved in theAgencies involved in theAgencies involved in theAgencies involved in the

exploration of mineralsexploration of mineralsexploration of mineralsexploration of mineralsexploration of minerals

In India, systematic surveying, prospectingand exploration for minerals is undertakenby the Geological Survey of India (GSI), Oiland Natural Gas Commission (ONGC),Mineral Exploration Corporation Ltd.(MECL), National Mineral DevelopmentCorporation (NMDC), Indian Bureau of Mines(IBM), Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. (BGML),Hindustan Copper Ltd. (HCL), NationalAluminium Company Ltd. (NALCO) and theDepartments of Mining and Geology invarious states.

Distribution of Minerals in IndiaDistribution of Minerals in IndiaDistribution of Minerals in IndiaDistribution of Minerals in IndiaDistribution of Minerals in India

Most of the metallic minerals in India occur inthe peninsular plateau region in the old

crystalline rocks. Over 97 per cent of coalreserves occur in the valleys of Damodar, Sone,Mahanadi and Godavari. Petroleum reservesare located in the sedimentary basins of Assam,Gujarat and Mumbai High i.e. off-shore regionin the Arabian Sea. New reserves have beenlocated in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveribasins. Most of the major mineral resourcesoccur to the east of a line linking Mangaloreand Kanpur.

Minerals are generally concentrated inthree broad belts in India. There may be somesporadic occurrences here and there in isolatedpockets. These belts are :

The North-Eastern Plateau Region

This belt covers Chotanagpur (Jharkhand),Orissa Plateau, West Bengal and parts ofChhattisgarh. Have you ever thought about thereason of major iron and steel industry beinglocated in this region? It has variety of mineralsviz. iron ore coal, manganese, bauxite, mica.

Find out the specific region where theseminerals are being extracted.

The South-Western Plateau Region

This belt extends over Karnataka, Goa andcontiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala.This belt is rich in ferrous metals and bauxite.It also contains high grade iron ore, manganeseand limestone. This belt packs in coal depositsexcept Neyveli lignite.

This belt does not have as diversifiedmineral deposits as the north-eastern belt.Kerala has deposits of monazite and thorium,bauxite clay. Goa has iron ore deposits.

The North-Western Region

This belt extends along Aravali in Rajasthan andpart of Gujarat and minerals are associated withDharwar system of rocks. Copper, zinc havebeen major minerals. Rajasthan is rich inbuilding stones i.e. sandstone, granite, marble.Gypsum and Fuller’s earth deposits are alsoextensive. Dolomite and limestone provide rawmaterials for cement industry. Gujarat is known

Mineral and Energy Resources 73


for its petroleum deposits. You may be knowingthat Gujarat and Rajasthan both have richsources of salt.

Why and where Dandi March wasorganised by Mahatma Gandhi?

The Himalayan belt is another mineral beltwhere copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and tungstenare known to occur. They occur on both theeastern and western parts. Assam valley hasmineral oil deposits. Besides oil resources arealso found in off-shore-areas near MumbaiCoast (Mumbai High).

In the following pages you will find thespatial pattern of some of the importantminerals.

Ferrous Mineral

Ferrous minerals such as iron ore, manganese,chromite, etc., provide a strong base for thedevelopment of metallurgical industries. Ourcountry is well-placed in respect of ferrousminerals both in reserves and production.

Iron Ore

India is endowed with fairly abundantresources of iron ore. It has the largest reserveof iron ore in Asia. The two main types of orefound in our country are haematite andmagnetite. It has great demand in internationalmarket due to its superior quality. The iron oremines occur in close proximity to the coal fieldsin the north-eastern plateau region of thecountry which adds to their advantage.

The total reserves of iron ore in the countrywere about 20 billion tonnes in the year 2004-05. About 95 per cent of total reserves of ironore is located in the States of Orissa,Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa,Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. In Orissa,iron ore occurs in a series of hill ranges inSundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar. Theimportant mines are Gurumahisani, Sulaipet,Badampahar (Mayurbhaj), Kiruburu(Kendujhar) and Bonai (Sundergarh). Similarhill ranges, Jharkhand has some of the oldest

iron ore mines and most of the iron and steelplants are located around them. Most of theimportant mines such as Noamundi and Guaare located in Poorbi and PashchimiSinghbhum districts. This belt further extendsto Durg, Dantewara and Bailadila. Dalli, andRajhara in Durg are the important mines ofiron ore in the country. In Karnataka, iron oredeposits occur in Sandur-Hospet area ofBellary district, Baba Budan hills andKudremukh in Chikmagalur district and partsof Shimoga, Chitradurg and Tumkur districts.The districts of Chandrapur, Bhandara andRatnagiri in Maharashtra, Karimnagar,Warangal, Kurnool, Cuddapah and Anantapurdistricts of Andhra Pradesh, Salem and Nilgirisdistricts of Tamil Nadu are other iron miningregions. Goa has also emerged as an importantproducer of iron ore.

Manganese

Manganese is an important raw material forsmelting of iron ore and also used formanufacturing ferro alloys. Manganesedeposits are found in almost all geological

Can you find out its reason?


Fig. 7.2 : India – Metallic Minerals (Ferrous)


formations, however, it is mainly associated withDharwar system.

Orissa is the leading producer ofManganese. Major mines in Orissa are locatedin the central part of the iron ore belt of India,particularly in Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh,Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir.

Karnataka is another major producer andhere the mines are located in Dharwar, Bellary,Belgaum, North Canara, Chikmagalur,Shimoga, Chitradurg and Tumkur.Maharashtra is also an important producer ofmanganese which is mined in Nagpur,Bhandara and Ratnagiri districts. Thedisadvantage to these mines is that they arelocated far from steel plants. The manganesebelt of Madhya Pradesh extends in a belt inBalaghat-Chhindwara-Nimar-Mandla andJhabua districts.

Andhra Pradesh, Goa, and Jharkhand areother minor producers of manganese.

Non-Ferrous Minerals

India is poorly endowed with non-ferrousmetallic minerals except bauxite.

Bauxite

Bauxite is the ore which is used inmanufacturing of aluminium. Bauxite is foundmainly in tertiary deposits and is associatedwith laterite rocks occurring extensively eitheron the plateau or hill ranges of peninsular Indiaand also in the coastal tracts of the country.

Orissa happens to be the largest producerof Bauxite. Kalahandi and Sambalpur are theleading producers. The other two areas whichhave been increasing their production areBolangir and Koraput. The patlands ofJharkhand in Lohardaga have rich deposits.Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh andMaharashtra are other major producers.Bhavanagar, Jamnagar in Gujarat have the majordeposits. Chhattisgarh has bauxite deposits inAmarkantak plateau while Katni-Jabalpur areaand Balaghat in M.P. have important deposits ofbauxite. Kolaba, Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara, Puneand Kolhapur in Maharashtra are importantproducers. Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Goa areminor producers of bauxite.

Copper

Copper is an indispensable metal in theelectrical industry for making wires, electricmotors, transformers and generators. It isalloyable, malleable and ductile. It is also mixedwith gold to provide strength to jewellery.

The Copper deposits mainly occur inSinghbhum district in Jharkhand, Balaghatdistrict in Madhya Pradesh and Jhunjhunu andAlwar districts in Rajasthan.

Minor producers of Copper are Agnigundalain Guntur District (Andhra Pradesh), Chitradurgand Hasan districts (Karnataka) and South Arcotdistrict (Tamil Nadu).

Non-metallic Minerals

Among the non-metallic minerals produced inIndia, mica is the important one. The otherminerals extracted for local consumption arelimestone, dolomite and phosphate.

Mica

Mica is mainly used in the electrical andelectronic industries. It can be split into very thinsheets which are tough and flexible. Mica inIndia is produced in Jharkhand, AndhraPradesh and Rajasthan followed by Tamil Nadu,West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. InJharkhand high quality mica is obtained in abelt extending over a distance of about 150 km,in length and about 22 km, in width in lowerHazaribagh plateau. In Andhra Pradesh. Nelloredistrict produces the best quality mica. InRajasthan mica belt extends for about 320 kmsfrom Jaipur to Bhilwara and around Udaipur.Mica deposits also occur in Mysore and Hasandistricts of Karanataka, Coimbatore,Tiruchirapalli, Madurai and Kanniyakumari inTamil Nadu, Alleppey in Kerala, Ratnagiri inMaharashtra, Purulia and Bankura in WestBengal.

Energy Resources

Mineral fuels are essential for generation of power,required by agriculture, industry, transport andother sectors of the economy. Mineral fuels likecoal, petroleum and natural gas (known as fossilfuels), nuclear energy minerals, are the


Fig. 7.3 : India – Minerals (Non-Ferrous)


They lie in Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt and theimportant coal fields in this region are Raniganj,Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura.

Jharia is the largest coal field followed byRaniganj. The other river valleys associatedwith coal are Godavari, Mahanadi and Sone.The most important coal mining centres areSingrauli in Madhya Pradesh (part of Singraulicoal field lies in Uttar Pradesh), Korba inChhattisgarh, Talcher and Rampur in Orissa,Chanda–Wardha, Kamptee and Bander inMaharashtra and Singareni and Pandur inAndhra Pradesh.

conventional sources of energy. Theseconventional sources are exhaustible resources.

Coal

Coal is a one of the important minerals whichis mainly used in the generation of thermalpower and smelting of iron ore. Coal occurs inrock sequences mainly of two geological ages,namely Gondwana and tertiary deposits.

About 80 per cent of the coal deposits inIndia is of bituminous type and is of non-cokinggrade. The most important Gondwana coalfields of India are located in Damodar Valley.

At Singareni, Canaries to miners’ rescueAt Singareni, Canaries to miners’ rescueAt Singareni, Canaries to miners’ rescueAt Singareni, Canaries to miners’ rescueAt Singareni, Canaries to miners’ rescue

Singareni collieries, the country’s premier coal production company, still uses canaries to detect thepresence of deadly carbon monoxide in underground mines. Miners collapse and often die even ifsmall quantities of the highly poisonous CO are present in the air. Though, miners speak lovingly ofthe canaries, the underground experience is not at all pleasant for the birds. When lowered intomines with CO presence, the birds show distress symptoms such as ruffling of feathers, pronouncedchirping and loss of life. These reactions occur even if 0.15 per cent of CO is present in the air. If thecontent is 0.3 per cent the bird shows immediate distress and falls off its perch in two to threeminutes. A cage of birds is a good indicator in air containing more than 0.15 per cent CO, said a coalminer.

The sophisticated hand held CO detectors introduced by the company can detect CO concentrationsfrom as low as 10 ppm to as high as 1,000 ppm. But despite this, the miners trust the birds, whohave saved the lives of several of their predecessors.

Deccan Chronicle, 26.08.2006

Fig.7.4 : Neyveli Coalfield


Fig. 7.5 : India – Conventional Energy Resources


Tertiary coals occur in Assam, ArunachalPradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland. It is extractedfrom Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewlong andLangrin (Meghalaya); Makum, Jaipur and Nazirain upper Assam, Namchik – Namphuk (ArunachalPradesh) and Kalakot (Jammu and Kashmir).

Besides, the brown coal or lignite occur inthe coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry,Gujarat and Jammu and Kashmir.

Petroleum

Crude petroleum consists of hydrocarbons ofliquid and gaseous states varying in chemicalcomposition, colour and specific gravity. It is anessential source of energy for all internalcombustion engines in automobiles, railways andaircraft. Its numerous by-products are processedin petrochemical industries such as fertiliser,synthetic rubber, synthetic fibre, medicines,vaseline, lubricants, wax, soap and cosmetics.

Petroleum is referred to as liquid goldbecause of its scarcity and diversified uses.

Lunej. Mumbai High which lies 160 km offMumbai was discovered in 1973 andproduction commenced in 1976. Oil andnatural gas have been found in exploratorywells in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basinon the east coast.

Oil extracted from the wells is crude oiland contains many impurities. It cannot beused directly. It needs to be refined. There aretwo types of refineries in India: (a) field basedand (b) market based. Digboi is an exampleof field based and Barauni is an example ofmarket based refinery.

There are 18 refineries in India (Fig. 7.6).Identify the States in which these arelocated.

Natural Gas

The Gas Authority of India Limited was setup in 1984 as a public sector undertaking totransport and market natural gas. It isobtained alongwith oil in all the oil fields butexclusive reserves have been located along theeastern coast as well as (Tamil Nadu, Orissaand Andhra Pradesh), Tripura, Rajasthan andoff-shore wells in Gujarat and Maharashtra.

Crude petroleum occurs in sedimentaryrocks of the tertiary period. Oil explorationand production was systematically taken upafter the Oil and Natural Gas Commission wasset up in 1956. Till then, the Digboi in Assamwas the only oil producing region but thescenario has changed after 1956. In recentyears, new oil deposits have been found at theextreme western and eastern parts of thecountry. In Assam, Digboi, Naharkatiya andMoran are important oil producing areas. Themajor oil fields of Gujarat are Ankaleshwar,Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba and

Nuclear Energy Resources

Nuclear energy has emerged as a viable sourcein recent times. Important minerals used for thegeneration of nuclear energy are uranium andthorium. Uranium deposits occur in the Dharwarrocks. Geographically, uranium ores are knownto occur in several locations along the SingbhumCopper belt. It is also found in Udaipur, Alwarand Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan, Durgdistrict of Chhattisgarh, Bhandara district ofMaharashtra and Kullu district of HimachalPradesh. Thorium is mainly obtained frommonazite and ilmenite in the beach sands along

Indications of huge gas reserves in Ramanathapuram (Tamil Nadu)Indications of huge gas reserves in Ramanathapuram (Tamil Nadu)Indications of huge gas reserves in Ramanathapuram (Tamil Nadu)Indications of huge gas reserves in Ramanathapuram (Tamil Nadu)Indications of huge gas reserves in Ramanathapuram (Tamil Nadu)

According to a newspaper report (The Hindu, 05.09.2006) the Oil and Natural Gas Commission hasfound potential zones of natural gas reserves in Ramanathapuram district. The survey is still in theinitial stages. The exact quantity of gas reserves will be known only after the completion of thesurvey. But the results are encouraging.


Fig. 7.6 : India – Oil Refineries


the coast of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. World’srichest monazite deposits occur in Palakkadand Kollam districts of Kerala, nearVishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh andMahanadi river delta in Orissa.

Atomic Energy Commission wasestablished in 1948, progress could be madeonly after the establishment of the AtomicEnergy Institute at Trombay in 1954 which wasrenamed as the Bhabha Atomic ResearchCentre in 1967. The important nuclear powerprojects are Tarapur (Maharashtra),Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam(Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga(Karnataka) and Kakarapara (Gujarat).

Non-Conventional Energy Sources

Fossil fuel sources, such as coal, petroleum,natural gas and nuclear energy use exhaustibleraw materials. Sustainable energy resources areonly the renewable energy sources like solar,wind, hydro-geothermal and biomass. Theseenergy sources are more equitably distributedand environmental friendly. The non-conventionalenergy sources will provide more sustained,

eco-friendly cheaper energy after the initial costis taken care of.

Solar Energy

Sun rays tapped in photovoltaic cells can beconverted into energy, known as solar energy.The two effective processes considered to bevery effective to tap solar energy arephotovoltaics and solar thermal technology.Solar thermal technology has some relativeadvantages over all other non-renewableenergy sources. It is cost competitive,environment friendly and easy to construct.Solar energy is 7 per cent more effective thancoal or oil based plants and 10 per cent moreeffective than nuclear plants. It is generallyused more in appliances like heaters, cropdryers, cookers, etc. The western part of Indiahas greater potential for the development ofsolar energy in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Wind Energy

Wind energy is absolutely pollution free,inexhaustible source of energy. The mechanism

How are the developedcountries of the worldutilising non-conventionalenergy resources? Discuss.


of energy conversion from blowing wind issimple. The kinetic energy of wind, throughturbines is converted into electrical energy. Thepermanent wind systems such the trade winds,westerlies and seasonal wind like monsoon havebeen used as source of energy. Besides these,local winds, land and sea breezes can also beused to produce electricity.

India, already has started generating windenergy. It has an ambitious programme to install250 wind-driven turbines with a total capacityof 45 megawatts, spread over 12 suitablelocations, specially in coastal areas. Accordingto the estimation by Ministry of Power, India willbe able to produce 3,000 megawatts of electricfrom this source. The Ministry of non-conventionalsources of energy is developing wind energy inIndia to lessen the burden of oil import bill. Thecountry’s potential of wind power generationexceeds 50,000 megawatts, of which one fourthcan be easily harnessed. In Rajasthan, Gujarat,Maharashtra and Karnataka, favourableconditions for wind energy exist. Wind power plantat Lamba in Gujarat in Kachchh is the largest inAsia. Another, wind power plant is located atTuticorin in Tamil Nadu.

Tidal and Wave Energy

Ocean currents are the store-house of infiniteenergy. Since the beginning of seventeenth andeighteenth century, persistent efforts were madeto create a more efficient energy system fromthe ceaseless tidal waves and ocean current.

Large tidal waves are known to occuralong the west coast of India. Hence, India hasgreat potential for the development of tidalenergy along the coasts but so far these havenot yet been utilised.

Geothermal Energy

When the magma from the interior of earth,comes out on the surface, tremendous heat isreleased. This heat energy can successfully betapped and converted to electrical energy. Apartfrom this, the hot water that gushes out throughthe gyser wells is also used in the generation ofthermal energy. It is popularly known asGeothermal energy. This energy is nowconsidered to be one of the key energy sourceswhich can be developed as an alternate source.

The hot springs and geysers are being usedsince medieval period. In India, a geothermalenergy plant has been commissioned atManikaran in Himachal Pradesh.

The first successful (1890) attempt to tapthe underground heat was made in the cityof Boise, Idaho (U.S.A.), where a hot waterpipe network was built to give heat to thesurrounding buildings. This plant is stillworking.

Bio-energy

Bio-energy refers to energy derived from biologicalproducts which includes agricultural residues,municipal, industrial and other wastes. Bio-energy is a potential source of energy conversion.It can be converted into electrical energy, heatenergy or gas for cooking. It will also process thewaste and garbage and produce energy. This willimprove economic life of rural areas in developingcountries, reduce environmental pollution,enhance self-reliance and reduce pressure on fuelwood. One such project converting municipalwaste into energy is Okhla in Delhi.

Conservation of Mineral ResourcesConservation of Mineral ResourcesConservation of Mineral ResourcesConservation of Mineral ResourcesConservation of Mineral Resources

The challenge of sustainable developmentrequires integration of quest for economicdevelopment with environmental concerns.Traditional methods of resource use result intogenerating enormous quantity of waste as wellas create other environmental problems. Hence,for sustainable development calls for theprotection of resources for the future generations.There is an urgent need to conserve the resources.The alternative energy sources like solar power,wind, wave, geothermal energy are inexhaustibleresource. These should be developed to replacethe exhaustible resources. In case of metallicminerals, use of scrap metals will enablerecycling of metals. Use of scrap is speciallysignificant in metals like copper, lead and zincin which India’s reserves are meagre. Use ofsubstitutes for scarce metals may also reducetheir consumption. Export of strategic and scarceminerals must be reduced, so that the existingreserve may be used for a longer period.




(i) In which one of the following States are the major oil fields located?

(a) Assam (c) Rajasthan

(b) Bihar (d) Tamil Nadu

(ii) At which one of the following places was the first atomic power stationstarted?

(a) Kalpakkam (c) Rana Pratap Sagar

(b) Narora (d) Tarapur

(iii) Which one of the following minerals is known as brown diamond?

(a) Iron (c) Manganese

(b) Lignite (d) Mica

(iv) Which one of the following is non-renewable source of energy?

(a) Hydel (c) Thermal

(b) Solar (d) Wind power


(i) Give an account of the distribution of mica in India.

(ii) What is nuclear power? Mention the important nuclear power stationsin India.

(iii) Name non-ferrous metal. Discuss their spatial distribution.

(vi) What are non-conventional sources of energy?


(i) Write a detailed note on the Petroleum resources of India.

(ii) Write an essay on hydel power in India.


MANUFACTURING

INDUSTRIES

We use various items to satisfy our needs.Agricultural products like wheat, rice, etc. areto be processed into flour, husked rice beforewe consume these. But besides bread and rice,we also require clothes, books, fans, cars,medicines, etc. and these are manufactured invarious industries. In modern times industrieshave become very important part of aneconomy. They provide employment to largelabour force and contribute significantly in thetotal national wealth/income.

TTTTTypes ofypes ofypes ofypes ofypes of Industries Industries Industries Industries Industries

Industries are classified in a number of ways.On the basis of size, capital investment andlabour force employed, industries areclassified as large, medium, small scale, andcottage industries. On the basis of ownership,industries are categorised as :(i) public sector, (ii) private sector, and (iii) jointand cooperative sector, Public sectorenterprises are government/state controlledcompanies or corporations funded bygovernments. Industries of strategic andnational importance are usually in the publicsector. Industries are also classified on thebasis of the use of their products such as :(i) basic goods industries, (ii) capital goodsindustries (iii) intermediate goods industries,and (iv) consumer goods industries.

Another method of classifying industriesis on the basis of raw materials used by them.Accordingly, these can be : (i) agriculture-based industries, (ii) forest-based industries,( i i i ) mineral-based industries, and(iv) industrially processed raw material-based industries.

Another common classification ofindustries is based on the nature of themanufactured products. Eight classes ofindustries, thus identified are : (1) MetallurgicalIndustries, (2) Mechanical EngineeringIndustries, (3) Chemical and Allied Industries,(4) Textile Industries, (5) Food ProcessingIndustries, (6) Electricity Generation,(7) Electronics and (8) Communication Industries.Sometimes, you also read about foot looseindustries. What are these? Have they anyrelationship with raw material location or not?


Market

Markets provide the outlets for manufacturedproducts. Heavy machine, machine tools, heavychemicals are located near the high demand areasas these are market orientated. Cotton textileindustry uses a non-weight-losing raw materialand is generally located in large urban centre,e.g. Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Surat, etc. Petroleumrefineries are also located near the markets as thetransport of crude oil is easier and severalproducts derived from them are used as rawmaterial in other industries. Koyali, Mathura andBarauni refineries are typical examples. Ports alsoplay a crucial role in the location of oil refineries.

Transport

Have you ever tried to find out the reasonsfor the concentration of industries in Mumbai,Chennai, Delhi and in and around Kolkata?It was due to the fact that they initiallybecame the nodal point having transportlinks. The industries shifted to interiorlocations, only when railway lines were laid.All major industrial plants are located on thetrunk rail routes.

Labour

Can we think of an industry without labour?Industries require skilled labour. In India,labour is quite mobile and is available in largenumbers due to our large population.

Historical Factors

Have you ever thought of the reasons foremerging Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai asindustrial nodes? These locations were greatlyinfluenced by our colonial past. During theinitial phase of colonisation, manufacturingactivities received new impetus provided by theEuropean traders. Places like Murshidabad,Dhaka, Bhadohi, Surat, Vadodara, Kozhikode,Coimbatore, Mysore, etc. emerged as importantmanufacturing centres. In the subsequentindustrial phase of colonialism, thesemanufacturing centres experienced rapidgrowth due to competition from the goodsmanufactured in Britain and the discriminatorypolicies of colonial power.

Location of IndustriesLocation of IndustriesLocation of IndustriesLocation of IndustriesLocation of Industries

Can you guess the reasons for the location ofiron and steel industry in eastern and southernIndia? Why is there no iron and steel industryin U.P., Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan andGujarat?

Location of industries is influenced byseveral factors like access to raw materials,power, market, capital, transport and labour,etc. Relative significance of these factors varieswith time and place. There is strong relationshipbetween raw material and type of industry. Itis economical to locate the manufacturingindustries at a place where cost of productionand delivery cost of manufactured goods toconsumers are the least. Transport costs, to agreat extent, depend on the nature of rawmaterials and manufactured products. A briefdescription of factors influencing the locationof industries are given below:

Raw Materials

Industries using weight-losing raw materials arelocated in the regions where raw materials arelocated. Why are the sugar mills in India locatedin sugarcane growing areas? Similarly, thelocations of pulp industry, copper smelting andpig iron industries are located near their rawmaterials. In iron and steel industries, iron oreand coal both are weight-losing raw materials.Therefore, an optimum location for iron and steelindustries should be near raw material sources.This is why most of the iron and steel industriesare located either near coalfields (Bokaro,Durgapur, etc.) or near sources of iron ore(Bhadravati, Bhilai, and Rourkela). Similarly,industries based on perishable raw materials arealso located close to raw material sources.

Power

Power provides the motive force for machines,and therefore, its supply has to be ensuredbefore the location of any industry. However,certain industries, like aluminium andsynthetic nitrogen manufacturing industriestend to be located near sources of powerbecause they are power intensive and requirehuge quantum of electricity.

Manufacturing Industries 87

In the last phase of colonialism, the Britishpromoted few industries in selected areas. Thisled to larger spatial coverage by different typesof industries in the country.

Industrial Policy

India, being a democratic country aims atbringing about economic growth with balancedregional development.

Establishment of iron and steel industryin Bhilai and Rourkela were based on decisionto develop backward tribal areas of thecountry. At present, government of Indiaprovides lots of incentives to industries locatingin backward areas.

Major IndustriesMajor IndustriesMajor IndustriesMajor IndustriesMajor Industries

The iron and steel industry is basic to theindustrial development of any country. Thecotton textile Industry is one of our traditionalindustries. The sugar Industry is based on localraw materials which prospered even in theBritish period. Besides the more recentpetrochemical Industry and the IT industry willbe discussed in this chapter.

The Iron and Steel Industry

The development of the iron and steel industryopened the doors to rapid industrialdevelopment in India. Almost all sectors of theIndian industry depend heavily on the ironand steel industry for their basicinfrastructure. Can we make tools to be usedin agriculture without iron?

The other raw materials besides iron oreand coking coal, essential for iron and steelindustry are limestone, dolomite, manganeseand fire clay. All these raw materials are gross(weight losing), therefore, the best location forthe iron and steel plants is near the source ofraw materials. In India, there is a crescentshaped region comprising parts ofChhattisgarh, Northern Orissa, Jharkhand andwestern West Bengal, which is extremely richin high grade iron ore, good quality coking coaland other supplementing raw materials.

The Indian iron and steel industryconsists of large integrated steel plants as

well as mini steel mills. It also includessecondary producers, rolling mills andancillary industries.

Integrated Steel Plants

TISCO

The Tata Iron and Steel plant lies very close tothe Mumbai-Kolkata railway line and about240 km away from Kolkata, which is the nearestport for the export of steel. The riversSubarnarekha and Kharkai provide water tothe plant. The iron ore for the plant is obtainedfrom Noamundi and Badam Pahar and coal isbrought from Joda mines in Orissa. Coking coalcomes from Jharia and west Bokaro coalfields.

IISCO

The Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) setup its first factory at Hirapur and later onanother at Kulti. In 1937, the Steel corporationof Bengal was constituted in association withIISCO and set up another iron and steel producingunit at Burnpur (West Bengal). All the threeplants under IISCO are located very close toDamodar valley coal fields (Raniganj, Jharia, andRamgarh). Iron ore comes from Singhbhum inJharkhand. Water is obtained from the BarakarRiver, a tributary of the Damodar. All the plantsare located along the Kolkata-Asansol railwayline. Unfortunately, steel production from IISCOfell considerably in 1972-73 and the plants weretaken over by the government.

Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL)

The third integrated steel plant, the VisvesvaraiyaIron and Steel Works, initially called the MysoreIron and Steel Works, is located close to an ironore producing area of Kemangundi in theBababudan hills. Limestone and manganese arealso locally available. But this region has no coal.At the beginning, charcoal obtained by burningwood from nearby forests was used as fuel till1951. Afterwards, electric furnaces were installedwhich use hydroelectricity from the Jog Fallshydel power project. The Bhadravati riversupplies water to the plant. This plant producesspecialised steels and alloys.


Fig. 8.1 : India – Iron and Steel Plants


Fig. 8.2

Fig. 8.3

Fig. 8.4

Fig. 8.5

Fig. 8.6

Fig. 8.7

Fig. 8.8


After independence, during the SecondFive Year Plan (1956-61), three new integratedsteel plants were set up with foreigncollaboration: Rourkela in Orissa, Bhilai inChhattisgarh and Durgapur in West Bengal.These were public sector plants underHindustan Steel Limited (HSL). In 1973, theSteel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) wascreated to manage these plants.

Rourkela Steel Plant

The Rourkela Steel plant was set up in 1959 inthe Sundargarh district of Orissa incollaboration with Germany. The plant waslocated on the basis of proximity to rawmaterials, thus, minimising the cost oftransporting weight losing raw material. Thisplant has a unique locational advantage, as itreceives coal from Jharia (Jharkhand) and ironore from Sundargarh and Kendujhar. TheHirakud project supplies power for the electricfurnaces and water is obtained from the Koeland Sankh rivers.

Bhilai Steel Plant

The Bhilai Steel Plant was established withRussian collaboration in Durg District ofChhattisgarh and started production in 1959.The iron ore comes from Dalli-Rajhara mine(Fig. 8.6), coal comes from Korba and Kargalicoal fields. The water comes from theTanduladam and the power from the KorbaThemal Power Station. This plant also lies onthe Kolkata-Mumbai railway route. The bulkof the steel produced goes to the HindustanShipyard at Vishakhapatnam.

Durgapur Steel Plant

Durgapur Steel Plant, in West Bengal, was setup in collaboration with the government of theUnited Kingdom and started production in1962. This plant lies in Raniganj and Jhariacoal belt and gets iron ore from Noamundi (Fig.8.7). Durgapur lies on the main Kolkata-Delhirailway route. Hydel power and water isobtained from the Damodar Valley Corporation(DVC).

Bokaro Steel Plant

This steel plant was set up in 1964 at Bokarowith Russian collaboration. This plant was setup on the principle of transportation costminimisation by creating Bokaro-Rourkelacombine. It receives iron ore from the Rourkelaregion and the wagons on return take coal toRourkela. Other raw materials come to Bokarofrom within a radius of about 350 km. Waterand Hydel power is supplied by the DamodarValley Corporation.

Other Steel Plants

New steel plants which were set up in theFourth Plan period are away from the mainraw material sources. All the three plants arelocated in South India. The Vizag Steel Plant,in Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh is thefirst port based plant which started operatingin 1992. Its port location is of advantage.

The Vijaynagar Steel Plant at Hospet inKarnataka was developed using indigenoustechnology. This uses local iron ore andlimestone. The Salem Steel Plant in Tamil Naduwas commissioned in 1982.

Fig 8.9 : Production of Finished Steel

Apart from these major steel plants, thereare more than 206 units located in differentparts of the country. Most of these use scrapiron as their main raw material, and process itin electric furnaces.


The Cotton Textile Industry

The cotton textile industry is one of thetraditional industries of India. In the ancientand the medieval times, it used to be only acottage industry. India was famous worldwidefor the production of muslin, a very fine varietyof cotton cloth, calicos, chintz and otherdifferent varieties of fine cotton cloth. Thedevelopment of this industry in India was dueto several factors. One, it is a tropical countryand cotton is the most comfortable fabric for ahot and humid climate. Second, large quantityof cotton was grown in India. Abundant skilledlabour required for this industry was availablein this country. In fact, in some areas thepeople were producing cotton textiles forgenerations and transferred the skill from onegeneration to the other and in the processperfected their skills.

Initially, the British did not encourage thedevelopment of the indigenous cotton textileindustry. They exported raw cotton to their millsin Manchester and Liverpool and brought backthe finished products to be sold in India. Thiscloth was cheaper because it was produced atmass scale in factories in U.K. as compared tothe cottage based industries of India.

In 1854, the first modern cotton mill wasestablished in Mumbai. This city had severaladvantages as a cotton textile manufacturing

Fig 8.10 : Production of Cotton Textile

Handloom Cotton Textile IndustrySpinning yarn in powerloom

centre. It was very close to the cotton producingareas of Gujarat and Maharashtra. Raw cottonused to be brought to Mumbai port to betransported to England. Therefore, cotton wasavailable in Mumbai city itself. Moreover,Mumbai even then was the financial centre andthe capital needed to start an industry wasavailable there. As a large town, providingemployment opportunities attracted labour inlarge numbers. Hence, cheap and abundantlabour too was available locally. The machineryrequired for a cotton textile mill could be directly


Fig. 8.11 : Cotton Textile Industries


imported from England. Subsequently, twomore mills, the Shahpur Mill and the Calico Millwere established in Ahmedabad. By 1947, thenumber of mills in India went up to 423 butthe scenario changed after partition, and thisindustry suffered a major recession. This wasdue to the fact that the most of the good qualitycotton growing areas had gone to West Pakistanand India was left with 409 mills and only 29per cent of the cotton producing area.

After Independence, this industrygradually recovered and eventually flourished.In 1998, India had 1782 mills; of which, 192mills were in the public sector and 151 mills inthe cooperative sector. The largest number, thatis, 1,439 mills were in the private sector.

The cotton textile industry in India can bebroadly divided into two sectors, the organisedsector and the decentralised sector. Thedecentralised sector includes cloth producedin handlooms (including Khadi) andpowerlooms. The production of the organisedsector has drastically fallen from 81 per cent inthe mid-twentieth century to only about 6 percent in 2000. At present, the powerlooms onthe decentralised sector produce more than 59per cent and the handloom sector producesabout 19 per cent of all cotton cloth producedin the country.

Cotton is a “pure” raw material which doesnot lose weight in the manufacturing process.so other factors, like, power to drive the looms,labour, capital or market may determine thelocation of the industry. At present the trend isto locate the industry at or close to markets, asit is the market that decides what kind of clothis to be produced. Also the market for thefinished products is extremely variable,therefore, it becomes important to locate themills close to the market.

After the first mills were set up in Mumbaiand Ahmedabad in the second half of thenineteenth century, the cotton textile industryexpanded very rapidly. The number of unitsincreased dramatically. The Swadeshimovement gave a major impetus to the industryas there was a call for boycotting all Britishmade goods in favour of Indian goods. After1921, with the development of the railwaynetwork other cotton textile centres expanded

rapidly. In southern India, mills were set upat Coimbatore, Madurai and Bangalore. Incentral India, Nagpur, Indore, Solapur andVadodara became cotton textile centres. Cottontextile mills were set up at Kanpur based onlocal investment. Mills were also set up atKolkata due to its port facilities. Thedevelopment of hydro-electricity also favouredthe location of the cotton textile mills away fromthe cotton producing areas. The rapiddevelopment of this industry in Tamil Nadu isthe result of the abundant availability of hydelpower for the mills. Lower labour costs atcentres like Ujjain, Bharuch, Agra, Hathras,Coimbatore and Tirunelveli also causedindustries to be located away from cottonproducing areas.

Thus, the cotton textile industry is locatedin almost every state in India, where one or moreof the locational factors have been favourable.The importance of raw materials has given wayto market or to a cheaper local labour force orit may be the availability of power.

Presently, the major centres of the cottontextile industry are Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi,Solapur, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Indore and Ujjain.All these centres are the traditional centres andare located close to the cotton producingregions. Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Naduare the leading cotton producing states. WestBengal, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, and Punjabare the other important cotton textile producers.(Fig. 8.11)

Tamil Nadu has the largest number ofmills and most of them produce yarn ratherthan cloth. Coimbatore has emerged as themost important centre with nearly half the millslocated there. Chennai, Madurai, Tirunelveli,Tuticorin, Thanjavur, Ramanathapuram andSalem are the other important centres. InKarnataka, the cotton textile industry hasdeveloped in the cotton producing areas in thenorth-eastern part of the state. Davangere,Hubli, Bellary, Mysore and Bangalore areimportant centres. In Andhra Pradesh, thecotton textile industry is located in the cottonproducing Telengana region, where most of themills are spinning mills producing yarn.The important centres are Hyderabad,Secunderabad, Warangal and Guntur.


In Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur is the largestcentre. Some of the other important centres areModinagar, Hathras, Saharanpur, Agra andLucknow. In West Bengal, the cotton mills arelocated in the Hugli region. Howrah, Serampur,Kolkata and Shyamnagar are the importantcentres.

Production of cotton cloth increased almostfive times from 1950-51 to 1999-2000. Cottontextile has been facing tough competition fromsynthetic cloth. What are the other problems ofcotton textile industry in India?

Sugar Industry

The sugar industry is the second most importantagro-based industry in the country. India is thelargest producer of both sugarcane and canesugar and contributes about 8 per cent of thetotal sugar production in the world. Besides,khandasari and gur or jaggery are also preparedfrom sugarcane. This industry providesemployment for more than 4 lakh personsdirectly and a large number of farmers indirectly.Sugar industry is a seasonal industry becauseof the seasonality of raw materials.

Development of the industry on modernlines dates back to 1903, when a sugar millwas started in Bihar. Subsequently, sugar millswere started in other parts of Bihar and UttarPradesh. In 1950-51, 139 factories were inoperation producing 11.34 lakh tonnes ofsugar. The number of sugar factories rose to506 and production to 176,99 lakh tonnesin 2000-01.

Location of the Sugar Industry

Sugarcane is a weight-losing crop. The ratio ofsugar to sugarcane varies between 9 to 12 percent depending on its variety. Its sucrosecontent begins to dry during haulage after ithas been harvested from the field. Betterrecovery of sugar is dependent upon its beingcrushed within 24 hours of its harvesting.Sugar factories hence, are located within thecane producing regions.

Maharashtra has emerged as a leadingsugar producer in the country and producesmore than one-third of the total production ofthe sugar in the country. There are 119 sugar

mills in the state in a narrow belt extending fromManmad in the north to Kolhapur in the south.There are 87 mills in the cooperative sector.

Uttar Pradesh is the second largestproducer of sugar. The sugar factories areconcentrated in two belts – the Ganga-Yamunadoab and the tarai region. The major sugarproducing centres in the Ganga -Yamuna doabare Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut,Ghaziabad, Baghpat and Bulandshahrdistricts; while Kheri Lakhimpur, Basti, Gonda,Gorakhpur, Bahraich are important sugarproducing districts in the Tarai region.

In Tamil Nadu, sugar factories are locatedin Coimbatore, Vellore, Tiruvanamalai,Villupuram and Tiruchchirappalli districts.Belgaum, Bellary, Mandya, Shimoga, Bijapur,and Chitradurg districts are the major producersin Karnataka. The industry is distributed in thecoastal regions i.e. East Godavari, West Godavari,Vishakhapatnam districts and Nizamabad, andMedak districts of Telangana alongwith Chittoordistrict of Rayalseema.

The other States which produce sugar areBihar, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh andGujarat. Saran, Champaran, Muzaffarnagar,Siwan, Darbhanga, and Gaya are the importantsugarcane producing districts in Bihar. Therelative significance of Punjab has declined,although Gurdaspur, Jalandhar, Sangarur,Patiala and Amritsar are major sugarproducers. In Haryana, sugar factories arelocated in Yamuna Nagar, Rohtak, Hissar andFaridabad districts. Sugar industry iscomparatively new in Gujarat. Sugar mills arelocated in the cane growing tracts of Surat,Junagarh, Rajkot, Amreli, Valsad andBhavnagar districts.

Petrochemical Industries

This group of industries has been growing veryfast in India. A variety of products come underthis category of industries. In 1960s, demandfor organic chemicals increased so fast that itbecame difficult to meet this demand. At thattime, petroleum refining industry expandedrapidly. Many items are derived from crudepetroleum, which provide raw materials formany new industries, these are collectively


known as petrochemical industries. This groupof industries is divided into four sub-groups:(i) polymers, (ii) synthetic fibres, (iii) elastomers,and (iv) surfactant intermediate. Mumbai is thehub of the petrochemical industries. Crackerunits are also located in Auraiya (UttarPradesh), Jamnagar, Gandhinagar and Hajira(Gujarat), Nagothane, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra),Haldia (West Bengal) and Vishakhapatnam(Andhra Pradesh).

Three organisations are working in thepetrochemical sector under the administrativecontrol of the Department of Chemicals andPetrochemicals. First is the Indian PetrochemicalCorporation Limited (IPCL), a public sectorundertaking. It is responsible for the manufactureand distribution of the various petrochemicals likepolymers, chemicals, fibres and fibreintermediates. Second is the Petrofils CooperativeLimited (PCL), a joint venture of the Governmentof India and Weaver’s Cooperative Societies. Itproduces polyester filament yarn and nylon chipsat its two plants located at Vadodara and Naldhariin Gujarat. Third is the Central Institute of PlasticEngineering and Technology (CIPET), involved inimparting training in petro-chemical industry.

Polymers are made from ethylene andpropylene. These materials are obtained in theprocess of refining crude oil. Polymers are used

as raw materials in the plastic industry. Amongpolymers, polyethylene is a widely usedthermoplastic. Plastic is first converted intosheets, powder, resin and pellets, and then usedin manufacturing plastic products. Plasticproducts are preferred because of their strength,flexibility, water and chemical resistance and lowprices. Production of plastic polymers started inIndia in the late fifties and the early sixties usingother organic chemicals. The National OrganicChemicals Industries Limited (NOCIL),established in private sector in 1961, started thefirst naphtha based chemical industry inMumbai. Later, several other companies wereformed. The plants located at Mumbai, Barauni,Mettur, Pimpri and Rishra are the majorproducers of plastic materials.

About 75 per cent of these units are insmall scale sector. The industry also usesrecycled plastics, which constitutes about 30per cent of the total production.

Synthetic fibres are widely used in themanufacturing of fabrics because of theirinherent strength, durability, washability, andresistance to shrinkage. Industriesmanufacturing nylon and polyester yarns arelocated at Kota, Pimpri, Mumbai, Modinagar,Pune, Ujjain, Nagpur and Udhna. Acrylic staplefibre is manufactured at Kota and Vadodara.


Though plastics have become inseparableitems in our daily use and they have affectedour life style. But due to its non-biodegradablequality it has emerged as the greatest threat toour environment. Hence, use of plastic is beingdiscouraged in different states of India. Do youknow how does plastic adversely affect ourenvironment?

Knowledge based IndustriesKnowledge based IndustriesKnowledge based IndustriesKnowledge based IndustriesKnowledge based Industries

The advancement in information technology hashad a profound influence on the country’seconomy. The Information Technology (IT)revolution opened up new possibilities ofeconomic and social transformation. The IT andIT enabled business process outsourcing (ITES-BPO) services continue to be on a robust growthpath. Indian software industry has emerged asone of the fastest growing sectors in the economy.Exports of the Indian software and services sectorwere Rs. 78,230 crore in 2004-05 which isapproximately 30-32 per cent increase from theprevious year. The software industry hassurpassed electronic hardware production. TheIndian government has created a number ofsoftware parks in the country.

The IT software and services industryaccount for almost 2 per cent of India’s GDP.India’s software industry has achieved aremarkable distinction for providing qualityproducts. A large number of Indian softwarecompanies have acquired international qualitycertification. A majority of the multinationalcompanies operating in the area of informationtechnology have either software developmentcentres or research development centres inIndia. However, in the hardware developmentsector, India is yet to make any remarkableachievements.

A major impact of this growth has been onemployment creation, which is almost doubledevery year.

Liberalisation, Privatisation, GlobalisationLiberalisation, Privatisation, GlobalisationLiberalisation, Privatisation, GlobalisationLiberalisation, Privatisation, GlobalisationLiberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation(LPG) and Industrial Development in India(LPG) and Industrial Development in India(LPG) and Industrial Development in India(LPG) and Industrial Development in India(LPG) and Industrial Development in India

The new Industrial Policy was announced in1991. The major objectives of this policy wereto build on the gains already made, correct the

distortions or weaknesses that have crept in,maintain a sustained growth in productivityand gainful employment and attaininternational competitiveness.

Within this policy, measures initiated are :(1) abolition of industrial licensing, (2) free entryto foreign technology, (3) foreign investmentpolicy, (4) access to capital market, (5) opentrade, (6) abolition of phased manufacturingprogramme, and (7) liberalised industriallocation programme. The policy has three maindimensions: liberalisation, privatisation andglobalisation.

The industrial licensing system has beenabolished for all except six industries related tosecurity, strategic or environmental concerns. Atthe same time, the number of industries reservedfor public sector since 1956 have been reducedfrom 17 to 4. Industries related to atomic energy,substances specified in the Schedule of theDepartment of Atomic Energy as well as Railwayshave remained under the public sector. Thegovernment also has decided to offer a part ofthe shareholdings in the public enterprises tofinancial institutions, general public andworkers. The threshold limits of assets have beenscrapped and no industry requires priorapproval for investing in the delicensed sector.They only need to submit a memorandum inthe prescribed format.

In the new industrial policy, Foreign DirectInvestment (FDI) has been seen as a supplementto the domestic investment for achieving ahigher level of economic development. FDIbenefits the domestic industry as well as theconsumers by providing technologicalupgradation, access to global managerial skillsand practices, optimum use of natural andhuman resources, etc. Keeping all this in mind,foreign investment has been liberalised and thegovernment has permitted access to anautomatic route for Foreign Direct Investment.The government has also announced changesin the industrial location policies. Industries arediscouraged in or very close to large cities dueto environmental reasons.

The industrial policy has been liberalisedto attract private investor both domestic andmulti-nationals. New sectors like, mining,telecommunications, highway construction and


Fig. 8.12 : Software Technology Parks


management have been thrown open to privatecompanies. In spite of all these concessions,Foreign Direct Investment has not been up tothe expectation. There has been a big gapbetween approved and actual foreign directinvestment, even though the numbers of foreigncollaborations are increasing. Larger parts of thisinvestment have gone to domestic appliances,finance, services, electronics and electricalequipment, and food and dairy products.

Globalisation means integrating theeconomy of the country with the worldeconomy. Under this process, goods andservices along with capital, labour andresources can move freely from one nation toanother. The thrust of globalisation has beento increase the domestic and externalcompetition through extensive application ofmarket mechanism and facilitating dynamicrelationship with the foreign investors andsuppliers of technology. In Indian context, thisimplies: (1) opening of the economy to foreigndirect investment by providing facilities toforeign companies to invest in different fields ofeconomies activity in India; (2) removingrestrictions and obstacles to the entry of multi-national companies in India; (3) allowing Indiancompanies to enter into foreign collaborationin India and also encouraging them to set upjoint ventures abroad; (4) carrying out massiveimport liberalisation programmes by switchingover from quantitative restrictions to tariffs in

the first place, and then bringing down the levelof import duties considerably; and (5) insteadof a set of export incentives, opting for exchangerate adjustments for promoting export.

A breakup of foreign collaborationapproval reveals that the major share went tocore, priority sectors while infrastructural sectorwas untouched. Further, gap betweendeveloped and developing states has becomewider. Major share of both domestic investmentas well as foreign direct investment went toalready developed states. For example, out ofthe total proposed investment by the industrialentrepreneurs during 1991-2000 nearly one-fourth (23 per cent) was for industriallydeveloped Maharashtra, 17 per cent forGujarat, 7 per cent for Andhra Pradesh, andabout 6 per cent for Tamil Nadu while UttarPradesh, the state with the largest populationhas only 8 per cent. In spite of severalconcessions, seven north-eastern states couldget less than 1 per cent of the proposedinvestment. In fact, economically weaker statescould not compete with the developed states inopen market in attracting industrial investmentproposals and hence they are likely to sufferfrom these processes.

Industrial Regions in IndiaIndustrial Regions in IndiaIndustrial Regions in IndiaIndustrial Regions in IndiaIndustrial Regions in India

Industries are not evenly distributed in thecountry. They tend to concentrate on certainlocations because of the favourable locationalfactors.

Industrial Regions and DistrictsIndustrial Regions and DistrictsIndustrial Regions and DistrictsIndustrial Regions and DistrictsIndustrial Regions and Districts

Major Industrial Regions (8)1. Mumabi-Pune Region, 2. Hugli Region, 3. Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Region, 4. Gujarat Region,5. Chotanagpur Region, 6. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region, 7. Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Region, and8. Kollam-Tiruvantapuram Region.

Minor Industrial Regions (13)1. Ambala-Amritsar, 2. Saharanpur-Muzaffarnagar-Bijnor, 3. Indore-Dewas-Uijjain, 4. Jaipur-Ajmer,5. Kolhapur-South Kannada, 6. Northern Malabar, 7. Middle Malabar, 8. Adilabad-Nizamabad,9. Allahabad-Varanasi-Mirzapur, 10. Bhojpur-Munger, 11. Durg-Raipur, 12. Bilaspur-Korba, and13. Brahmaputra valley.

Industrial Districts (15)1. Kanpur, 2. Hyderabad, 3. Agra, 4. Nagpur, 5. Gwalior, 6. Bhopal, 7. Lucknow, 8. Jalpaiguri,9. Cuttack, 10. Gorakhpur, 11. Aligarh, 12. Kota, 13. Purnia, 14. Jabalpur, and 15. Bareilly.


Fig. 8.13 : India – Major Industrial Region


Several indices are used to identify theclustering of industries, important among themare : (i) the number of industrial units, (ii)number of industrial workers, (iii) quantum ofpower used for industrial purposes, (iv) totalindustrial output, and (v) value added bymanufacturing, etc.

Major industrial regions of the country aregiven below in some details (Fig. 8.13).

Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region

It extends from Mumbai-Thane to Pune andin adjoining districts of Nashik and Solapur.Besides, industrial development has beenrapid in Kolaba, Ahmednagar, Satara, Sangliand Jalgaon districts. Development of thisregion started with the location of cottontextile industry in Mumbai. Mumbai, withcotton hinterland and moist climate favouredthe location of cotton textile industry.Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 providedimpetus to the growth of Mumbai port.Machineries were imported through this port.Hydro-electricity was developed in theWestern Ghat region to meet the requirementsof this industry.

With the development of cotton textileindustry, chemical industry also developed.Opening of the Mumbai High petroleum fieldand erection of nuclear energy plants addedadditional pull to this region.

Besides, engineering goods, petroleumrefining, petrochemicals, leather, syntheticand plastic goods, drugs, ferti l isers,electrical, shipbuilding, electronics, software,transport equipments and food industriesalso developed. Important industrial centresare Mumbai, Kolaba, Kalyan, Thane,Trombay, Pune, Pimpri, Nashik, Manmad,Solapur, Kolhapur, Ahmednagar, Satara andSangli.

Hugli Industrial Region

Located along the Hugli river, this regionextends from Bansberia in the north toBirlanagar in the south for a distance of about100 km. Industries also have developed inMednipur in the west. Kolkata-Haora from thenucleus of this industrial region. Historical,

geographical, economic and political factorshave contributed much to its development. Itdeveloped with the opening of river port onHugli. Kolkata emerged as a leading centre ofthe country. Later, Kolkata was connected withinterior parts by railway lines and road routes.Development of tea plantations in Assam andnorthern hills of West Bengal, the processing ofindigo earlier and jute later coupled with theopening of coalfields of the Damodar Valley andiron ore deposits of the Chotanagpur plateau,contributed to the industrial development of theregion. Cheap labour available from thicklypopulated part of Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradeshand Orissa also contributed to its development.Kolkata, being the capital city of British India(1773-1911), attracted the British capital. Theestablishment of first jute mill at Rishra in 1855ushered in the era of modern industrialclustering in this region.

The major concentration of jute industryis at Haora and Bhatapara. The partition of thecountry in 1947 adversely affected thisindustrial region. Cotton textile industry alsogrew along with jute industry, paper,engineering, textile machinery, electrical,chemical, pharmaceuticals, fertiliser andpetrochemical industries have also developedwithin this region. Factory of the HindustanMotors Limited at Konnagar and diesel enginefactory at Chittaranjan are landmarks of thisregion. Location of petroleum refinery at Haldiahas facilitated the development of a variety ofindustries. Important industrial centres of thisregion are Kolkata, Haora, Haldia, Serampur,Rishra, Shibpur, Naihati, Kakinara,Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, Budge Budge,Birlanagar, Bansberia, Belgurriah, Triveni,Hugli, Belur, etc. However, industrial growth ofthis region has slowed down in comparison toother regions. Decline of the jute industry is oneof the reasons.

Bangalore-Chennai Industrial Region

This region witnessed most rapid industrialgrowth in post-Independence period. Till 1960,industries were confined to Bangalore, Salemand Madurai districts but now they have spreadover all the districts of Tamil Nadu exceptViluppuram. Since, this region is away from the


coalfields, its development is dependent on thePykara hydroelectric plant, which was built in1932. Cotton textile industry was the first totake roots due to the presence of cotton growingareas. Along with cotton mills, loom industryspread very rapidly. Several heavy engineeringindustries converged at Bangalore. Aircraft(HAL), machine tools, telephone (HTL) andBharat Electronics are industrial landmarks ofthis region. Important industries are textiles,rail wagons, diesel engines, radio, lightengineering goods, rubber goods, medicines,aluminium, sugar, cement, glass, paper,chemicals, film, cigarette, match box, leathergoods, etc. Petroleum refinery at Chennai, ironand steel plant at Salem and fertiliser plantsare recent developments.

Gujarat Industrial Region

The nucleus of this region lies betweenAhmedabad and Vadodara but this regionextends upto Valsad and Surat in the south andto Jamnagar in the west. Development of thisregion is also associated with the location of thecotton textile industry since 1860s. This regionbecame an important textile region with thedecline of the cotton textile industry at Mumbai.Located in cotton growing area, this region hasdouble advantage of the proximity of rawmaterials as well as of market. The discovery ofoil fields led to the establishment of petrochemicalindustries around Ankleshwar, Vadodara andJamnagar. The port at Kandla helped in the rapidgrowth of this region. Petroleum refinery atKoyali provided raw materials to a host ofpetrochemical industries. The industrialstructure is now diversified. Besides, textiles(cotton, silk and synthetic fabrics) andpetrochemical industries, other industries areheavy and basic chemicals, motor, tractor, dieselengines, textile machinery, engineering,pharmaceuticals, dyes, pesticides, sugar, dairyproducts and food processing. Recently, largestpetroleum refinery has been set up at Jamnagar.Important industrial centres of this region areAhmedabad, Vadodara, Bharuch, Koyali,Anand, Khera, Surendranagar, Rajkot, Surat,Valsad and Jamnagar.

Chotanagpur Region

This region extends over Jharkhand, northernOrissa and western West Bengal and is knownfor the heavy metallurgical industries. Thisregion owes its development to the discovery ofcoal in the Damodar Valley and metallic andnon-metallic minerals in Jharkhand andnorthern Orissa. Proximity of coal, iron ore andother minerals facilitated the location of heavyindustries in this region. Six large integratediron and steel plants at Jamshedpur, Burnpur-Kulti, Durgapur, Bokaro and Rourkela arelocated within this region. To meet the powerrequirement, thermal and hydroelectric plantshave been constructed in the Damodar Valley.Densely populated surrounding regionsprovide cheap labour and Hugli region providesvast market for its industries. Heavyengineering, machine tools, fertilisers, cement,paper, locomotives and heavy electricals are someof the important industries in this region.Important centres are Ranchi, Dhanbad,Chaibasa, Sindri, Hazaribag, Jamshedpur,Bokaro, Rourkela, Durgapur, Asansol andDalmianagar.

Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region

This industrial region extends fromVishakhapatnam district to Kurnool andPrakasam districts in the south. Industrialdevelopment of this region hinges uponVishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam ports anddeveloped agriculture and rich reserves ofminerals in their hinterlands. Coalfields of theGodavari basin provide energy. Ship buildingindustry was started at Vishakhapatnam in1941. Petroleum refinery based on importedpetroleum facilitated the growth of severalpetrochemical industries. Sugar, textile, jute,paper, fertiliser, cement, aluminium and lightengineering are principal industries of thisregion. One lead-zinc smelter is functioning inGuntur district. Iron and steel plant atVishakhapatnam uses the Bailadila iron ore.Vishakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Vijaynagar,Rajahmundry, Guntur, Eluru and Kurnool areimportant industrial centres.


Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Region

Industries located in this region have shownvery fast growth in the recent past. This regionis located far away from the mineral and powerresources, and therefore, the industries arelight and market-oriented. Electronics, lightengineering and electrical goods are majorindustries of this region. Besides, there arecotton, woollen and synthetic fabrics, hosiery,sugar, cement, machine tools, tractor, cycle,agricultural implements, chemical andvanaspati industries which have developed onlarge scale. Software industry is a recentaddition. To the south lies the Agra-Mathuraindustrial area which specialises in glass andleather goods. Mathura with an oil refinery isa petrochemical complex. Among industrialcentres, mention be made of Gurgaon, Delhi,Shahdara, Faridabad, Meerut, Modinagar,Ghaziabad, Ambala, Agra and Mathura.

Kollam-Tiruvanantapuram Region

This industrial region is spread overT iruvanantapuram, Kollam, Alwaye,Ernakulam and Alappuzha districts.Plantation agriculture and hydropowerprovide industrial base to this region. Locatedfar away from the mineral belt of the country,agricultural products processing and marketoriented light industries predominate theregion. Among them, cotton textile, sugar,rubber, matchbox, glass, chemical fertiliser andfish-based industries are important. Foodprocessing, paper, coconut coir products,aluminium and cement industries are alsosignificant. Location of petroleum refinery atKochchi has added a vista of new industries tothis region. Important industrial centres areKollam, Tiruvanantapuram, Alluva, Kocchi,Alappuzha, and Punalur.



(i) Which is not a factor of industrial location?

(a) Market (c) Population Density

(b) Capital (d) Power

(ii) The earliest Iron and Steel Company to be established in India was:

(a) IISCO

(b) TISCO

(c) Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works

(d) Mysore Iron and Steel Works.

(iii) The first modern cotton mill was established in Mumbai because:

(a) Mumbai is a port

(b) It is located near cotton growing area

(c) Mumbai was the financial centre

(d) All of the above.

(iv) The nucleus of the Hugli Industrial Region is:

(a) Kolkata-Haora (c) Kolkata-Medinipur

(b) Kolkata-Rishra (d) Kolkata-Konnagar


(v) Which one of the following is the second largest producer of sugar:

(a) Maharashtra (c) Punjab

(b) Uttar Pradesh (d) Tamil Nadu


(i) Why do you think that the iron and steel industry is basic to the industrialdevelopment of any country?

(ii) Name the two sectors of the cottage textile industries. How are theydifferent?

(iii) Why is the sugar industry a seasonal industry?

(iv) What is the raw material base for the petrochemical industry? Name someof the products of this industry.

(v) What is the major impact of Information Technology (IT) revolution in India?


(i) How did the Swadeshi movement give a major impetus to the cotton textilesindustry?

(ii) What do you understand by liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation?How have they helped industrial development in India?


PLANNING AND

SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT IN

INDIAN CONTEXT

The word ‘planning’ is not new to you as it is apart of everyday usage. You must have used itwith reference to preparation for yourexamination or visit to a hill station. It involvesthe process of thinking, formulation of a schemeor programme and implementation of a set ofactions to achieve some goal. Though it is avery broad term, in this chapter, it has beenused with reference to the process of economicdevelopment. It is, thus different from thetraditional hit-and-miss methods by which

Overview of PlanningOverview of PlanningOverview of PlanningOverview of PlanningOverview of Planning

Perspective in IndiaPerspective in IndiaPerspective in IndiaPerspective in IndiaPerspective in India

India has centralised planning and the taskof planning in India has been entrusted tothe Planning Commission. It is a statutorybody headed by the Prime Minister and hasa Deputy Chairman and members. Theplanning in the country is largely carried outthrough Five Year Plans.

The First Five Year Plan was launched in1951 and covered the period, 1951-52 to1955-56. Second and Third Five Year Planscovered the period from 1956-57 to 1960-61and 1961-62 to 1965-66 respectively. Twosuccessive droughts during mid-sixties(1965-66 and 1966-67) and war withPakistan in 1965 forced plan holiday in 1966-67 and 1968-69. This period was coveredby annual plans, which are also termed asrolling plans. The Fourth Five Year Planbegan in 1969-70 and ended in 1973-74.Following this the Fifth Five Year Plan beganin 1974-75 but it was terminated by the thengovernment one year earlier i.e. in 1977-78.The Sixth Five Year Plan took off in 1980.The Seventh Five Year Plan covered theperiod between 1985 and 1990. Once againdue to the political instability and initiationof liberalisation policy, the Eighth Five YearPlan got delayed. It covered the period, 1992to 1997. The Ninth Five Year Plan coveredthe period from 1997 to 2002. The Tenth Planbegan in 2002 and it is still in progress. Itwill come to an end on 31.3.2007. Theapproach paper of the Eleventh Plan entitled.“Towards Faster and More Inclusive Growth”has already been approved.

reforms and reconstruction are oftenundertaken. Generally, there are twoapproaches to planning, i.e. sectoral planningand regional planning. The sectoral planningmeans formulation and implementation of thesets of schemes or programmes aimed atdevelopment of various sectors of the economysuch as agriculture, irrigation, manufacturing,power, construction, transport, communication,social infrastructure and services.

There is no uniform economic developmentover space in any country. Some areas are moredeveloped and some lag behind. This unevenpattern of development over space necessitatesthat the planners have a spatial perspectiveand draw the plans to reduce regionalimbalance in development. This type ofplanning is termed as regional planning.

Target Area Planning

The planning process has to take special careof those areas which have remainedeconomically backward. As you know, theeconomic development of a region dependsupon its resource base. But sometimesresource-rich region also remain backward.The economic development also requirestechnology as well as investment besides theresource. With the planning experience ofabout one and half decades, it was realisedthat regional imbalances in economicdevelopment were getting accentuated. Inorder to arrest the accentuation of regional andsocial disparties, the Planning Commissionintroduced the ‘target area’ and target groupapproaches to planning. Some of the examplesof programmes directed towards thedevelopment of target areas are CommandArea Development Programme, Drought ProneArea Development Programme, DesertDevelopment Programme, Hill AreaDevelopment Programme. The Small FarmersDevelopment Agency (SFDA) and MarginalFarmers Development Agency (MFDA) whichare the examples of target group programme.

In the 8th Five year Plan special areaprogrammes were designed to developinfrastructure in hill areas, north-easternstates, tribal areas and backward areas.

Hill Area Development Programme

Hill Area Development Programmes wereinitiated during Fifth Five Year Plan covering 15districts comprising all the hilly districts of UttarPradesh (present Uttaranchal), Mikir Hill andNorth Cachar hills of Assam, Darjiling district ofWest Bengal and Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu.The National Committee on the Development ofBackward Area in 1981 recommended that allthe hill areas in the country having height above600 m and not covered under tribal sub-planbe treated as backward hill areas.

The detailed plans for the development of hillareas were drawn keeping in view theirtopographical, ecological, social and economicconditions. These programmes aimed atharnessing the indigenous resources of the hillareas through development of horticulture,plantation agriculture, animal husbandry, poultry,forestry and small-scale and village industry.

Drought Prone Area Programme

This programme was initiated during theFourth Five Year Plan with the objectives ofproviding employment to the people indrought-prone areas and creating productiveassets. Initially this programme laid emphasison the construction of labour-intensive civilworks. But later on, it emphasised on irrigationprojects, land development programmes,afforestation, grassland development andcreation of basic rural infrastructure such aselectricity, roads, market, credit and services.

National Committee on Development ofBackward Areas, reviewed the performance ofthis programme. It has been observed that thisprogramme is largely confined to thedevelopment of agriculture and allied sectorswith major focus on restoration of ecologicalbalance. Since growing population pressure isforcing the society to utilise the marginal landsfor agriculture, and, thereby causing ecologicaldegradation, there is a need to create alternativeemployment opportunities in the drought-prone areas. The other strategies ofdevelopment of these areas include adoption ofintegrated watershed development approach atthe micro-level. The restoration of ecologicalbalance between water, soil, plants, and human

Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context 105


and animal population should be a basicconsideration in the strategy of development ofdrought-prone areas.

Planning Commission of India (1967)identified 67 districts (entire or partly) of thecountry prone to drought. IrrigationCommission (1972) introduced the criterion of30 per cent irrigated area and demarcated thedrought prone areas. Broadly, the drought-prone area in India spread over semi-arid andarid tract of Rajasthan, Gujarat, WesternMadhya Pradesh, Marathwada region ofMaharashtra, Rayalseema and Telanganaplateaus of Andhra Pradesh, Karantka plateauand highlands and interior parts of Tamil Nadu.The drought prone areas of Punjab, Haryanaand north-Rajasthan are largely protected dueto spread of irrigation in these regions.

Case Study–Integrated Tribal DevelopmentProject in Bharmaur Region

Bharmaur tribal area comprises Bharmaur andHoli tehsils of Chamba district of HimachalPradesh. It is a notified tribal area since21 November 1975. Bharmaur is inhabited by‘Gaddi’, a tribal community who havemaintained a distinct identity in the Himalayanregion as they practised transhumance andconversed through Gaddiali dialect.

This region lies between 32° 11’ N and 32°41’N latitudes and 76° 22’ E and 76° 53’Elongitudes. Spread over an area of about1,818 sq km, the region mostly lies between1,500 m to 3,700 m above the mean sealevel. This region popularly known as thehomeland of Gaddis is surrounded by loftymountains on all sides. It has Pir Panjal inthe north and Dhaula Dhar in the south. Inthe east, the extension of Dhaula Dharconverges with Pir Panjal near RohtangPass. The river Ravi and its tributaries– theBudhil and the Tundahen, drain this territory,and carve out deep gorges. These riversdivide the region into four physiographicdivisions called Holi, Khani, Kugti andTundah areas. Bharmaur experiencesfreezing weather conditions and snowfall inwinter. Its mean monthly temperature inJanuary remains 4°C and in July 26°C.

Bharmaur tribal region has harsh climateconditions, low resource base and fragileenvironment. These factors have influenced thesociety and economy of the region. Accordingto the 2001 census, the total population ofBharmaur sub-division was 37,246 i.e. 20persons per sq km. It is one of the most

Fig. 9.1


(economically and socially) backward areas ofHimachal Pradesh. Historically, the Gaddishave experienced geographical and politicalisolation and socio-economic deprivation. Theeconomy is largely based on agriculture andallied activities such as sheep and goat rearing.

The process of development of tribal areaof Bharmaur started in 1970s when Gaddiswere included among ‘scheduled tribes’. Underthe Fifth Five Year Plan, the tribal sub-plan wasintroduced in 1974 and Bharmaur wasdesignated as one of the five Integrated TribalDevelopment Projects (ITDP) in Himachal

Fig. 9.2


Pradesh. This area development plan was aimedat improving the quality of life of the Gaddisand narrowing the gap in the level ofdevelopment between Bharmaur and otherareas of Himachal Pradesh. This plan laid thehighest priority on development of transportand communications, agriculture and alliedactivities, and social and community services.

The most significant contribution of tribalsub plan in Bharmaur region is the developmentof infrastructure in terms of schools, health carefacilities, potable water, roads, communicationsand electricity. But the villages located along theriver Ravi in Holi and Khani areas are the mainbeneficiaries of infrastructural development. Theremote villages in Tundah and Kugti areas stilldo not have sufficient infrastructure.

The social benefits derived from ITDPinclude tremendous increase in literacy rate,improvement in sex ratio and decline in childmarriage. The female literary rate in the regionincreased from 1.88 per cent in 1971 to 42.83per cent in 2001. The difference between malesand females in literacy level i.e. genderinequality, has also declined. Traditionally, theGaddis had subsistence agricultural-cum-pastoral economy having emphasis onfoodgrains and livestock production. Butduring the last three decades of twentiethcentury, the cultivation of pulses and other cashcrops has increased in Bharmaur region. Butthe crop cultivation is still done with traditionaltechnology. The declining importance ofpastoralism in the economy of the region canbe gauged from the fact that at present onlyabout one-tenth of the total households practisetranshumance. But the Gaddis are still verymobile as a sizeable section of them migrate toKangra and surrounding areas during winterto earn their livings from wage labour.

Sustainable DevelopmentSustainable DevelopmentSustainable DevelopmentSustainable DevelopmentSustainable Development

The term development is generally used todescribe the state of particular societies and theprocess of changes experienced by them.During a fairly large period of human history,the state of the societies has largely beendetermined by the interaction processesbetween human societies and their bio-physical

environment. The processes of human-environment interaction depend upon the levelof technology and institutions nurtured by asociety. While the technology and institutionshave helped in increasing the pace of human-environment interaction, the momentum thus,generated in return has acceleratedtechnological progress and transformation andcreation of institutions. Hence, development isa multi-dimensional concept and signifies thepositive, irreversible transformation of theeconomy, society and environment.

The concept of development is dynamic andhas evolved during the second half of twentiethcentury. In the post World War II era, the conceptof development was synonymous to economicgrowth which is measured in terms of temporalincrease in gross national product (GNP) and percapita income/per capita consumption. But,even the countries having high economic growth,experienced speedy rise in poverty because ofits unequal distribution. So, in 1970s, thephrases such as redistribution with growth andgrowth and equity were incorporated in thedefinition of development. While dealing with thequestions related to redistribution and equity,it was realised that the concept of developmentcannot be restricted to the economic spherealone. It also includes the issues such asimproving the well-being and living standard ofpeople, availing of the health, education andequality of opportunity and ensuring politicaland civil rights. By 1980s, development emergedas a concept encapsulating wide-spreadimprovement in social as well as material well-being of all in a society.

The notion of sustainable developmentemerged in the wake of general rise in theawareness of environmental issues in the late1960s in Western World. It reflected the concernof people about undesirable effects of industrialdevelopment on the environment. Thepublication of ‘The Population Bomb’ byEhrlich in 1968 and ‘The Limits to Growth’by Meadows and others in 1972 further raisedthe level of fear among environmentalists inparticular and people in general. This sets thescenario for the emergence of new models ofdevelopment under a broad phrase‘sustainable development.’


Fig. 9.3

Concerned with the growing opinion ofworld community on the environmental issues,

the United Nations established a WorldCommission on Environment and Development


(WCED) headed by the Norwegian Prime MinisterGro Harlem Brundtland. The Commission gaveits report (also known as Brundtland Report)entitled ‘Our Common Future’ in 1987. Thereport defines sustainable development as a“development that meets the needs of thepresent without compromising the ability offuture generations to meet their own needs.”

construction work of the canal system has beencarried out through two stages. The commandarea of Stage-I lies in Ganganagar,Hanumangarh and northern part of Bikanerdistricts. It has a gently undulating topographyand its culturable command area is 5.53 lakhhectares. The command area of Stage-II is spreadover Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur,Nagaur and Churu districts covering culturablecommand area of 14.10 lakh ha. It comprisesdesert land dotted with shifting sand dunes andtemperature soaring to 50ºC in summers. In thelift canal, the water is lifted up to make it to flowagainst the slope of the land. All the lift canalsof Indira Gandhi Canal system originate at theleft bank of main canal while all the canals onthe right bank of main canal are flow channels.

Sustainable development takes care ofecological, social and economic aspects ofdevelopment during the present times andpleads for conservation of resources to enablethe future generations to use these resources.It takes into account the development of wholehuman kind which have common future.

Case Study

Indira Gandhi Canal (Nahar) CommandArea : Measures for Promotion of SustainableDevelopment

Indira Gandhi Canal, previously known as theRajasthan Canal, is one of the largest canalsystems in India. Conceived by Kanwar Sain in1948, the canal project was launched on 31March, 1958. The canal originates at Harikebarrage in Punjab and runs parallel to Pakistanborder at an average distance of 40 km in TharDesert (Marusthali) of Rajasthan. The totalplanned length of the system is 9,060 kmcatering to the irrigation needs of a totalculturable command area of 19.63 lakhhectares. Out of the total command area, about70 per cent was envisaged to be irrigated byflow system and the rest by lift system. The

Fig. 9.4: Indira Gandhi Canal

Fig. 9.5 : Indira Gandhi Canal and its adjoining areas

Irrigation in Stage-I command area of thecanal was introduced in early 1960s, whereas,the command area of Stage-II began receivingirrigation in mid-1980s. The introduction ofcanal irrigation in this dry land has transformedits ecology, economy and society. It hasinfluenced the environmental conditions of theregion both positively as well as negatively. Theavailability of soil moisture for a longer periodof time and various afforestation and pasturedevelopment programmes under CAD haveresulted in greening the land. This has alsohelped in reducing wind erosion and siltationof canal systems. But the intensive irrigationand excessive use of water has led to theemergence of twin environmental problems ofwater logging and soil salinity.

Introduction of canal irrigation hasbrought about a perceptible transformation


in the agricultural economy of the region. Soilmoisture has been a limiting factor insuccessful growing of crops in this area.Spread of canal irrigation has led to increasein cultivated area and intensity of cropping.The traditional crops sown in the area, gram,bajra and jowar have been replaced by wheat,cotton, groundnut and rice. This is the resultof intensive irrigation. This intensive irrigation,no doubt, initially has led to tremendousincrease in agricultural and livestockproductivity. This has also caused water loggingand soil salinity, and thus, in the long run, ithampers the sustainability of agriculture.

Measures for Promotion of SustainableDevelopment

The ecological sustainability of Indira GandhiCanal Project has been questioned by variousscholars. Their point of view has also largelybeen validated by the course of developmentthis region has taken during the last fourdecades, which has resulted in degradation ofphysical environment. It is a hard fact thatattaining sustainable development in thecommand area requires major thrust upon themeasures to achieve ecological sustainability.Hence, five of the seven measures proposed topromote sustainable development in thecommand area are meant to restore ecologicalbalance.

(i) The first requirement is strictimplementation of water managementpolicy. The canal project envisagesprotective irrigation in Stage-I and

extensive irrigation of crops and pasturedevelopment in Stage-II.

(ii) In general, the cropping pattern shall notinclude water intensive crops. It shall beadhered to and people shall beencouraged to grow plantation crops suchas citrus fruits.

(iii) The CAD programmes such as lining ofwater courses, land development andlevelling and warabandi system (equaldistribution of canal water in thecommand area of outlet) shall be effectivelyimplemented to reduce the conveyanceloss of water.

(iv) The areas affected by water logging andsoil salinity shall be reclaimed.

(v) The eco-development through afforestation,shelterbelt plantation and pasturedevelopment is necessary particularly inthe fragile environment of Stage-II.

(vi) The social sustainability in the region canbe achieved only if the land allottees havingpoor economic background are providedadequate financial and institutionalsupport for cultivation of land.

(vii) The economic sustainability in the regioncannot be attained only throughdevelopment of agriculture and animalhusbandry. The agricultural and alliedactivities have to develop alongwith othersectors of economy. This shall lead todiversification of economic base andestablishment of functional linkagesbetween basic villages, agro-service centresand market centres.




(i) Regional planning relates to :

(a) Development of various sectors of economy.

(b) Area specific approach of development.

(c) Area differences in transportation network.

(d) Development of rural areas.

(ii) ITDP refers to which one of the following?

(a) Integrated Tourism Development Programme

(b) Integrated Travel Development Programme

(c) Integrated Tribal Development Programme

(d) Integrated Transport Development Programme

(iii) Which one of the following is the most crucial factor for sustainabledevelopment in Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area?

(a) Agricultural development

(b) Eco-development

(c) Transport development

(d) Colonisation of land


(i) What are the social benefits of ITDP in the Bharmaur tribal region?

(ii) Define the concept of sustainable development.

(iii) What are the positive impacts of irrigation on Indira Gandhi CanalCommand Area?


(i) Write short notes on drought-prone area programme and agro-climaticplanning. How do these programmes help in the development of drylandagriculture in India?

(ii) Suggest the measures of promotion of sustainability in Indira GandhiCanal Command Area.

ProjectProjectProjectProjectProject

(i) Find out the area development programmes being implemented in yourregion. Assess the impact of such programmes on the society and economyin your locality.

(ii) Select your own area or identify an area facing severe environmentaland socio-economic problems. Make an assessment of its resources andprepare their inventory. Suggest the measures for its sustainabledevelopment as it has been done in the case of Indira Gandhi CanalCommand Area.

Unit IVUnit IVUnit IVUnit IVUnit IVChapter 10

TRANSPORT AND

COMMUNICATION

We use many items in our daily life. From toothpaste to our bed tea, milk, clothes, soaps, fooditems, etc. are required every day. All these canbe purchased from the market. Have you everthought as to how these items are brought fromthe site of production? All the production ismeant for consumption. From the fields andfactory, the produce is brought to the place fromwhere consumers purchase it. It is thetransportation of these items from the site oftheir production to the market which makethem available to the consumer.

We not only use material things like fruits,vegetables, books, clothes, etc. but also useideas, views and messages in our daily life. Doyou know we exchange our views, ideas andmessages from one place to another or oneindividual to another while communicating withthe help of various means?

The use of transport and communicationdepends upon our need to move things fromplace of their availability to the place of theiruse. Human-beings use various methods tomove goods, commodities, ideas from one placeto another.

The following diagram shows the majormeans of transportation.

Land TLand TLand TLand TLand Trrrrransporansporansporansporansporttttt

The pathways and unmetalled roads have beenused for transportation in India since ancienttimes. With the economic and technologicaldevelopment, metalled roads and railways weredeveloped to move large volume of goods and


people from one place to another. Ropeways,cableways and pipelines were devised to caterto the demands of transporting specific goodsunder special circumstances.

Road Transport

India has one of the largest road networks inthe world with a total length of 33.1 lakh km(2005). About 85 per cent of passenger and 70

(1961) was introduced to improve theconditions of roads in India. However, roadscontinue to concentrate in and around urbancentres. Rural and remote areas had the leastconnectivity by road.

For the purpose of construction andmaintenance, roads are classified as NationalHighways (NH), State Highways(SH), MajorDistrict Roads and Rural Roads.

per cent of freight traffic are carried by roadsevery year. Road transport is relatively suitablefor shorter distance travel.

Sher Shah Suri built the Shahi (Royal) roadto strengthen and consolidate his empirefrom the Indus Valley to the Sonar Valleyin Bengal. This road was renamed theGrand Trunk (GT) road during the Britishperiod, connecting Calcutta and Peshawar.At present, it extends from Amritsar toKolkata. It is bifurcated into 2 segments :(a) National Highway(NH)-1 from Delhi toAmritsar, and (b) NH- 2 from Delhi to Kolkata.

Road transport in modern sense was verylimited in India before World War-II. The firstserious attempt was made in 1943 when‘Nagpur Plan’ was drawn. This plan could notbe implemented due to lack of coordinationamong the princely states and British India.After Independence, twenty-year road plan

National Highways

The main roads which are constructed andmaintained by the Central Government areknown as the National Highways. These roadsare meant for inter-state transport andmovement of defence men and material instrategic areas. These also connect the statecapitals, major cities, important ports, railwayjunctions, etc. The length of the NationalHighways has increased from 19,700 km in1951 to 65,769 km in 2005. The NationalHighways constitute only two per cent of thetotal road length but carry 40 per cent of theroad traffic. (Table 10.1)

The National Highways Authority of India(NHAI) was operationalised in 1995. It is anautonomous body under the Ministry ofSurface Transport. It is entrusted with theresponsibility of development, maintenanceand operation of National Highways. This is alsothe apex body to improve the quality of the roadsdesignated as National Highways.

A view of traffic flow in DelhiRain-soaked : Nomads go about their routine during an early morningdownpour in Srinagar. Traffic on the 300-km Srinagar-Jammu and 434-km Srinagar-Leh National Highways is suspended as upper reaches ofJ&K saw heavy snowfall while rain lashed the plains.

Fig. 10.1

Transport and Communication 115

Serial No. Road Category Length in Km % of total road length

1. National Highways 65,769 2

2. State Highways 1,28,000 4

3. Major District Roads 4,70,000 14

4. Rural Rods 2,65,0000 80

Total 33,13,769 100

Table 10.1 : Indian Road Network (2005)

National HighwaysNational HighwaysNational HighwaysNational HighwaysNational Highways

Development ProjectsDevelopment ProjectsDevelopment ProjectsDevelopment ProjectsDevelopment Projects

NHAI has taken up some major projects inthe country under different phases :

Golden Quadrilateral : It comprisesconstruction of 5,846 km long 4/6 lane, highdensity traffic corridor, to connect India’s fourbig metro cities of Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-Kolkata. With the construction of GoldenQuadrilateral, the time- distance and cost

of movement among the mega cities of Indiawill be considerably minimised.

North-South and East-West Corridors :North-South corridor aims at connectingSrinagar in Jammu and Kashmir withKaniyakumari in Tamil Nadu (including

Kochchi-Salem Spur) with 4,076 km longroad. The East-West Corridor has been plannedto connect Silchar in Assam with the port townof Porbandar in Gujarat with 3,640 km ofroad length.

Rural Roads

These roads are vital for providing links in therural areas. About 80 per cent of the total roadlength in India are categorised as rural roads.There is regional variation in the density of ruralroad because these are influenced by the natureof the terrain?

State Highways

These are constructed and maintained by stategovernments. They join the state capitals withdistrict headquarters and other importanttowns. These roads are connected to theNational Highways. These constitute 4 per centof total road length in the country.

District Roads

These roads are the connecting link betweenDistrict Headquarters and the other importantnodes in the district. They account for 14 percent of the total road length of the country.

Fig. 10.2 : Road constructed under the PradhanMantri Gram Sadak Yojna

Why are the rural roads’ density very lowin hilly, plateau and forested areas? Whydoes the quality of rural roads deteriorateaway from the urban centres?

Other Roads

Other roads include Border Roads andInternational Highways. The Border RoadOrganisation (BRO) was established in May1960 for accelerating economic developmentand strengthening defence preparednessthrough rapid and coordinated improvementof strategically important roads along thenorthern and north-eastern boundary of the


Fig. 10.3 : India – Density of Roads, 2001


This organisation has completed over40,450 km of roads by March 2005. Apartfrom the construction and maintenance ofroads in strategically sensitive areas, the BROalso undertakes snow clearance in highaltitude areas. The international highways aremeant to promote the harmonious relationshipwith the neighbouring countries by providingeffective links with India. (Fig. 10.5 and 10.6)

The distribution of roads is not uniform inthe country. Density of roads (length of roadsper 100 square km of area) varies from only10.48 km in Jammu and Kashmir to 387.24km in Kerala with a national average of 75.42km. The density of road is high in most of thenorthern states and major southern states. Itis low in the Himalayan region, north-easternregion, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Whydoes this variation occur? Nature of terrain andthe level of economic development are the maindeterminants of density of roads. Constructionof roads is easy and cheaper in the plain areaswhile it is difficult and costly in hilly and plateauareas. Therefore, not only the density but alsothe quality of roads is relatively better in plainsas compared to roads in high altitude areas,rainy and forested regions.

List the names of 10 important towns along NH-1 andNH-2.

Fig. 10.5 : A Bus from Lahore to Delhi at Wagah BorderFig. 10.6 : Aman Setu between Srinagar and

Muzaffarabad

Delhi-Lahore Bus

Fig. 10.4 : Khardung La Pass in Jammu & Kashmir

country. It is a premier multifaceted constructionagency. It has constructed roads in high altitudemountainous terrain joining Chandigarh withManali (Himachal Pradesh) and Leh (Ladakh).This road runs at an average altitude of 4,270metres above the mean sea level.


Railway Zone Headquarters Earnings from Earnings from % ofPassengers % goods % Total earnings

Central Mumbai CST 13.62 8.36 10.07

Eastern Kolkata 6.18 3.3 4.24

East Central Hajipur 5.19 7.84 6.98

East Coast Bhubaneswar 2.27 9.69 7.27

Northern New Delhi 15.38 8.94 11.04

North Central Allahabad 6.71 8.76 8.09

North Eastern Gorakhpur 3.44 1.55 2.17

North East Frontier Maligaon (Guwahati) 2.34 2.59 2.51

North Western Jaipur 3.44 3.04 3.17

Southern Chennai 8.74 3.78 5.4

South Central Secunderabad 8.45 8.88 8.74

South Eastern Kolkata 3.23 7.86 6.36

South East Central Bilaspur 1.7 8.91 6.56

South Western Hubli 3.5 2.27 2.67

Western Mumbai (Church Gate) 12.16 7.32 8.9

West Central Jabalpur 3.62 6.91 5.83

Total 100 100 100

Table 10.3 : Indian RailwaysZone-wise income from passengers and goods (Rupees in lakhs)

Source : Statistical Abstract of India, 2004 pg. 243

Which one is the longest National Highway in India?

Why have Bangalore and Hyderabad in the South andDelhi, Kanpur and Patna in north India have emergedas important nodes?

Rail Transport

Indian railways network is one of the longest inthe world. It facilitates the movement of bothfreight and passengers and contributes to thegrowth of economy. Mahatma Gandhi said, theIndian railways “brought people of diversecultures together to contribute to India’sfreedom struggle.”

Indian Railway was introduced in 1853,when a line was constructed from Bombay toThane covering a distance of 34 km.

Indian Railways is the largest governmentundertaking in the country. The length of IndianRailways network is 63,221 km. Its very largesize puts lots of pressure on a centralisedrailway management system. Thus, in India,the railway system has been divided into sixteen

Table 10.2 : Trends of Freight (in milliontonnes) and Passengers (in millions)

Handled by the Indian Railways,1970-71–2004-05

Commodities 1970-71 2004-05

Coal 47.9 251.75

Raw Material for

Steel Plants 16.1 43.65

Pig Iron and

Finished Steel 6.2 14.66

Iron ore 9.8 26.6

Cement 11 49.3

Food grains 15.1 44.3

Fertilisers 4.7 23.7

Petroleum 8.9 32

Other Goods 48.2 71.4

Total Traffic 167.9 557.39

Passengers Originating 2431 5112

Source : Economic Survey, Govt. of India, 2005-06

zones. Table 10.3 shows the zone-wiseperformance of Indian Railways.


Fig. 10.7 : River navigation in the North-east

On the basis of width of the track of IndianRailways, three categories have been made:

Broad gauge: The distance between rails inbroad gauge is 1.676 metre. The total lengthof broad gauge lines is 46,807 km whichaccounts for 74.14 per cent of the total lengthof rail routes in the country.

Metre gauge: The distance between rails isone metre. It runs over 13,290 km covering 21.02per cent of the total route length.

Narrow gauge: The distance between the railsin this case is 0.762 metre or 0.610 metre.Nearly 4.94 per cent of the total length of theIndian Railways is narrow gauge, whichaccounts for 3,124 km of route length. It isgenerally confined to hilly areas.

Indian Railways has launched extensiveprogramme to convert the metre and narrowgauges to broad gauge. Moreover, steamengines have been replaced by diesel andelectric engines. This step has increased thespeed as well as the haulage capacity.

The replacement of steam engines run bycoal has also improved the environment of thestations.

Metro rail has revolutionlised the urbantransport system in Kolkata and Delhi.replacement of diesel buses by CNG runvehicles along with introduction of metro is awelcome step towards controlling the airpollution in urban centres.

Areas around towns, raw materialproducing areas and of plantations and othercommercial crops, hill stations and cantonmenttowns were well-connected by railways from theBritish colonial era. These were mostlydeveloped for the exploitation of resources. Afterthe Independence of the country, railway routeshave been extended to other areas too. The mostsignificant development has been thedevelopment of Konkan Railway along thewestern coast providing a direct link betweenMumbai and Mangalore.

Railway continues to remain the main meansof transport for the masses. Railway network isrelatively less dense in the hill states, north easternstates, central parts of India and Rajasthan.

Water Transport

Waterways is an important mode of transportfor both passenger and cargo traffic in India. Itis the cheapest means of transport and is mostsuitable for carrying heavy and bulky material.It is a fuel-efficient and eco-friendly mode oftransport. The water transport is of two types–(a) inland waterways, and (b) oceanic waterways.

Inland Waterways

It was the chief mode of transport before theadvent of railways. It, however, faced toughcompetition from road and railway transport.Moreover, diversion of river water for irrigation

Konkan RailwayKonkan RailwayKonkan RailwayKonkan RailwayKonkan Railway

One of the important achievements of IndianRailways has been the construction ofKonkan Railway in 1998. It is 760 km longrail route connecting Roha in Maharashtrato Mangalore in Karnataka. It is consideredan engineering marvel. It crosses 146 rivers,streams, nearly 2000 bridges and 91tunnels. Asia’s largest tunnel which is nearly6.5 km long, also lies on this route. Thestates of Maharashtra, Goa and Karnatakaare partners in this undertaking.


only 2,000 km are actually used. Similarly, outof 4,300 km of the network of navigable canal,only 900 km is navigable by mechanised vessels.

For the development, maintenance andregulation of national waterways in the country,the Inland Waterways Authority was set up in1986. The authority has declared three inland

purposes made them non navigable in largeparts of their courses. India has 14,500 km ofnavigable waterways, contributing about 1% tothe country’s transportation. It comprisesrivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc. Atpresent, 3,700 km of major rivers are navigableby mechanised flat bottom vessels, out of which

Fig. 10.8 : Natinal Waterway No.3

Waterways Stretch Specification Date of declaration

NW 1 A l l a h a b a d - H a l d i astretch (1,620 km)

It is one of the most important waterways inIndia, which is navigable by mechanical boatsup to Patna and by ordinary boats up toHaridwar. It is divided into three parts fordevelopmental purposes– (i) Haldia-Farakka (560km), (ii) Farakka-Patna (460 km), (iii) Patna-Allahabad (600 km).

27.10.1986

NW 2 Sadiya-Dhubri stretch(891 km)

Brahmaputra is navigable by steamers up toDibrugarh (1,384 km) which is shared by Indiaand Bangladesh

26.10.1988

NW 3 Kottapuram-Kollamstretch (205 km)

It includes 168 km of west coast canal alongwith Champakara canal (23 km) andUdyogmandal canal (14 km).

01.02.1991

Table 10.4 ; National Waterways of India


waterways as National Waterways as given inthe table 10.4.

Inland Waterways Authority has alsoidentified ten other inland waterways, whichcould be upgraded. The backwaters (Kadal) ofKerala has special significance in InlandWaterway. Apart from providing cheap meansof transport, they are also attracting largenumber of tourists in Kerala. The famous NehruTrophy Boat Race (VALLANKALI) is also heldin the backwaters.

Oceanic Routes

India has a vast coastline of approximate 7,517km, including islands. Twelve major and 185minor ports provide infrastructural support tothese routes. Oceanic routes play an importantrole in the transport sector of India’s economy.Approximately 95 per cent of India’s foreigntrade by volume and 70 per cent by value movesthrough ocean routes. Apart from internationaltrade, these are also used for the purpose oftransportation between the islands and the restof the country.

Air Transportation

Air transport is the fastest means of movementfrom one place to the other. It has reduced

distances by minimising the travel time. It isvery essential for a vast country like India,where distances are large and the terrain andclimatic conditions are diverse.

Air transport in India made a beginningin 1911 when airmail operation commencedover a little distance of 10 km betweenAllahabad and Naini. But its real developmenttook place in post-Independent period. TheAirport Authority of India is responsible forproviding safe, efficient air traffic andaeronautical communication services in theIndian Air Space. The authority manages 126airports including 11 international, 86 domesticand 29 civil enclaves at defence air fields.

The air transport in India is managed bytwo corporations, Air India and Indian Airlinesafter nationalisation. Now many privatecompanies have also started passenger services.

Air India

Air India provides International Air Services forboth passengers and cargo traffic. It connectsall the continents of the world through itsservices. In 2005, it carried 12.2 millionpassengers and 4.8 lakh metric tonnes of cargo.About 52 per cent of the total air traffic washandled only at Mumbai and Delhi airports.

History of Indian AirlinesHistory of Indian AirlinesHistory of Indian AirlinesHistory of Indian AirlinesHistory of Indian Airlines

1911 – Air transport in India was launched between Allahabad and Naini.

1947 – Air transport was provided by four major companies namely Indian National Airways, TataSons Limited, Air Services of India and Deccan Airways.

1951 – Four more companiesjoined the services, BharatAirways, Himalayan AviationLimited, Airways India and KalingaAirlines.

1953 – Air transport wasnationalised and two Corporations,Air India International and IndianAirlines were formed. Now IndianAirlines is known as ‘Indian’.


The country’s largest state-owned domesticcarrier, Indian Airlines dropped the word‘Airlines’ from its name and is known as‘Indian’ w.e.f. December 8, 2005. The newbrand name ‘Indian’ now appears on bothsides of the fuselage. The logo on theorange tail depicting ‘IA’ has also beenchanged. It has been replaced by a newlogo which is a partly visible blue wheel andis inspired by the Sun Temple at Konark(Orissa), symbolising timeless motion,convergence and divergence. It alsoembodies strength as well as trust that hasstood the test of time.

In 2005, domestic movement involved24.3 million passengers and 20 lakh metrictonnes of cargo.

Pawan Hans is the helicopter serviceoperating in hilly areas and is widely used bytourists in north-eastern sector.

In addition, Pawan Hans Limited mainlyprovides helicopter services to petroleum sectorand for tourism.

Open Sky PolicyOpen Sky PolicyOpen Sky PolicyOpen Sky PolicyOpen Sky Policy

To help the Indian exporters and make theirexport more competitive, the government hadintroduced an Open Sky Policy for cargo inApril 1992. Under this policy, foreign airlinesor association of exporters can bring anyfreighters to the country.

Oil and Gas PipelinesOil and Gas PipelinesOil and Gas PipelinesOil and Gas PipelinesOil and Gas Pipelines

Pipelines are the most convenient and efficientmode of transporting liquids and gases overlong distances. Even solids can also betransported by pipelines after converting theminto slurry. Oil India Limited (OIL) under theadministrative set up of the Ministry ofPetroleum and Natural Gas is engaged in theexploration, production and transportation ofcrude oil and natural gas. It was incorporatedin 1959 as a company. Asia’s first cross countrypipeline covering a distance of 1,157 km was

constructed by OIL from Naharkatiya oilfieldin Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar. It wasfurther extended up to Kanpur in 1966.Another extensive network of pipelines has beenconstructed in the western region of India ofwhich Ankleshwar-Koyali, Mumbai High-Koyali and Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ)are most important. Recently, a 1256 km longpipeline connecting Salaya (Gujarat) withMathura (U.P.) has been constructed. It suppliescrude oil from Gujarat to Punjab (Jalandhar)via Mathura. OIL is in the process ofconstructing of 660 km long pipeline fromNumaligarh to Siliguri.

Communication NetworksCommunication NetworksCommunication NetworksCommunication NetworksCommunication Networks

Human beings have evolved different methodsof communication over time. In earlier times,the messages were delivered by beating thedrum or hollow tree trunks, giving indicationsthrough smoke or fire or with the help of fastrunners. Horses, camels, dogs, birds and otheranimals were also used to send messages.Initially, the means of communication were alsothe means of transportation. Invention of post-office, telegraph, printing press, telephone,satellite, etc has made the communication muchfaster and easier. Development in the field ofscience and technology has significantlycontributed in bringing about revolution in thefield of communication.

People use different modes ofcommunication to convey the messages. On thebasis of scale and quality, the mode ofcommunication can be divided into followingcategories :


Personal Communication System

Among all the personal communication systeminternet is the most effective and advanced one. Itis widely used in urban areas. It enables the userto establish direct contact through e-mail to getaccess to the world of knowledge and information.It is increasingly used for e-commerce andcarrying out money transactions. The internet islike a huge central warehouse of data, withdetailed information on various items. Thenetwork through internet and e-mail provides anefficient access to information at a comparativelylow cost. It enables us with the basic facilities ofdirect communication. You might have noticedthe proliferation of cyber cafes in urban areas.

Mass Communication System

Radio

Radio broadcasting started in India in 1923 bythe Radio Club of Bombay. Since then, it gainedimmense popularity and changed the socio-cultural life of people. Within no time, it made aplace in every household of the country.Government took this opportunity and broughtthis popular mode of communication under itscontrol in 1930 under the Indian BroadcastingSystem. It was changed to All India Radio in1936 and to Akashwani in 1957.

All India Radio broadcasts a variety ofprogrammes related to information, educationand entertainment. Special news bulletins arealso broadcast at specific occasions like sessionof parliament and state legislatures.

Television (T.V.)

Television broadcasting has emerged as themost effective audio-visual medium fordisseminating information and educatingmasses. Initially, the T.V. services were limited

only to the National Capital where it began in1959. After 1972, several other centres becameoperational. In 1976, TV was delinked from AllIndia Radio (AIR) and got a separate identityas Doordarshan (DD). After INSAT-IA (NationalTelevision-DD1) became operational, CommonNational Programmes (CNP) were started for theentire network and its services were extendedto the backward and remote rural areas.

Satellite Communication

Satellites are mode of communication inthemselves as well as they regulate the use of othermeans of communication. However, use of satellitein getting a continuous and synoptic view oflarger area has made satellite communication veryvital for the country due to the economic andstrategic reasons. Satellite images can be usedfor the weather forecast, monitoring of naturalcalamities, surveillance of border areas, etc.

On the basis of configuration and purposes,satellite system in India can be grouped into two:Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) andIndian Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS). TheINSAT, which was established in 1983,is a multi-purpose satellite system for telecommunication,meteorological observation and for various otherdata and programmes.

The IRS satellite system becameoperational with the launching of IRS-IA inMarch 1988 from Vaikanour in Russia. Indiahas also developed her own Launching VehiclePSLV (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle). Thesesatellites collect data in several spectral bandsand transmit them to the ground stations forvarious uses. The National Remote SensingAgency (NRSA) at Hyderabad provides facilitiesfor acquisition of data and its processing. Theseare very useful in the management of naturalresources.




(i) In how many zones has the Indian Railways system been divided?

(a) 9 (c) 16

(b) 12 (d) 14

(ii) Which one of the following is the longest highway of India?

(a) N.H.-1 (c) N.H.-7

(b) N.H.-6 (d) N.H.-8

(iii) On which river and between which two places does the National WaterWay No. 1 lie?

(a) The Brahmaputra, Sadiya-Dhubri

(b) The Ganga, Haldia-Allahabad

(c) West Coast Canal, Kottapuram to Kollam

(iv) In which of the following year, the first radio programme was broadcast?

(a) 1911 (c) 1927

(b) 1936 (d) 1923


(i) Which activity does transportation convey? Name three major modes oftransportation.

(ii) Discuss advantages and disadvantages of pipeline transportation.

(iii) What do you mean by ‘communication’?

(iv) Discuss the contribution of Air India and Indian in the air transport ofIndia.


(i) Which are the chief means of transportation in India? Discuss the factorsaffecting their development.

(ii) Give a detailed account of the development of railways in India andhighlight their importance.

(iii) Describe the role of roads in the economic development of India.

ProjectProjectProjectProjectProject

Find out the facilities that Indian Railways provide to the passengers.

Unit IVUnit IVUnit IVUnit IVUnit IVChapter 11

INTERNATIONAL

TRADE

You have already studied about the variousaspects of International trade in the bookFundamentals of Human Geography.International Trade is mutually beneficial asno country is self-sufficient. India’sInternational trade has undergone a sea changein recent years in terms of volume, compositionas well as direction. Although India’scontribution in the world trade is as low as oneper cent of the total volume, yet it plays asignificant role in the world economy.

Let us examine the changing pattern ofIndia’s International trade. In 1950-51, India’sexternal trade was worth Rs.1,2140 million,which rose to Rs.8,37,1330 million in 2004-05.Can you calculate the percentage growth in2004-2005 over 1950-51? There are numerousreasons for this sharp rise in overseas trade,such as, the momentum picked up by themanufacturing sectors, the liberal policies of thegovernment and the diversification of markets.

The nature of India’s foreign trade haschanged over the years (Table 11.1). Thoughthere has been an increase in the total volumeof import and export, the value of importcontinued to be higher than that of exports.There has also been an increase in trade deficitover the last couple of years. This increase indeficit is attributed to the price rise of crudepetroleum which forms a major component ofIndia’s import list.

Changing PChanging PChanging PChanging PChanging Paaaaattern ofttern ofttern ofttern ofttern of the Composition of the Composition of the Composition of the Composition of the Composition ofIndia’India’India’India’India’s Expors Expors Expors Expors Exportststststs

Source : Statistical Abstract, 2005Fig. 11.1


Study the data in table 11.2 and answer the followingquestions :

Why is the export of agricultural and allied productsdeclining continuously after 1997-98?

After attaining a peak in 1999-2000, why has the exportof manufacturing goods started decreasing?

Draw bar diagram to show the trends of exports of allitems given in the table. Use pen/pencil of differentcolours.

The decline in traditional items is largely dueto the tough international competition. Amongstthe agricultural products, there is a great declinein the exports of traditional items such as coffee,spices, tea, pulses, etc. though an increase hasbeen registered in floricultural products, freshfruits, marine products and sugar, etc.

Manufacturing sector alone accounted for75.96 per cent of India’s total value of export in2003-04. Engineering goods have shown asignificant growth in the export list. Textile sectorcould not achieve much in spite of the liberalmeasures taken by the government. China andother East Asian countries are our major

Year Exports Imports Total Trade Trade Deficit

1994-95 826,740 899,710 1,72,6450 -72,970

2000-01 2,03,5710 2,30,8730 4,34,4440 -273,020

2004-05(P) 3,56,0690 4,81,0640 8,37,1330 -1,24,9950

Table 11.1 India’s Foreign Trade(in Million Rs.)

*P- Stands for provisional dataSource : Statistical Abstract, 2005

Commodities 1997-98 1999-2000 2000-01 2003-04

Agriculture and allied products 18.93 15.27 13.55 11.8

Ore and Minerals 3.03 2.5 2.62 3.71

Manufactured goods 75.83 80.93 77.9 75.96

Petroleum and crude products 1.01 0.08 4.29 5.59

Other commodities 1.2 1.22 1.64 2.94

Table 11.2 : Composition of India’s Export, 1997-2004(Percentage share in Exports)

Source : Foreign Trade and Balance of Payments, Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy.

As has already been mentioned, thecomposition of commodities in India’sinternational trade has been undergoing achange over the years. The share of agricultureand allied products has declined whereasshares of petroleum and crude products andother commodities have increased. The sharesof ore minerals and manufactured goods havelargely remained constant over the years from1997-98 to 2003-04. The increase in the shareof petroleum products is due to a rise inpetroleum prices as well as increase in India’srefining capacity.

competitors. Gems and jewellery contributes alarger share of India’s foreign trade.

Study table 11.3 and select 8 major commoditiesexported in 2004-05 and draw bar diagram.

Changing Patterns of the Composition ofIndia’s Import

India faced serious food shortage during 1950sand 1960s. The major item of import at that

International Trade 127

time was foodgrain, capital goods, machineryand equipments. The balance of payment wasadverse as imports were more than export inspite of all the efforts of import substitution.After 1970s, foodgrain import was discontinueddue to the success of green revolution but theenergy crisis of 1973 pushed the prices ofpetroleum, and import budget was also pushedup. Foodgrain import was replaced by fertilisersand petroleum. Machine and equipment,special steel, edible oil and chemicals largelymake the import basket. Examine the changingpattern of imports in Table 11.4 and try tocomprehend the shifts.

Table 11.4 shows that there is a steep risein imports of petroleum products. It is used notonly as a fuel but also as an industrial rawmaterial. It indicates the tempo of rising

Commodities 1997-98 2000-01 2003-04

Petroleum crude and products 19.68 31.32 26.32

Capital goods 19.18 11.48 13.99

Chemical and related products 11.33 7.71 7.99

Textile yarn and fabrics 0.99 1.19 1.61

Food and related items 4.04 3.37 4.36

Pearls and semi-precious stones 8.06 9.62 9.12

Gold and Silver 7.64 9.28 8.77

Others 29.08 25.53 27.84

Table 11.4 : India Composition of Import 1997-2004(In percentage)

Source : Foreign Trade and Balance of Payments, Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy.

Commodities 2004-05 (00 Rs.)

Agriculture and allied Products 27,111

Ore and Minerals 18,842

Leather and manufactures 10,286

Gems and Jewellery 61,581

Chemical and related products 56,961

Engineering goods 65,543

Electronic goods 8,106

Textiles 53,996

Handicrafts 1,543

Carpets 2,679

Petroleum products 30,518

Table 11.3 : Export of Principal Commodities

Source : India 2006, Publication Division, Ministry ofInformation and Broadcasting, Govt. of India

industrialisation and better standard of living.Sporadic price rise in the international marketis another reason for the same. Import of capitalgoods maintained a steady increase due to risingdemand in the export-oriented industrial anddomestic sectors. Non-electrical machinery,transport equipment, manufacturers of metalsand machine tools were the main items ofcapital goods. Import of food and alliedproducts declined with a fall in imports ofedible oils. Other major items of India’s importinclude pearls and semi precious stones, goldand silver, metalliferrous ores and metal scrap,non-ferrous metals, electronic goods, etc. Thedetails of Indian imports of principalcommodities during 2004-05 have been givenin table 11.5.

Based on table 11.5, few activities may beundertaken:

Arrange the items in ascending ordescending order and write the names ofthe first five major items of India’s importlist of 2004-05.

Why does India import edible oil and pulsesin spite of being an agriculturally richcountry?

Select five most important and five leastimportant items and represent them by bardiagram.

Can you identify some items of imports forwhich substitutes can be developed inIndia?


Direction of Trade

India has trade relations with most of thecountries and major trading blocks of theworld.

Region-wise and sub-region-wise tradeduring the period 2004-05 has been given intable 11.6.

India aims to double its share in theinternational trade within the next five years. Ithas already started adopting suitable measuressuch as import liberalisation, reduction inimport duties, de-licensing and change fromprocess to product patents.

Asia and Oceania accounted for 47.41 percent of India’s export followed by West Europe(23.80 per cent) and America (20.42). Similarly,India’s imports were highest from Asia andOceania (35.40 per cent) followed by WestEurope (22.60 per cent) and America (8.36 percent) in 2004-05.

The U.S.A. is India’s largest tradingpartner and the most important destination ofIndia’s export. Other countries in order ofsignificance include the U.K., Belgium,Germany, Japan, Switzerland, Hong Kong, theU.A.E., China, Singapore and Malaysia.

Draw a multiple bar diagram to represent the majortrading partners.

Most of India’s foreign trade is carriedthrough sea and air routes. However, a smallportion is also carried through land route toneighbouring countries like Nepal, Bhutan,Bangladesh and Pakistan.

Commodities 2004-05

Fertilisers 5,53

Edible oil 10,75

Pulp and waste paper 2,12

Paper board and manufactures 3,04

Newsprint 1,70

Non-ferrous metals 5,63

Metalliferous ores and metal scrap 10,65

Iron and steel 11,67

Petroleum crude and products 1,34,09

Pearls, precious and semi precious stones 42,34

Machinery 48,12

Pulses 12,58

Coal, Coke and briquettes 2,03

Non-metallic minerals manufactures 23,97

Medicinal and Pharma products 6,27

Chemical products 2,46

Other textile yarn, fabrics, etc. 3,98

Professional instruments, etc. 43,75

Gold and silver 48,63

Table 11.5 : Import of PrincipalCommodities

(in million rupees)

Source : India 2006

Region Imports

2003-04 2004-05

West Europe 85,88 1,08,71

East Europe 43 85

CIS and Baltic states 5,79 8,32

Asia and Oceania 1,24,76 1,70,28

Africa 14,69 16,80

America 31,82 40,20

Latin Americancountries 5,35 8,55

Table 11.6 Direction of India’s Import trade(in million rupees)

Source : India 2006

Fig. 11.2


Sea PSea PSea PSea PSea Porororororts as Gats as Gats as Gats as Gats as Gatetetetetewwwwwaaaaayyyyys ofs ofs ofs ofs of Interna Interna Interna Interna InternationaltionaltionaltionaltionalTTTTTrrrrradeadeadeadeade

India is surrounded by sea from three sides andis bestowed with a long coastline. Water

provides a smooth surface for very cheaptransport provided there is no turbulence. Indiahas a long tradition of sea faring and developedmany ports with place name suffixed withpattan meaning port. An interesting fact aboutports in India is that its west coast has moreseaports than its east coast.

Can you find out the reasons for thevariations in the location of ports alongthe two coasts?

Though ports have been in use sinceancient times, the emergence of ports asgateways of international trade becameimportant after the coming of the Europeantraders and colonisation of the country by theBritish. This led to the variation in the size andquality of ports. There are some ports whichhave very vast area of influence and some havelimited area of influence. At present, India has12 major ports and 185 minor or intermediateports. In case of the major ports, centralgovernment decides the policy and playsregulatory functions. The minor ports are therewhose policy and functions are regulated bystate governments. The major ports handlelarger share of the total traffic. The 12 majorports handle about 75 per cent of the country’soceanic traffic.

The British used the ports as suctionpoints of the resources from their hinterlands.The extension of railways towards the interiorfacilitated the linking of the local markets toregional markets, regional markets to nationalmarkets and national markets to theinternational markets. This trend continued till1947. It was expected that the country’sindependence will reverse the process, but thepartition of the country snatched away two veryimportant ports i.e. Karachi port went toPakistan and Chittagong port to the erstwhileeast-Pakistan and now Bangladesh. Tocompensate the losses, many new ports like theKandla in the west and the Diamond Harbournear Kolkata on river Hugli in the east weredeveloped.

Despite this major setback, Indian portscontinued to grow after the Independence.

Country 2000-01 2003-04

U.S.A. 13.0 10.3

U.K. 5.7 3.7

Belgium 4.6 3.7

Germany 3.9 3.5

Japan 3.8 2.7

Switzerland 3.8 3.3

Hong Kong 3.7 2.8

U.A.E. 3.4 6.2

China 2.5 6.4

Singapore 2.5 3.4

Malaysia 1.9 1.7

Total 48.6 47.7

Table 11.7 India’s Major TradingPartners’ Percentage share in total

trade (Export + Import)

Source : Economic Survey 2005-06

Fig. 11.3 : Unloading of goods on port


Fig. 11.4 : India – Major Ports and Sea Routes


Today Indian ports are handling large volumesof domestic as well as overseas trade. Most ofthe ports are equipped with moderninfrastructure. Previously the development andmodernisation was the responsibility of thegovernment agencies, but considering theincrease in function and need to bring theseports at par with the international ports, privateentrepreneurs have been invited for themodernisation of ports in India.

The capacity of Indian ports increased from20 million tonnes of cargo handling in 1951 tomore than 500 million tonnes at present.

Some of the Indian ports along with theirhinterlands are as follows :

Kandla Port situated at the head of Gulf ofKuchchh has been developed as a major port tocater to the needs of western and north westernparts of the country and also to reduce thepressure at Mumbai port. The port is speciallydesigned to receive large quantities of petroleumand petroleum products and fertiliser. Theoffshore terminal at Vadinar has been developedto reduce the pressure at Kandla port.

Demarcation of the boundary of thehinterland would be difficult as it is not fixedover space. In most of the cases, hinterland ofone port may overlap with that of the other.

Mumbai is a natural harbour and thebiggest port of the country. The port is situatedcloser to the general routes from the countriesof Middle East, Mediterranean countries, NorthAfrica, North America and Europe where themajor share of country’s overseas trade iscarried out. The port is 20 km long and 6-10km wide with 54 berths and has the country’slargest oil terminal. M.P., Maharashtra, Gujarat,U.P. and parts of Rajasthan constitute the mainhinterlands of Mumbai ports.

Jawaharlal Nehru Port at Nhava Shevawas developed as a satellite port to relieve thepressure at the Mumbai port. It is the largestcontainer port in India.

Marmagao Port, situated at the entranceof the Zuari estuary, is a natural harbour inGoa. It gained significance after its remodellingin 1961 to handle iron-ore exports to Japan.Construction of Konkan railway hasconsiderably extended the hinterland of this

port. Karnataka, Goa, Southern Maharashtraconstitute its hinterland.

New Mangalore Port is located in the stateof Karnataka and caters to the needs of theexport of iron-ore and iron-concentrates. It alsohandles fertilisers, petroleum products, edibleoils, coffee, tea, wood pulp, yarn, granite stone,molasses, etc. Karnataka is the majorhinterland for this port.

Kochchi Port, situated at the head ofVembanad Kayal, popularly known as the“Queen of the Arabian Sea,” is also a naturalharbour. This port has an advantageouslocation being close to the Suez-Colombo route.It caters to the needs of Kerala, southern-Karnataka and south western Tamil Nadu.

Kolkata Port is located on the Hugli river,128 km inland from the Bay of Bengal. Like theMumbai port, this port was also developed bythe British. Kolkata had the initial advantageof being the capital of British India. The porthas lost its significance considerably on accountof the diversion of exports to the other portssuch as Vishakhapatnam, Paradwip and itssatellite port, Haldia.

Kolkata port is also confronted with theproblem of silt accumulation in the Hugli riverwhich provides a link to the sea. Its hinterlandcovers U.P., Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal,Sikkim and the north-eastern states. Apart fromthis, it also extends ports facilities to ourneighbouring land-locked countries such asNepal and Bhutan.

Haldia Port is located 105 kmdownstream from Kolkata. It has beenconstructed to reduce the congestion at Kolkataport. It handles bulk cargo like iron ore, coal,petroleum, petroleum products and fertilisers,jute, jute products, cotton and cotton yarn, etc.

Paradwip Port is situated in the Mahanadidelta, about 100 km from Cuttack. It has thedeepest harbour specially suited to handle verylarge vessels. It has been developed mainly tohandle large-scale export of iron-ore. Orissa,Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand are the parts ofits hinterland.

Visakhapatnam Port in Andhra Pradeshis a land-locked harbour, connected to the seaby a channel cut through solid rock and sand.


Fig. 11.5 : India – Air Routes




(i) Trade between two countries is termed as

(a) Internal trade (c) International trade

(b) External trade (d) Local trade

(ii) Which one of the following is a land locked harbour?

(a) Vishakhapatnam (c) Ennor

(b) Mumbai (d) Haldia

(iii) Most of India’s foreign trade is carried through

(a) Land and sea (c) Sea and air

(b) Land and air (d) Sea

(iv) Which one of the following is India’s largest trading partner (2004-05)

(a) U.K. (c) Germany

(b) China (d) U.S.A.

An outer harbour has been developed forhandling iron-ore, petroleum and generalcargo. Andhra Pradesh is the main hinterlandfor this port.

Chennai Port is one of the oldest ports onthe eastern coast. It is an artificial harbour builtin 1859. It is not much suitable for large shipsbecause of the shallow waters near the coast.Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry are its hinterland.

Ennore, a newly developed port in TamilNadu, has been constructed 25 km north ofChennai to relieve the pressure at Chennai port.

Tuticorin Port was also developed torelieve the pressure of Chennai port. It dealswith a variety of cargo including coal, salt, foodgrains, edible oils, sugar, chemicals andpetroleum products.

Airports

Air transport plays an important role in theinternational trade. It has the advantage oftaking the least time for carriage and handlinghigh value or perishable goods over longdistances. It is very costly and unsuitable for

carrying heavy and bulky commodities. Thisultimately reduces the participation of thissector in the international trade as comparedto the oceanic routes.

At present, there are 12 internationalairports and 112 domestic airports functioningin the country. They are– Ahmedabad,Amritsar, Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi, Goa,Guwahati, Hyderabad, Kochchi, Kolkata,Mumbai and Tiruvanantapuram.

You have already studied about the airtransport in the previous chapter. You consultthe chapter on transport to find out the mainfeatures of air transport in India.

Name the nearest domestic and international airportsfrom your place. Identify the state with maximum numberof domestic airports.

Identify four cities where maximum number of air routesconverge and also give reasons for this.



(i) Mention the characteristics of India’s foreign trade.

(ii) Distinguish between port and harbour.

(iii) Explain the meaning of hinterland.

(iv) Name important items which India imports from different countries.

(v) Name the ports of India located on the east coast.


(i) Describe the composition of export and import trade of India.

(ii) Write a note on the changing nature of the international trade of India.

Unit VUnit VUnit VUnit VUnit VChapter 12

GEOGRAPHICAL

PERSPECTIVE ON

SELECTED ISSUES

AND PROBLEMS

EnEnEnEnEnvirvirvirvirvironmental Ponmental Ponmental Ponmental Ponmental Pollutionollutionollutionollutionollution

Environmental pollution results from ‘therelease of substances and energy from wasteproducts of human activities. There are manytypes of pollution. They are classified on thebasis of medium through which pollutants aretransported and diffused. Pollution can beclassified into (i) air pollution, (ii) waterpollution, (iii) land pollution and (iv) noisepollution.

Water Pollution

Indiscriminate use of water by increasingpopulation and industrial expansion has leddegradation of the quality of water considerably.Surface water available from rivers, canals,lakes, etc. is never pure. It contains smallquantities of suspended particles, organic andinorganic substances. When concentration ofthese substances increases, the water becomespolluted, and hence becomes unfit for use. Insuch a situation, the self-purifying capacity ofwater is unable to purify the water.

Though water pollutants are also createdfrom natural sources (erosion, landslides,decay and decomposition of plants andanimals, etc.) pollutants from human sourcesare the real causes of concern. Human beingspollute the water through industrial,agricultural and cultural activities. Amongthese activities, industry is the most significantcontributor.

Fig.12.1 : Cutting Through Effluent : Rowingthrough a pervasive layer of foam on the heavily

polluted Yamuna on the outskirts of New Delhi


Pollution Types Pollution Involved Sources of Pollution

Air Pollution Oxides of sulphur (SO2, SO3), Oxides ofnitrogen, carbon monoxide, hydro-carbon,ammonia, lead, aldehydes asbestos and beryllium.

Combustion of coal, petrol and diesel,industrial processes, solid waste disposal,sewage disposal, etc.

Water Pollution Odour, dissolved and suspended solids,ammonia and urea, nitrate and nitrites,chloride, fluoride, carbonates, oil and grease,insecticide and pesticide residue, tannin,coliform MPM (bacterial count) sulphates andsulphides, heavy metals e.g. lead, aresenic,mercury, manganese, etc., radioactivesubstances.

Sewage disposal, urban run-off, toxiceffluents from industries, run-off overcultivated lands and nuclear power plants.

Land Pollution Human and animal excreta viruses andbacteria, garbage and vectors therein,pesticides and fertiliser-residue alkalinity,fluorides, radio-active substances.

Improper human activities, disposal ofuntreated industrial waste, use of pesticidesand fertilisers.

Noise Pollution High level of noise above tolerance level. Aircrafts, automobiles, trains, industrialprocessing and advertising media.

Table 12.1 : Types and Sources of Pollution

Industries produce several undesirableproducts including industrial wastes, pollutedwaste water, poisonous gases, chemicalresiduals, numerous heavy metals, dust,smoke, etc. Most of the industrial wastes aredisposed off in running water or lakes.Consequently, poisonous elements reach thereservoirs, rivers and other water bodies, whichdestroy the bio-system of these waters. Majorwater polluting industries are leather, pulp andpaper, textiles and chemicals.

River and State Polluted Stretches Nature of Pollution Main Polluters

Ganga(Uttar Pradesh)

Biharand

West Bengal

(a) Downstream of Kanpur(b) Downstream of Varanasi(c) Farrakka Barrage

1. Industrial pollution fromtowns like Kanpur

2. Domestic wastes fromurban centres

3. Dumping of carcasses inthe river

Table 12.2 : Sources of Pollution in the Ganga and the Yamuna Rivers

Cities of Kanpur, Allahabad,Varanasi, Patna and Kolkatarelease domestic waste into theriver

Yamuna(Delhi)

and(Uttar Pradesh)

(a) Delhi to confluence withChambal

(b) Mathura and Agra

1. Extraction of water byHaryana and UttarPradesh for irrigation

2. Agricultural run offresulting in high levels ofmicro-pollutants in theYamuna

3. Domestic and industrialwaste of Delhi flowinginto the river

Delhi dumping its domesticwaste

Various types of chemicals used in modernagriculture such as inorganic fertilisers,pesticides and herbicides are also pollutiongenerating components. These chemicals arewashed down to rivers, lakes and tanks. Thesechemicals also infiltrate the soil to reach theground water. Fertiliser induces an increase inthe nitrate content of surface waters. Culturalactivities such as pilgrimage, religious fairs,tourism, etc. also cause water pollution. InIndia, almost all surface water sources are

Geographical perspective on selected issues and problems 137

contaminated and unfit for humanconsumption.

Water pollution is a source of variouswater borne diseases. The diseases commonlycaused due to contaminated water arediarrhoea, intestinal worms, hepatitis, etc. WorldHealth Organisation shows that about one-fourth of the communicable diseases in Indiaare water-borne.

Air Pollution

Air pollution is taken as addition ofcontaminants like dust, fumes, gas, fog, odour,smoke or vapour to the air in substantialproportion and duration that may be harmfulto flora and fauna and to property. Withincreasing use of varieties of fuels as source of

energy, there is a marked increase in emissionof toxic gases into the atmosphere resulting inthe pollution of air. Combustion of fossil fuels,mining and industries are the main sources ofair pollution. These processes release oxidesof sulphur and nitrogen, hydrocarbons,carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, lead andasbestos.

Air pollution causes various diseasesrelated to respiratory, nervous and circulatorysystems.

Smoky fog over cities called as urban smogis caused by atmospheric pollution. It provesvery harmful to human health. Air pollution canalso cause acid rains. Rainwater analysis ofurban environment has indicated that pH valueof the first rain after summer is always lowerthan the subsequent rains.

Smog in Mumbai


Urban Waste DisposalUrban Waste DisposalUrban Waste DisposalUrban Waste DisposalUrban Waste Disposal

Urban areas are generally marked byovercrowding, congestion, inadequatefacilities to support the fast growingpopulation and consequent poor sanitaryconditions and foul air. Environmentalpollution by solid wastes has now gotsignificance because of enormous growth inthe quantity of wastes generated from varioussources. Solid waste refers to a variety of oldand used articles, For example stained smallpieces of metals, broken glasswares, plasticcontainers, polythene bags, ashes, floppies,CDs, etc. dumped at different places. Thesediscarded materials are also termed asrefuse, garbage and rubbish, etc. and aredisposed of from two sources : (i) householdor domestic establishments, and ( i i )industrial or commercial establishments. Thehousehold wastes is disposed off either onpublic lands or on private contractors’ sites,whereas the solid wastes of industrial units

Noise Pollution

Noise pollution refers to the state of unbearableand uncomfortable to human beings which iscaused by noise from different sources. Thismatter has become a serious concern only inrecent years due to a variety of technologicalinnovations.

The main sources of noise pollution arevarious factories, mechanised constructionand demolition works, automobiles andaircrafts, etc. There may be added periodicalbut polluting noise from sirens, loudspeakersused in various festivals, programmesassociated with community activities. The levelof steady noise is measured by sound levelexpressed in terms of decibels (dB).

Of all these sources, the biggest nuisanceis the noise produced by traffic, because itsintensity and nature depend upon such factors

Fig. 12.2 : Noise monitoring at PanchpatmalaiBauxite Mine

as the type of aircraft, vehicle, train and thecondition of road as well as that of vehicle (incase of automobiles). In sea traffic, the noisepollution is confined to the harbour due toloading and unloading activities being carried.Industries cause noise pollution but withvarying intensity depending upon the type ofindustry.

Noise pollution is location specific and itsintensity declines with increase in distance fromthe source of pollution, i.e. industrial areas,arteries of transportation, airport, etc. Noisepollution is hazardous in many metropolitanand big cities in India.


are collected and disposed off through public(municipal) facilities at low lying publicgrounds (landfill areas). The huge turn outof ashes and debris from industries, thermalpower houses and building constructions ordemolitions have posed problems of seriousconsequences. Solid wastes cause healthhazard through creation of obnoxious smell,and harbouring of flies and rodents, whichact as carriers of diseases like typhoid,diphtheria, diarrhoea, malaria and cholera,etc. These wastes cause frequent nuisanceas and when these are carelessly handled,spread by wind and splittered through rainwater.

Concentration of industrial units in andaround urban centres gives rise to disposalof industrial wastes. The dumping ofindustrial waste into rivers leads to waterpollution. River pollution from city-basedindustries and untreated sewage leads toserious health problems downstream.

Urban waste disposal is a seriousproblem in India. In metropolitan cities likeMumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, etc.,

Case Study : Case Study : Case Study : Case Study : Case Study : A Role Model to Restore the Ecology and SafeguardA Role Model to Restore the Ecology and SafeguardA Role Model to Restore the Ecology and SafeguardA Role Model to Restore the Ecology and SafeguardA Role Model to Restore the Ecology and Safeguard

Human Health Human Health Human Health Human Health Human Health in Dauralain Dauralain Dauralain Dauralain Daurala

Based on the universal law “Polluter pays”, a silent but strong effort to restore the ecology and safeguard thehuman health with people’s participation has taken place in Daurala near Meerut. These efforts are nowbearing fruits after a span of three years when Meerut based NGO had developed a model for ecologicalrestoration. The recent meeting of the Daurala Industries officials, NGOs. Government officials and otherstakeholders at Meerut has brought out results which usually come out mainly through the Court’s decisions.The powerful logics, authentic studies and the pressure of the NGO has in a way brought a new lease of lifeto the twelve thousands residents of this village. It was in the year 2003, that the pitiable condition of Dauralaitesdrew the attention of the civil society. The groundwater of this village with a population of 12,000 persons wascontaminated with heavy metals. The reason was that the untreated wastewater of Daurala industries wasleaching to the groundwater table and was also being used for irrigation. The activists of the NGO conducteda door to door survey of the health status of the residents and came out with a report. The group reported that192 deaths in the past five years have been recorded in the village due to consumption of contaminated water.The industry came under pressure due to activism. The organisation, the village community and people’srepresentatives sat together to find out sustainable solutions to this problem. The industrialists showed akeen interest towards checking the deteriorating ecology. The overhead water tank’s capacity in the villagewas enhanced and a 900m extra pipeline was laid to serve potable water to the community. The silted pondof the village has been cleaned and recharged by desilting it. Large quantity of silt was removed paving wayto pure water so that it percolated deep down the aquifers. Rainwater harvesting structures have beenconstructed at different places which has helped in diluting the contaminants of the groundwater after themonsoons. 1000 trees have also been planted which have improved the environment.

about 90 per cent of the solid waste iscollected and disposed. But in most of othercities and towns in the country, about 30


to 50 per cent of the waste generated areleft uncollected which accumulate onstreets, in open spaces between houses andin wastelands leading to serious healthhazards. These wastes should be treated asresource and utilised for generating energyand compost. Untreated wastes fermentslowly and release toxic biogas to theatmosphere, including methane.

What do we throw away? Why?

Where does our waste end up?

Why do ragpickers sort out rubbish dumps? Does ithave some value?

Is our urban waste worth anything?

Rural-Urban Rural-Urban Rural-Urban Rural-Urban Rural-Urban MigrationMigrationMigrationMigrationMigration

Population flow from rural to urban areas iscaused by many factors like high demand forlabour in urban areas, low job opportunitiesin rural areas and unbalanced pattern ofdevelopment between urban and rural areas.In India population in cities is rapidlyincreasing. Due to low opportunities in smallerand medium cities, the poor people generallybypass these small cities and directly come tothe mega cities for their livelihood.

A case study given below to have betterunderstanding of the subject. Read it carefullyand try to comprehend the process of ruralurban migration.

A Case StudyA Case StudyA Case StudyA Case StudyA Case Study

Ramesh has been working in contract as awelder on construction site in Talcher (Coastalregion of Orissa) for the last two years. Hemoved with the contractor to various placeslike Surat, Mumbai, Gandhi Nagar, Bharuch,Jamnagar and so on. He remits Rs. 20,000 peryear to his father in his native village. Theremittances have been mainly used for dailyconsumption, health care, schooling ofchildren, etc. Part of the money is also used inagriculture, purchasing of land and buildingof houses, etc. The standard of living ofRamesh’s family improved significantly.

Fifteen years ago, the situation was not thesame. The family was passing through very

At present, 47 per cent of the world’s six billion population lives in cities and more will join them innear future. This proportion is estimated to go up to 50 per cent by 2008. That will put pressure ongovernments to make urban areas better places to live with optimum infrastructure facilities fordesirable quality of life.

By 2050, an estimated two-thirds of the world’s population will live in urban areas, imposing evenmore pressure on the space infrastructure and resources of cities, which are manifested in terms ofsanitary, health, crime problems and urban poverty.

Urban population grows as a result of natural increase (when birth rate exceeds death rate), net in-migration (when people move in than out), and sometimes reclassification of urban areas to encompassformerly rural population settlements. In India, it is estimated that after 1961 around 60 per cent of theurban growth has been attributed and 29 per cent of them from rural areas to urban migration.

Fig. 12.3 : A view of urban waste in Mahim, Mumbai


tough times. Three of his brothers and theirfamilies had to survive on three acres of land.The family was highly in debt. Ramesh had todiscontinue his studies after ninth standard. Hewas further hard pressed when he got married.

Simultaneously, he was also impressed bysome successful out-migrants of his village whohad been working in Ludhiana and supportingtheir families in village by sending money andsome consumer goods. Thus, due to abjectpoverty in the family and perceived job promisesat Ludhiana, he made a move to Punjab withhis friend. He worked there in a woolen factoryfor six months at the rate of only Rs. 20 per dayin 1988. Apart from the crisis of managing hispersonal expenditure from this meagre income,he was also facing difficulty in assimilation tothe new culture and environment. Then hedecided to change his place of work fromLudhiana to Surat under the guidance of hisfriend. He learnt the skills of welding in Suratand after that he has been moving to different

places with the same contractor. Though theeconomic condition of Ramesh‘s family at villageimproved, he is bearing the pain of separationof his near and dear ones. He cannot shift themwith him, as the job is temporary andtransferable.

Comments

In developing countries, poor, semi-illiterate andthe unskilled like Ramesh migrating from ruralareas frequently end up performing menial jobsat low wages in informal sector in urban areas.Since wages are very low to support the familyat the place of destination, the spouses are leftbehind in rural areas to look after children andelderly people. Thus, the rural-urban migrationstream is dominated by the males.

PrPrPrPrProboboboboblems lems lems lems lems ofofofofof Slums Slums Slums Slums SlumsThe concept “Urban or Urban Centre” is definedin settlement geography to differentiate it from

Have you visited a slum?Visit a slum in your city, andwrite about the problemsfaced by slum dwellers.


the “Rural” about which you have learnt insome previous chapters of this book. You havealso learnt in the book entitled “Fundamentalsof Human Geography” that this concept isdefined differently in different countries.

Both urban and rural settlements aredifferent in their functions, sometimes,

Dharavi–Asia’s Largest Slum

“…. Buses merely skirt the periphery. Autorickshaws cannot gothere, Dharavi is part of central Bombay where three wheelers arebanned.

Only one main road traverses the slum, the miscalled ‘ninety-footroad’, which has been reduced to less than half of that for most ofits length. Some of the side alleys and lanes are so narrow that not

even a bicycle can pass. The whole neighbourhood consists of temporary buildings, two or threestoreyed high with rusty iron stairways to the upper part, where a single room is rented by a wholefamily, sometimes accommodating twelve or more people; it is a kind of tropical version of theindustrial dwelling of Victorian London’s East End.

But Dharavi is a keeper of more sombre secrets than the revulsion it inspires in the rich; a revulsion,moreover, that is, in direct proportion to the role it serves in the creation of the wealth of Bombay. Inthis place of shadowless, treeless sunlight, uncollected garbage, stagnant pools of foul water, wherethe only non-human creatures are the shining black crows and long grey rats, some of the mostbeautiful, valuable and useful articles in India are made. From Dharavi come delicate ceramics andpottery, exquisite embroidery and zari work, sophisticated leather goods, high-fashion garments,finely-wrought metalwork, delicate jewellery settings, wood carvings and furniture that would find itsway into the richest houses, both in India and abroad…

Dharavi was an arm of the sea, that was filled by waste, largely produced by the people who havecome to live there: Scheduled Castes and poor Muslims. It comprises rambling buildings of corrugatedmetal, 20 metres high in places, used for the treatment of hides and tanning. There are pleasantparts, but rotting garbage is everywhere…”

(Seabrook, 1996, pp. 50, 51-52)

complementing each other. Apart from these, ruraland urban areas have also emerged into twoseparate cultural, social, political, economic andtechnological divide.

India, which has a predominance of ruralpopulation (approximately 72 per cent of thetotal population in 2001) and where villages


were considered the ideal republics byMahatma Gandhi, most of the rural areas arestill poor performing primary activities. Heremost of the villages exist as appendix to the coreurban centre forming its hinterland.

This may give an impression that urbancentres exist as undifferentiated homogeneousentities in opposition to the rural areas. On thecontrary, urban centres in India are moredifferentiated in terms of the socio-economic,politico-cultural and other indicators ofdevelopment than any other areas. At the top,there are farm houses and high income grouplocalities characterised by well-developedurban infrastructures like wide roads, streetlights, water and sanitation facilities, lawns,well-developed green belt, parks, play groundsand provisions for individual security and rightto privacy. At the other extreme of it are the“slums”, jhuggi-jhopari” clusters and coloniesof shanty structures. These are inhabited bythose people who were forced to migrate fromthe rural areas to these urban centres in searchof livelihood but could not afford properhousing due to high rent and high costsof land. They occupy environmentallyincompatible and degraded areas.

Slums are residential areas of the leastchoice, dillapidated houses, poor hygienicconditions, poor ventilation, lack of basicamenities like drinking water, light and toiletfacilities, etc. These areas are overcrowdedhaving narrow street pattern prone to serioushazards from fire. Moreover, most of the slumpopulation works in low paid, high risk-prone,unorganised sectors of the urban economy.Consequently, they are the undernourished,prone to different types of diseases and illnessand can ill afford to give proper education totheir children. The poverty makes themvulnerable to drug abuse, alcoholism, crime,vandalism, escapism, apathy and ultimatelysocial exclusion.

Why are the children of slum-dwellersdeprived of school education?

Land DegradationLand DegradationLand DegradationLand DegradationLand Degradation

The pressure on agricultural land increases notonly due to the limited availability but also bydeterioration of quality of agricultural land. Soilerosion, water -logging, salinisation andalkalinisation of land lead to land degradation.What happens if land is consistently usedwithout managing its fertility? Land is degradedand productivity declines. Land degradation isgenerally understood either as a temporary ora permanent decline in productive capacity ofthe land.

Though all degraded land may not bewasteland, but unchecked process of degradationmay lead to the conversion to wasteland.

There are two processes that induce landdegradation. These are natural and created byhuman beings. National Remote Sensing Agency(NRSA) has classified wastelands by usingremote sensing techniques and it is possible tocategorise these wastelands according to theprocesses that have created them. There are afew types of wastelands such as gullied /ravinousland, desertic or coastal sands, barren rockyareas, steep sloping land, and glacial areas,which are primarily caused by natural agents.There are other types of degraded lands such aswaterlogged and marshy areas, land affected by

Categories % ofGeographical

Area

Total Wasteland 17.98

Barren & Uncultivable Wasteland 2.18

Natural Degraded CWL 2.4

Natural and Man-Made Degraded CWL 7.51

Man-Made Degraded CWL 5.88

Total Degraded CWL 15.8

Table 12.3 : Classification of Wasteland byProcesses in India

Source: Calculated from NRSA Wasteland Atlas, 2000

Using information provided in Table 12.3, make a pie-chart showing cultivable wastelands caused by differentprocesses.


Fig. 12.4 : Trees planted on Common PropertyResources in Jhabua

Source: Evaluation Report, Rajiv Gandhi Mission forWatershed Management, Government of MadhyaPradesh, 2002

Fig. 12.5 : Community Participation for LandLeveling in Common Property Resources in

Jhabua (ASA, 2004)

salinity and alkalinity and land with or withoutscrub, which have largely been caused bynatural as well as human factors. There are someother types of wastelands such as degradedshifting cultivation area, degraded land underplantation crops, degraded forests, degradedpastures, and mining and industrial wastelands,are caused by human action. Table 12.3indicates that wastelands caused by man-madeprocesses are more important than naturalprocesses.

A Case StudyA Case StudyA Case StudyA Case StudyA Case StudyJhabua district is located in the westernmostagro-climatic zone in Madhya Pradesh. It is, infact, one of the five most backward districts ofthe country. It is characterised by highconcentration of tribal population (mostlyBhils). The people suffer due to poverty whichhas been accentuated by the high rate ofresource degradation, both forest and land. Thewatershed management programmes fundedby both the ministries of “Rural Development”and “Agriculture”, Government of India, havebeen successfully implemented in Jhabuadistrict which has gone a long way in preventingland degradation and improving soil quality.Watershed Management Programmesacknowledge the linkage between land, waterand vegetation and attempts to improvelivelihoods of people through natural resourcemanagement and community participation. Inthe past five years, the programmes funded bythe Ministry of Rural Development alone

(implemented by Rajiv Gandhi Mission forWatershed Management) has treated 20 percent of the total area under Jhabua district.

The Petlawad block of Jhabua is located inthe northernmost part of the district andrepresents an interesting and successful case ofGovernment-NGO partnership and communityparticipation in managing watershedprogrammes. The Bhils in Petlawad block, forexample, (Sat Rundi hamlet of Karravat village)through their own efforts, have revitalised largeparts of common property resources. Eachhousehold planted and maintained one tree onthe common property. They also have plantedfodder grass on the pasture land and adoptedsocial-fencing of these lands for at least twoyears. Even after that, they say, there would beno open grazing on these lands, but stall feedingof cattle, and they are thus confident that thepastures they have developed would sustaintheir cattle in future.

An interesting aspect of this experience isthat before the community embarked upon theprocess of management of the pasture, therewas encroachment on this land by a villagerfrom an adjoining village. The villagers calledthe tehsildar to ascertain the rights of thecommon land. The ensuing conflict was tackledby the villagers by offering to make the defaulterencroaching on the CPR a member of their usergroup and sharing the benefits of greening thecommon lands/pastures. (See the section onCPR in chapter “Land Resources andAgriculture).




(i) Which one of the following river is highly polluted?

(a) Brahmaputra (c) Yamuna

(b) Satluj (d) Godavari

(ii) Which one of the following deseases is caused by water pollution?

(a) Conjunctivitis (c) Respiratory infections

(b) Diarrhorea (d) Bronchitis

(iii) Which one of the following is the cause of acid rain?

(a) Water pollution (c) Noise pollution

(b) Land pollution (d) Air pollution

(iv) Push and pull factors are responsible for–

(a) Migration (c) Slums

(b) Land degradation (d) Air pollution


(i) What is the difference between pollution and pollutants?

(ii) Describe the major source of air pollution.

(iii) Mention major problems associated with urban waste disposal in India.

(iv) What are the effects of air pollution on human health.


(i) Describe the nature of water pollution in India.

(ii) Describe the problem of slums in India.

(iii) Suggest measures for reduction of land degradation.

146146146146146 India : People and EconomyIndia : People and EconomyIndia : People and EconomyIndia : People and EconomyIndia : People and Economy

Appendix (i)Appendix (i)Appendix (i)Appendix (i)Appendix (i)

Statewise Population Distribution, Density and Growth, 2001Statewise Population Distribution, Density and Growth, 2001Statewise Population Distribution, Density and Growth, 2001Statewise Population Distribution, Density and Growth, 2001Statewise Population Distribution, Density and Growth, 2001

States/UTsStates/UTsStates/UTsStates/UTsStates/UTs Total AreaTotal AreaTotal AreaTotal AreaTotal Area % of Area to% of Area to% of Area to% of Area to% of Area to TotalTotalTotalTotalTotal NationalNationalNationalNationalNational DensityDensityDensityDensityDensity Growth RateGrowth RateGrowth RateGrowth RateGrowth Rate(sq Km)(sq Km)(sq Km)(sq Km)(sq Km) Total NationalTotal NationalTotal NationalTotal NationalTotal National PopulationPopulationPopulationPopulationPopulation Share (%)Share (%)Share (%)Share (%)Share (%) /sq km/sq km/sq km/sq km/sq km 1991-20011991-20011991-20011991-20011991-2001

Andaman/Nicobar

Islands 8249 0.24 356152 0.03 43 26.9

Andhra Pradesh 275045 8.37 76210007 7.37 275 14.49

Arunachal Pradesh 83743 2.55 1097968 0.11 13 27.0

Assam1 78438 2.39 26655528 2.59 340 18.92

Chhattisgarh 135191 4.11 20833803 20.25 154 18.27

Bihar 94163 9.86 82998509 8.07 880 28.62

Chandigarh 114 0.003 900635 0.09 7900 40.28

Dadra & Nagar Haveli 491 0.01 220490 0.02 449 59.22

Daman & Diu 112 0.003 158204 0.02 1413 55.73

Delhi 1483 0.05 13850507 1.34 9340 47.02

Goa 3702 0.11 1347668 0.13 363 15.21

Gujarat 196024 5.96 50671017 4.93 258 22.66

Haryana 44212 1.34 21144564 2.05 477 28.43

Himachal Pradesh 55673 1.69 6077900 0.59 109 17.54

Jammu & Kashmir1 222236 6.76 10143700 0.98 99 29.43

Jharkhand 79714 2.42 26945829 2.62 338 23.36

Karnataka 191791 5.83 52850562 5.13 275 17.51

Kerala 38863 1.18 31841374 3.1 819 9.43

Lakshadweep 32 0.0009 60650 0.01 1895 17.3

Madhya Pradesh 308245 9.38 60348023 5.88 196 24.26

Maharashtra 307713 9.36 96878627 9.42 314 22.73

Manipur2 22327 0.68 2293896 0.23 103 24.86

Mizoram 21081 0.64 888573 0.09 42 28.82

Meghalaya 22429 0.68 2318822 0.22 103 30.65

Nagaland 16579 0.5 1990036 0.19 120 64.53

Orissa 155707 4.74 36804660 3.57 236 16.25

Pondicherry 479 0.14 974345 0.09 2030 20.62

Punjab 50362 1.53 24358999 2.37 484 20.1

Rajasthan 342239 10.41 56507188 5.5 165 28.41

Sikkim 7096 0.21 540851 0.05 76 33.06

Tamil Nadu 130058 3.96 62405679 6.07 480 11.72

Tripura 10486 0.32 3199203 0.31 305 16.03

Uttar Pradesh 240928 7.33 166197921 16.17 690 25.85

Uttaranchal 53483 1.63 8489349 0.83 159 20.41

West Bengal 88752 5.7 80176197 7.81 903 17.77

INDIAINDIAINDIAINDIAINDIA 32872403287240328724032872403287240 100100100100100 10287374361028737436102873743610287374361028737436 100100100100100 325325325325325 21.5421.5421.5421.5421.54

Source : Census of India, 20011 Includes interpolated population of Jammu and Kashmir for 1991 and estimated population of Assam for 1981.2 Includes estimated population of Paomata, Mao, Maran, and Purul Sub-Divisions of Senapati District of Manipur.

AppendicesAppendicesAppendicesAppendicesAppendices 147147147147147

Appendix (ii)Appendix (ii)Appendix (ii)Appendix (ii)Appendix (ii)

India : Area, Population, Agricultural Population and Net Sown Area,2001India : Area, Population, Agricultural Population and Net Sown Area,2001India : Area, Population, Agricultural Population and Net Sown Area,2001India : Area, Population, Agricultural Population and Net Sown Area,2001India : Area, Population, Agricultural Population and Net Sown Area,2001

States/UTsStates/UTsStates/UTsStates/UTsStates/UTs AreaAreaAreaAreaArea TotalTotalTotalTotalTotal AgriculturalAgriculturalAgriculturalAgriculturalAgricultural Net SownNet SownNet SownNet SownNet Sown(sq Km)(sq Km)(sq Km)(sq Km)(sq Km) PopulationPopulationPopulationPopulationPopulation PopulationPopulationPopulationPopulationPopulation Area*Area*Area*Area*Area*

(sqKm)(sqKm)(sqKm)(sqKm)(sqKm)

Andaman/Nicobar Islands# 8249 356152 26629 -

Andhra Pradesh 275045 76210007 21691686 10362

Arunachal Pradesh 83743 1097968 298140 150

Assam 78438 2665528 4994305 2706

Bihar 94163 82998509 15518365 7267 1

Chandigarh# 114 900635 2704 -

Chhattisgarh 135191 20833803 7402489 -

Dadra & Nagar Haveli# 491 220490 54185 -

Daman & Diu# 112 158204 5347 -

Delhi# 1483 13850507 53204 -

Goa 3702 1347668 86201 138

Gujarat 196024 50671017 10964339 9391

Haryana 44212 21144564 4296835 3513

Himachal Pradesh 55673 6077900 2049040 572

Jammu & Kashmir 222236 10143700 1837935 736

Jharkhand 79714 26945829 6740803 …

Karnataka 191791 52850562 13110798 10790

Kerala 38863 31841374 2345006 2238

Lakshadweep# 32 60650 NIL -

Madhya Pradesh 308245 60348023 18438576 19740 2

Maharashtra 307713 96878627 22628537 18021

Manipur 22327 2293896 493335 140

Meghalaya 22429 2318822 638704 201

Mizoram 21081 888573 283115 65

Nagaland 16579 1990036 579752 189

Orissa 155707 36804660 9246693 6303

Pondicherry# 479 974345 83151 -

Punjab 50362 24358999 3554928 4214

Rajasthan 342239 56507188 15663785 16232

Sikkim 7096 540851 148258 95

Tamil Nadu 130058 62405679 13753669 5901

Tripura 10486 3199203 589432 277

Uttar Pradesh 240928 166197921 35568473 17250 3

Uttaranchal 53483 8489349 1829799 …

West Bengal 88752 80176197 13016879 5459

INDIAINDIAINDIAINDIAINDIA 32872403287240328724032872403287240 10287374361028737436102873743610287374361028737436 234088181234088181234088181234088181234088181 142095142095142095142095142095

1 including Jharkhand2 including Chhattisgarh3 including Uttaranchal# For Union Territories data of net sown area of indicidual units were not available* Data of 1993-94,


Appendix (iii)Appendix (iii)Appendix (iii)Appendix (iii)Appendix (iii)

India : Decadel Birth Rate, Death Rate and Rate of Natural Increase, 1901 - 1999India : Decadel Birth Rate, Death Rate and Rate of Natural Increase, 1901 - 1999India : Decadel Birth Rate, Death Rate and Rate of Natural Increase, 1901 - 1999India : Decadel Birth Rate, Death Rate and Rate of Natural Increase, 1901 - 1999India : Decadel Birth Rate, Death Rate and Rate of Natural Increase, 1901 - 1999

DecadesDecadesDecadesDecadesDecades Crude BirthCrude BirthCrude BirthCrude BirthCrude Birth Crude DeathCrude DeathCrude DeathCrude DeathCrude Death Rate of NaturalRate of NaturalRate of NaturalRate of NaturalRate of NaturalRate Per 1000Rate Per 1000Rate Per 1000Rate Per 1000Rate Per 1000 Rate Per 1000Rate Per 1000Rate Per 1000Rate Per 1000Rate Per 1000 Increase (Per 1000)Increase (Per 1000)Increase (Per 1000)Increase (Per 1000)Increase (Per 1000)

1901 - 1911 49.2 42.6 6.6

1911 - 1921 48.1 47.2 0.9

1921 - 1931 46.4 36.2 10.1

1931 - 1941 45.9 37.2 14.0

1941 - 1951 39.9 27.4 12.5

1951 - 1961 41.7 22.8 18.9

1961 - 1971 41.2 19.0 22.3

1971 - 1981 37.2 15 21.0

1981 - 1991 29.5 9.8 20.1

1991 - 1999 26.2 9.0 17.0

Migrants by place of last residence indicating migration streams (duration 0-9 years) INDIA 2001Migrants by place of last residence indicating migration streams (duration 0-9 years) INDIA 2001Migrants by place of last residence indicating migration streams (duration 0-9 years) INDIA 2001Migrants by place of last residence indicating migration streams (duration 0-9 years) INDIA 2001Migrants by place of last residence indicating migration streams (duration 0-9 years) INDIA 2001

MigrationMigrationMigrationMigrationMigration Intra StateIntra StateIntra StateIntra StateIntra State Inter StateInter StateInter StateInter StateInter StateStreamStreamStreamStreamStream MaleMaleMaleMaleMale FemaleFemaleFemaleFemaleFemale MaleMaleMaleMaleMale FemaleFemaleFemaleFemaleFemale

R-R 9985581 38894493 1759523 2714779

R-U 6503461 7718115 3803737 2569218

U-R 2057789 3155362 522916 530436

U-U 4387563 5510731 221882 2288598

Source: Data Highlights, Census of India 2001


Appendix (iv)Appendix (iv)Appendix (iv)Appendix (iv)Appendix (iv)

India : Rural and Urban Population 1991, 2001India : Rural and Urban Population 1991, 2001India : Rural and Urban Population 1991, 2001India : Rural and Urban Population 1991, 2001India : Rural and Urban Population 1991, 2001

19911991199119911991 20012001200120012001

States/UTsStates/UTsStates/UTsStates/UTsStates/UTs RuralRuralRuralRuralRural UrbanUrbanUrbanUrbanUrban % of Urban% of Urban% of Urban% of Urban% of Urban RuralRuralRuralRuralRural UrbanUrbanUrbanUrbanUrban % of Urban% of Urban% of Urban% of Urban% of UrbanPopulationPopulationPopulationPopulationPopulation PopulationPopulationPopulationPopulationPopulation

Andhra Pradesh 48451866 17812693 26.84 55401067 20808940 27.3

Arunachal Pradesh 753586 104806 12.21 870087 227881 20.8

Assam 19823674 2470888 11.08 23216288 3439240 12.9

Bihar 74969964 11368889 13.17 95268797 2 14675541 2 10.5

Goa 689201 479421 41.02 677091 670577 49.8

Gujarat 27010042 14164301 34.4 31740767 18930250 37.4

Haryana 12272545 4045170 24.79 15029260 6115304 28.9

Himachal Pradesh 4666255 444824 8.7 5482319 595581 9.8

Jammu & Kashmir* 5879300 1839400 23.83 7627062 2516638 24.8

Karnataka 30955766 13850702 30.91 34889033 17961529 34

Kerala 21356457 7676371 26.44 23574449 8266925 26

Madhya Pradesh 50787815 15348047 23.21 61028934 3 20152892 3 24.82

Maharashtra 48251863 78748215 38.73 55777647 41100980 42.4

Manipur 1320866 505848 27.69 1590820 575968 25.1

Meghalaya 1431547 329079 18.69 1864711 454111 19.6

Mizoram 654513 317040 46.2 447567 441006 49.6

Nagaland 1005478 210095 17.28 1647249 342787 17.2

Orissa 27279615 4232455 13.43 31287422 5517238 15

Punjab 14189913 6000882 29.72 16096488 8262511 33.9

Rajasthan 33840522 10040118 22.88 43292813 13214375 23.4

Sikkim 368521 36984 9.12 480981 59870 11.1

Tamil Nadu 36611285 19027033 34.2 34921681 27483998 44

Tripura 2325844 418983 15.26 2653453 545750 17.1

Uttar Pradesh 111377720 27653410 19.89 137968614 1 36718656 1 21.1

West Bengal 49360718 18622014 27.39 57748946 22427251 28

Andaman/Nicobar

Islands 204301 74810 26.8 239954 116198 32.6

Chandigarh 66079 574646 89.69 92120 808515 89.8

Dadra & Nagar Haveli 126681 11720 8.47 170027 50463 22.9

Daman & Diu 53901 47538 46.86 100856 57348 36.2

Delhi 943392 8427083 89.93 944727 12905780 93.2

Lakshadweep 22592 29089 56.29 33683 26967 44.5

Pondicherry 290111 516934 64.05 325726 648619 66.6

INDIAINDIAINDIAINDIAINDIA 627146597627146597627146597627146597627146597 217177625217177625217177625217177625217177625 25.25.25.25.25.7272727272 742490639742490639742490639742490639742490639 286119689286119689286119689286119689286119689 27.827.827.827.827.8

Source : Census of India, 20011 Uttar Pradesh including Uttaranchal2 including Jharkhand3 including Chhattisgarh* Projected Population by Standing Committee of Experts on Population Projection (October,1989).


Appendix (v)Appendix (v)Appendix (v)Appendix (v)Appendix (v)

India : % of Population of Religious GroupsIndia : % of Population of Religious GroupsIndia : % of Population of Religious GroupsIndia : % of Population of Religious GroupsIndia : % of Population of Religious Groups

States/States/States/States/States/ HindusHindusHindusHindusHindus MuslimsMuslimsMuslimsMuslimsMuslims ChristiansChristiansChristiansChristiansChristians SikhsSikhsSikhsSikhsSikhs BuddhistsBuddhistsBuddhistsBuddhistsBuddhists JainsJainsJainsJainsJains OtherOtherOtherOtherOther ReligionsReligionsReligionsReligionsReligionsUnionUnionUnionUnionUnion RelgionsRelgionsRelgionsRelgionsRelgions notnotnotnotnotTerritoriesTerritoriesTerritoriesTerritoriesTerritories statedstatedstatedstatedstated

Jammu & Kashmir 29.6 66.9 0.2 2.04 1.12 0.02 0.001 0.001

Himachal Pradesh 95.4 2 0.1 1.2 1.2 0.02 0.006 0.007

Punjab 36.9 1.6 1.2 59.9 0.2 0.2 0.03 0.02

Chandigarh 78.6 3.9 0.8 16.1 0.1 0.3 0.03 0.01

Uttaranchal 84.9 11.9 0.3 2.5 0.2 0.1 0.01 0.04

Haryana 88.2 5.8 0.1 5.5 0.03 0.3 0.01 0.01

Delhi 82 11.7 0.9 4 5.2 1.1 0.01 0.0001

Rajasthan 88.7 8.5 0.1 1.4 0.02 1.2 0.01 0.01

Uttar Pradesh 80.6 18.5 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.09 0.3 0.2

Bihar 83.2 16.5 0.1 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.04

Sikkim 60.9 1.4 6.7 0.2 26.4 0.04 2.4 0.2

Arunachal Pradesh 34.6 1.9 18.7 0.2 13 0.02 30.7 0.8

Nagaland 7.7 1.8 90 0.06 0.07 0.1 0.3 0.04

Manipur 43.5 8.3 32.2 0.07 0.08 0 10.3 0.04

Mizoram 3.6 1.1 87 0.03 7.9 0.02 0.3 0.07

Tripura 85.6 8 3.2 0.04 3.1 0.01 0.04 0.03

Meghalaya 13.3 4.3 70.3 0.1 0.2 0.03 11.5 0.3

Assam 64.9 30.9 3.7 0.08 0.2 0.09 0.08 0.04

West Bengal 72.5 25.2 0.6 0.08 0.3 0.06 1.1 0.06

Jharkhand 68.6 13.8 4.1 0.3 0.02 0.06 13 0.09

Orissa 94.4 2.1 2.4 0.04 0.03 0.02 1 0.05

Chhattisgarh 94.7 2 1.9 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.04

Madhya Pradesh 91.1 6.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.9 0.7 0.03

Gujarat 89.1 9.1 0.6 0.1 0.04 1 0.06 0.07

Daman & Diuu 89.7 7.8 2.1 0.09 0.07 0.2 0.06 0.01

Dadra & Nagar

Haveli 93.5 3 2.7 0.06 0.2 0.4 0.04 0.07

Maharashtra 80.4 10.6 1.1 0.2 6 1.3 0.2 0.1

Andhra Pradesh 89 9.2 1.6 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.01 0.1

Karnataka 83.8 12.2 1.9 0.02 0.7 0.8 0.2 0.2

Goa 65.8 6.8 26.7 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.03 0.5

Lakshadweep 3.7 95.5 0.8 0.01 0.001 —— —— 0.02

Kerala 56.2 24.7 19 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.08

Tamil Nadu 88.1 5.6 6.1 0.01 0.01 0.1 0.02 0.09

Pondicherry 86.8 6.1 6.9 0.01 0.01 0.09 0.02 0.06

Andaman &

Nicobar 69.2 8.2 21.7 0.4 0.1 0.01 0.06 0.2



Appendix (vi)Appendix (vi)Appendix (vi)Appendix (vi)Appendix (vi)

India : Work Participation Rate and Occupation Structure, 2001India : Work Participation Rate and Occupation Structure, 2001India : Work Participation Rate and Occupation Structure, 2001India : Work Participation Rate and Occupation Structure, 2001India : Work Participation Rate and Occupation Structure, 2001

State/UTsState/UTsState/UTsState/UTsState/UTs Categories of WorkersCategories of WorkersCategories of WorkersCategories of WorkersCategories of Workers

WorkWorkWorkWorkWork CultivatorsCultivatorsCultivatorsCultivatorsCultivators %%%%% AgriculturalAgriculturalAgriculturalAgriculturalAgricultural %%%%% HouseholdHouseholdHouseholdHouseholdHousehold %%%%% OtherOtherOtherOtherOther %%%%%ParticipationParticipationParticipationParticipationParticipation tototototo Lab.Lab.Lab.Lab.Lab. tototototo IndustriesIndustriesIndustriesIndustriesIndustries tototototo WorkersWorkersWorkersWorkersWorkers tototototo

Rate (%)Rate (%)Rate (%)Rate (%)Rate (%) TotalTotalTotalTotalTotal TotalTotalTotalTotalTotal TotalTotalTotalTotalTotal TotalTotalTotalTotalTotalWorkersWorkersWorkersWorkersWorkers WorkersWorkersWorkersWorkersWorkers WorkersWorkersWorkersWorkersWorkers WorkersWorkersWorkersWorkersWorkers

Jammu &Kashmir 37 1591514 42.4 246421 6.6 234472 6.2 1681408 44.8

Punjab 37.5 2065067 22.6 1489861 16.3 333770 3.6 5238776 57.4

Himachal Pradesh 49.2 1954870 65.3 94171 3.2 52519 1.8 890901 29.7

Chandigarh 37.8 2141 0.62 563 0.16 3880 1.1 333838 98

Uttaranchal 36.9 1570116 50 131683 4.2 72448 2.3 1231789 39.3

Haryana 39.6 3018014 36 1278821 15.3 214755 2.6 3865876 46.2

Delhi 32.8 37431 0.82 15773 0.34 140032 3.1 4351998 95.7

Rajasthan 42.1 13140066 55.3 2523719 10.6 677991 2.8 7424879 31.2

Uttar Pradesh 32.5 22167562 41.1 13400911 24.8 3031164 5.6 15384187 28.5

Bihar 33.7 8193621 29.3 5297744 18.9 1100424 3.9 5262817 18.8

Sikkim 48.6 131258 49.9 17000 6.46 4219 1.6 110566 42Arunach®alPradesh 44 279300 57.8 18840 3.9 6043 1.3 178719 37

Nagaland 42.6 548845 64.7 30907 3.6 21873 2.6 246171 29

Manipur 43.6 379705 40 113630 12 96920 10.3 354958 37.6

Mizoram 52.6 256332 54.9 26783 5.7 7100 1.5 176944 37.9

Tripura 36.2 313300 40.2 124132 10.7 35292 3 534837 46.1

Meghalaya 41.8 467010 48.1 171694 17.7 21225 2.2 310217 31.98

Assam 35.8 3730773 39.1 1263532 13.24 344912 3.61 4199374 44

West Bengal 36.8 5653922 24.7 7362957 24.9 2172070 7.4 12686741 43

Jharkhand 37.5 3889506 38.5 2851297 28.2 430965 4.3 2937262 29

Orissa 38.8 4247661 29.8 4999104 35 701563 4.9 4328160 30.3

Chhattisgarh 46.5 4311131 44.5 3091358 31.9 198691 2.1 1975629 20.4

Madhya Pradesh 42.7 11037906 42.8 7400670 28.7 1033313 4 6321630 24.5

Gujarat 41.9 5802681 27.3 5161658 24.3 429682 2 9861500 46.4

Daman & Diu 46 4034 5.54 1323 1.8 1180 1.6 66254 91Dadra &Nagar Haveli 51.8 39470 34.6 14715 12.9 850 0.74 59087 51.7

Maharashtra 42.8 11813275 28.7 10815262 26.3 1089318 2.6 17455496 42.4

Andhra Pradesh 45.8 7859534 22.6 13832152 39.6 1642105 4.7 11560068 33.1

Karnataka 44.5 6883856 29.2 6226942 26.4 959665 4.1 9464328 40.2

Goa 38.8 50395 9.6 35806 6.8 14746 2.8 421908 80.7

Lakshadweep 25.3 NIL NIL NIL 0 902 5.9 14452 94.1

Kerala 32.3 724155 7 1620851 15.8 369667 3.6 7569214 73.6

Tamil Nadu 44.7 5116039 18.4 8637630 30.9 1499761 5.4 12624852 45.3

Pondicherry 35.2 10900 3.2 72251 21 6339 1.8 253165 73.9Andaman &Nicobar Islands 38.3 21461 15.8 5169 3.8 7086 5.2 102538 75.3

INDIAINDIAINDIAINDIAINDIA 39.139.139.139.139.1 127312851127312851127312851127312851127312851 31.731.731.731.731.7 106775330106775330106775330106775330106775330 26.526.526.526.526.5 69569426956942695694269569426956942 1.71.71.71.71.7 151189601151189601151189601151189601151189601 37.637.637.637.637.6



Appendix (vii)Appendix (vii)Appendix (vii)Appendix (vii)Appendix (vii)

Table 1: Land Use Categories in IndiaTable 1: Land Use Categories in IndiaTable 1: Land Use Categories in IndiaTable 1: Land Use Categories in IndiaTable 1: Land Use Categories in India

Land Use ClassesLand Use ClassesLand Use ClassesLand Use ClassesLand Use Classes 1960-611960-611960-611960-611960-61 2002-032002-032002-032002-032002-03( ‘ 000 Hectare)( ‘ 000 Hectare)( ‘ 000 Hectare)( ‘ 000 Hectare)( ‘ 000 Hectare)

Reporting Area 299151 306060

Forests 54189 69070

Area under non-agricultural use 14795 24250

Barren and unculturable waste 35921 19250

Permanent Pastures and Grazing Land 14082 10570

Area under Tree crops and Misc. Groves 4500 3360

Culturable Waste 18632 13490

Fallow other than Current Fallow 10478 11680

Current Fallow 11155 21530

Net Sown Area 135399 132860

Table 2: Sectoral Gross Domestic Product in 1993-94 PricesTable 2: Sectoral Gross Domestic Product in 1993-94 PricesTable 2: Sectoral Gross Domestic Product in 1993-94 PricesTable 2: Sectoral Gross Domestic Product in 1993-94 PricesTable 2: Sectoral Gross Domestic Product in 1993-94 Prices

(in Rs. Crores)

SectorsSectorsSectorsSectorsSectors 1960-611960-611960-611960-611960-61 1999-20001999-20001999-20001999-20001999-2000

Primary 112848 314252Secondary 34239 279066Tertiary 59793 555049Total GDP 206880 1148367

Source : Statistical Abstract of India

Source : Economic Survey, Govt. of India


S.S.S.S.S. CropCropCropCropCrop % Share% Share% Share% Share% Share % Share% Share% Share% Share% Share AreaAreaAreaAreaArea ProductionProductionProductionProductionProduction Yield(kg/ha)Yield(kg/ha)Yield(kg/ha)Yield(kg/ha)Yield(kg/ha) %%%%%No.No.No.No.No. in Worldin Worldin Worldin Worldin World in totalin totalin totalin totalin total (million(million(million(million(million (million(million(million(million(million coveragecoveragecoveragecoveragecoverage

ProductionProductionProductionProductionProduction croppedcroppedcroppedcroppedcropped ha)ha)ha)ha)ha) tones)tones)tones)tones)tones) underunderunderunderunder& rank& rank& rank& rank& rank areaareaareaareaarea irrigationirrigationirrigationirrigationirrigation(2000-01)(2000-01)(2000-01)(2000-01)(2000-01) (2000-01)(2000-01)(2000-01)(2000-01)(2000-01) (2000-01)(2000-01)(2000-01)(2000-01)(2000-01) (2002-03)(2002-03)(2002-03)(2002-03)(2002-03) (2002-03)(2002-03)(2002-03)(2002-03)(2002-03) (2002-03)(2002-03)(2002-03)(2002-03)(2002-03)

1 Rice 22.3(Second) 23.58 40.28 72.65 1562 53.6

2 Wheat 11.7(Second) 13.79 24.8 65.1 2618 88.1

3 Jowar NA 5.31 9.2 7.08 769 7.9

4 Bajra NA 5.23 7.6 4.63 610 8

5 Maize NA 3.61 6.29 10.3 1642 22.4I. TotalTotalTotalTotalTotal

CerealsCerealsCerealsCerealsCereals 11.1(Third)11.1(Third)11.1(Third)11.1(Third)11.1(Third) 54.1354.1354.1354.1354.13 NANANANANA NANANANANA NANANANANA NANANANANA

6 Gram NA 2.8 5.67 4.13 728 30.9

7 Tur NA 1.96 3.38 2.21 653 4.2

II All PulsesAll PulsesAll PulsesAll PulsesAll Pulses 21.2 (First)21.2 (First)21.2 (First)21.2 (First)21.2 (First) 11.3311.3311.3311.3311.33 20.0520.0520.0520.0520.05 11.1411.1411.1411.1411.14 556556556556556 12.512.512.512.512.5III TotalTotalTotalTotalTotal

FoodgrainsFoodgrainsFoodgrainsFoodgrainsFoodgrains NANANANANA 65.9665.9665.9665.9665.96 111.5111.5111.5111.5111.5 174.19174.19174.19174.19174.19 15621562156215621562 43.443.443.443.443.4

8 Groundnut 17.1(Second) 3.59 5.95 4.36 733 17.6

9 Rapeseed &

Mustard 11.1(Fourth) 2.45 4.52 3.92 866 66.1IV TotalTotalTotalTotalTotal

OilseedsOilseedsOilseedsOilseedsOilseeds NANANANANA 13.4613.4613.4613.4613.46 21.2221.2221.2221.2221.22 15.0615.0615.0615.0615.06 710710710710710 2323232323

10 Cotton 8.3(Fourth) 4.67 7.67 8.74 193 34.3

11 Jute 61.2 (First) 0.46 1.04 11.38 1968 NA

12 Sugarcane 22.8(Second) 2.44 4.36 281.57 64562 92.1

13 Tea 28.1(First) NA NA NA NA NA

14 Coffee 4.3(Sixth) NA NA NA NA NA

NA-Data not available

Table 3: Area Production and Yields of Main Crops in IndiaTable 3: Area Production and Yields of Main Crops in IndiaTable 3: Area Production and Yields of Main Crops in IndiaTable 3: Area Production and Yields of Main Crops in IndiaTable 3: Area Production and Yields of Main Crops in India

Source : Agricultural Statistics at a Glance, Aug.2004, IFFCO, New Delhi


Table 4 : Area, Production and Yield of Main Crops in Five Leading Producer States of IndiaTable 4 : Area, Production and Yield of Main Crops in Five Leading Producer States of IndiaTable 4 : Area, Production and Yield of Main Crops in Five Leading Producer States of IndiaTable 4 : Area, Production and Yield of Main Crops in Five Leading Producer States of IndiaTable 4 : Area, Production and Yield of Main Crops in Five Leading Producer States of India

S. No.S. No.S. No.S. No.S. No. CropCropCropCropCrop StatesStatesStatesStatesStates % of crops% of crops% of crops% of crops% of crops YieldYieldYieldYieldYield % coverage% coverage% coverage% coverage% coveragetotaltotaltotaltotaltotal (Kg/ha)(Kg/ha)(Kg/ha)(Kg/ha)(Kg/ha) underunderunderunderunder

production ofproduction ofproduction ofproduction ofproduction of irrigationirrigationirrigationirrigationirrigation(2002-03)(2002-03)(2002-03)(2002-03)(2002-03) 2002-032002-032002-032002-032002-03 (2000-01)(2000-01)(2000-01)(2000-01)(2000-01)

1. Rice West Bengal 19.81 2463 42.1Punjab 12.22 3510 99.2Uttar Pradesh 11.16 1836 65.7Andhra Pradesh 9.9 2621 95.2Tamil Nadu 7.86 3350 93.1

2. Wheat Uttar Pradesh 36.27 2596 92.2Punjab 21.78 4200 97.5Haryana 14.12 4053 99.1Rajasthan 7.5 2709 99.8Madhya Pradesh 6.59 1392 70.4

3. Jowar Maharashtra 54.8 808 9.5Karnatka 18.5 735 8.3Madhya Pradesh 7.91 946 0.1Andhra Pradesh 7.34 926 3.7Tamil Nadu 4.52 962 12

4. Bajra Maharashtra 24.84 741 4.9Gujarat 19.65 965 17.8Uttar Pradesh 19.44 1277 5.4Rajasthan 15.55 224 4.7Haryana 9.94 893 24.1

5. Maize Madhya Pradesh 14.56 1765 0.9Andhra Pradesh 14.47 2825 30.6Karnatka 13.69 2164 48.5Rajasthan 8.45 885 7.8Uttar Pradesh 8.16 1101 28.5

6. Gram Madhya Pradesh 39.23 720 41.1Uttar Pradesh 18.89 893 14.8Maharashtra 10.9 1564 34.9Andhra Pradesh 9.2 979 0.8Rajasthan 8.23 757 50.8

7. Tur Maharashtra 35.29 733 1.9Uttar Pradesh 13.57 910 12.8Karnatka 10.86 471 1.3Gujarat 9.05 630 12.2Madhya Pradesh 7.69 643 0.8

8. Groundnut Gujarat 25 539 7.8Tamil Nadu 22.48 1784 34.5Andhra Pradesh 18.81 558 16Karnatka 12.61 648 21.5Maharashtra 10.09 1041 27.5

9. Rape Rajasthan 33.67 868 80.5 & Uttar Pradesh 19.39 895 70.6Mustard Haryana 17.6 1147 85.5

West Bengal 8.42 805 74.7Madhya Pradesh 5.36 687 34.9


10. Cotton Maharashtra 29.75 158 4.3Gujarat 19.22 175 39Andhra Pradesh 12.47 230 18.8Punjab 12.36 410 99.6Haryana 11.9 340 99.7

11. Jute West Bengal 75.4 2396 NABihar 9.93 1217 NAAssam 6.33 1765 NA

12. Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh 41.31 59292 89.5Maharastra 13.51 61795 100Karnataka 11.54 84361 99.9Tamil Nadu 10.75 106778 100Andhra Pradesh 5.47 65756 94

NA-Data not available

Source : Agricultural Statistics at a Glance, Aug.2004, IFFCO, New Delhi


Appendix (viii)Appendix (viii)Appendix (viii)Appendix (viii)Appendix (viii)

India : Density of Roads-2001India : Density of Roads-2001India : Density of Roads-2001India : Density of Roads-2001India : Density of Roads-2001

States & Union TerritoriesStates & Union TerritoriesStates & Union TerritoriesStates & Union TerritoriesStates & Union Territories AreaAreaAreaAreaArea RoadRoadRoadRoadRoad DensityDensityDensityDensityDensity(Sq km)(Sq km)(Sq km)(Sq km)(Sq km) (Length in km)(Length in km)(Length in km)(Length in km)(Length in km) (Per 100 Sqkm)(Per 100 Sqkm)(Per 100 Sqkm)(Per 100 Sqkm)(Per 100 Sqkm)

Andhra Pradesh 275045 192057 69.8

Arunachal Pradesh 83743 18363 21.9

Assam 78438 87173 111

Bihar 94163 77478 82

Chhattisgarh 135191 33858 25

Goa 3702 9563 258

Gujarat 196024 137384 70

Harayna 44212 28158 63.68

Himachal Pradesh 55673 29510 53

J&K 222236 23301 10.48

Jharkhand 79714 10069 12.63

Karnataka 191791 152453 79.49

Kerala 38863 150495 387.24

Madhya Pradesh 308245 162370 52.68

Maharashtra 307713 261783 85.07

Manipur 22327 11434 51.21

Meghalaya 22429 9497 42.34

Mizoram 21081 4970 23.58

Nagaland 16579 21021 126.79

Orissa 155707 236993 152.2

Punjab 50362 61525 122.17

Rajasthan 342239 142010 41.49

Sikkim 7096 1992 28.07

Tamil Nadu 130058 163111 125.41

Tripura 10486 14031 133.81

Uttar Pradesh 240928 247248 102.62

Uttaranchal 53483 31881 59.61

West-Bengal 88752 90245 101.68

Andaman & Nicobar 8249 1183 14.34

Chandigarh 114 2025 1176.32

Dadra & Nagar Haveli 491 564 114.87

Daman & Diu 112 414 369.64

Delhi 1483 25785 1738.71

Lakshadweep 32 141 440.63

Pandicherry 479 2587 540.08

TotalTotalTotalTotalTotal 32872403287240328724032872403287240 24466672446667244666724466672446667 74.4274.4274.4274.4274.42

Source : Compiled from Statistical Abstract of India, 2004. pg. 258

Glossary 157

Agro-climaticThe climatic and land resource conditionsin totality which are crucial for thedevelopment of agriculture and alliedeconomic conditions of a region.

AquiferA saturated geological unit (e.g. sands,gravels, fractured rock) which can yieldwater to wells at a sufficient rate to supporta well.

Artificial Recharge to GroundwaterArtificial Recharge to Groundwater meansthe process by which groundwaterreservoir is augmented at a rate exceedingthat under natural condition ofreplenishment.

Command AreaThe area served by a canal systemthrough supply of water for irrigation andother purposes.

Culturable command areaIt refers to the culturable land irrigated by acanal system. It is different from grosscommand area. The later includes all thearea served by a canal system includingunculturatble.

Eco-developmentThe process of development of a regionby means of conservation and regenerationof degraded ecosystem and ecologicalsustainability.

EmigrationMovement of people from one place toanother usually from one country to anotherwith a purpose of earning, living, residingand settling.

Extensive irrigationA strategy of irrigation development wherethe emphasis is on providing irrigationwater for a large area. Per unit area use ofwater is low in this case.

Flow system or channelA channel of canal where water flows underthe influence of gravity.

GroundwaterGroundwater means the water which existsbelow the ground surface in the zone ofsaturation and can be extracted throughwells or any other means or emerges assprings and base flows in streams andrivers.

Ground Water TableThe top of the zone in which all pore spacesor fissures are totally filled with water.

ImmigrationMovement of a person as a permanentresident into another area, usually into aforeign country.

Intrusive irrigationA strategy of irrigation development whereper unit application of water is high.

Lift system or channelA channel of canal where water is forced toflow against the slope of land by upliftment.

MigrationMovement of the people for the specificpurpose from one place to another in thecountry or to a foreign country.

Migration streamMigration stream refers to a group ofmigrants with the common origin anddestination.

GLOSSARY

Net migration or balance of migrationThe difference of total numbers of personsarrived in and left out the place. In otherwords, it is sum of in migrants and immigrantsminus sum of out migrants and emigrants. Inmathematical term it is defined as:

Net migration(in migrants + immigrants) - (out migrants +emigrants)

Rain Water HarvestingRain Water Harvesting is the technique ofcollection and storage of rain water atsurface or in sub-surface aquifer.

RefugeePeople who are forced to take shelter inother country due to life threatening situation,insecurity, war or violation of human rightsin their own country.

RemittanceAll cash or kinds sent by the migrants totheir place of origin. Money order is oneform of remittance.

TranshuemanceThe practice of seasonal migration wherethe pastoral communities migrate to thepastures along with their herds duringsummer season. These communities returnto their permanent residence in winter.

Warebandi systemIt is a system of equitable distribution ofwater in the command area of canal outlet.

WatershedA watershed is a natural geo-hydrologicalunit of land, which collects water and drainsit through a common point by a system ofstreams. Such a unit can be a small area ofa few hectares or it could be an area ofhundreds of square kilometres like theGanga river basin.


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