class notes -...

PHYSICS & CHEMISTRY DEPT.

CLASS NOTES

I E S

MA

RIANO BAQUERO

Physics & Chemistry

4th ESO2012-13

José A. Navarro Ramón

Contents

1 Kinematics 51.1 Basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.1.1 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.1.2 Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.1.3 Frames of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.1.4 Material point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.1.5 Trajectory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.1.6 Scalar and vector quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.2 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.3 Motion quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.3.1 Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.3.2 Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.3.3 Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.3.4 Average speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.3.5 Average acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.4 Uniform linear motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.4.1 Characteristics of uniform linear motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.4.2 Distance-time graph and equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.4.3 Position-time graph and equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.4.4 Velocity-time graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.4.5 Acceleration-time graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.5 Uniformly accelerated linear motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.5.1 Distance-time graph and equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.5.2 Position-time graph and equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.5.3 Velocity-time graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.5.4 Acceleration-time graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.6 Circular motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.6.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.6.2 Arc and angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Forces and their effects 152.1 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.1.1 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.1.2 Types of forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.1.3 Deformation. Hooke’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.1.4 Types of deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.2 Hooke’s law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.2.1 Dynamometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3

2.3 Forces are vector quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.3.1 Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.3.2 Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 Newton’s Laws of Motion 183.1 Newton’s first law of motion. Law of inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.2 Newton’s second law of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.3 Newton’s third law of motion. Action-reaction law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4 Forces in fluids 194.1 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

5 Inorganic formulation 205.1 Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5.1.1 Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205.1.2 Nonmetals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

5.2 Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215.2.1 Oxidation states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225.2.2 Binary compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1. Kinematics

1.1 Basic concepts

1.1.1 Kinematics

Kinematics is branch of physics that describes the motion of objects, but it is not interested in itscauses.

1.1.2 Motion

Motion is the change in position of an object with respect to another one.

Each object in the universe is moving relative to the rest. An object may appear to have onemotion to one observer and a different motion to a second observer.

So, motion is a relative concept, we measure it relative to an object or an observer that weconsider not to be moving.

We describe motion in terms of position, time, displacement, velocity and acceleration.A body that does not move is said to be at rest, motionless, immobile, stationary or to have a

constant time-invariant position.

1.1.3 Frames of reference

In physics, a frame of reference is a coordinate system or set of axes used to measure the posi-tion of objects.

A frame of reference is tied to the object used to measure the relative motion. The motion isalways referred to a frame of reference, which is normally considered stationary1.

1.1.4 Material pointIn order to simplify the study of motion and unless otherwise stated, we consider every object inthe universe as a point, kown as a material point.

1Although we consider it stationary, there is no motionless object in the universe. In physics we say that thereis no absolute frame of reference.

5

CHAPTER 1. KINEMATICS 6

1.1.5 Trajectory

A trajectory is the path that a moving object follows through space over time.

A trajectory may be linear or curved.

1.1.6 Scalar and vector quantities

Scalars are quantities that have magnitude only.Vectors have magnitude, direction and a sense.

Scalars have no direction. Examples of scalars are: time, temperature, volume, density, mass,energy, etc.

Vectors have direction. Examples of vectors are: position, velocity, acceleration, force, weight,etc.

1.2 Vectors

A vector has magnitude, direction and sense.

direction

initial point

sense

magni

tude

Figure 1.1: Magnitude, direction, sense and initial point of a vector.

We can perform many mathematical operations with vectors: They can be added, substracted,multiplied, etc. We can multiply a number times a vector as well.

1.3 Motion quantities

Apart from time, we consider the following quantities:

1.3.1 Distance

Distance is a scalar quantity equal to the length of the trajectory.

Distance is a length, so it is an SI base quantity. Its SI unit is metre, m.


1.3.2 Position

Position is a vector quantity. It is the vector that joins the origin with the object.

Position in a plane can be specified with two coordinates enclosed in parenthesis and separatedby a comma.

x axis

y axis

1 2 3 4 5

1

2

3

4

position

vector

(4,3) m

Figure 1.2: The position of the point is (4, 3) m.

1.3.3 Displacement

Displacement is a vector quantity. It is the vector from the starting point to the end point.

SI Units: m.

x axis

y axis

1 2 3 4 5

1

2

3

4

initialposition

endpos

ition

displacement

Figure 1.3: Displacement from the initial position (1,3) m to (4,2) m. The curved line is thetrajectory between these to points.


1.3.4 Average speedVelocity is a vector quantity. Its magnitude is known as speed. Speed is a scalar quantity equal tothe rate of change of distance.

Average speed is a scalar quantity. The average speed in an interval of time is the distancetraveled divided by the duration of this interval.

vm =s

t=

∆s

∆t=sfinal − sinitialtfinal − tinitial

Speed has the dimensions of a length divided by a time, so the SI Units are metres per second,m/s.

Instant velocity is the average speed in a very small interval of time. The speedometer is aninstrument that can measure the instant velocity of a car.

1.3.5 Average accelerationAcceleration is a vector quantity. It measures the rate of change of velocity over time.

Average speed in an interval of time is the change of speed divided by this interval.

am =∆v

∆t=vfinal − vinitialtfinal − tinitial

Acceleration has the dimensions of a speed divided by a time, so the SI Units are metres persecond per second or metres per second squared: m/s2.

Instant acceleration is the average acceleration measured in a very small interval of time.

1.4 Uniform linear motion

It is also known as uniform rectilinear motion.

• Uniform means that the speed is constant, so the magnitude of the velocity doesn’t change.

• Linear means that the trajectory is a straight line, so the direction and sense of the velocityis constant.

If the magnitude, direction and sense of the velocity do no change with time, we conclude that:

A uniform linear motion means that it has constant velocity (meaning that the speed, directionand sense do not change over time).

1.4.1 Characteristics of uniform linear motion

• It covers equal distance in equal interval of time.

• Distance is directly proportional to time.


1.4.2 Distance-time graph and equationThe distance-time graph of a uniform linear motion is a straight line which passes through theorigin. The slope of the graph is always positive (the more time, the more distance).

time

distance

Figure 1.4: The distance-time graph in a uniform linear motion is a straight line passing throughthe origin.

Note that the steeper the slope, the greater the speed.The corresponding distance-time equation is:

v =d

t

where d is the distance traveled and t the interval of time. Here, all quantities have positive values.

1.4.3 Position-time graph and equationThe position-time graph of a uniform linear motion is a straight line which do not necessarily gothrough the origin (but it could). The slope could be positive or negative (as in the figure below):

time

position

Initial position

Figure 1.5: The position-time graph in a uni-form linear motion is a straight line. Herethe slope is negative.

time

position

Initial position

Figure 1.6: The position-time graph in a uni-form linear motion is a straight line. Herethe slope is positive.

Note that the steeper the slope, the greater the speed.The corresponding position-time equation is:

s = s0 + v(t− t0)


where s is the position of the object at time t and s0 (initial position) is the position of the objectat the inital time t0.

In most situations we can set the intial time as zero, so the equation may be written:

s = s0 + vt

Here, the positions and velocity may be positive or negative. In particular, the velocity is considerednegative if its sense goes to the left or downwards, being positive if it goes upwards or to the right.

If we solve for v:v =

s− s0t− t0

=∆s

∆t

1.4.4 Velocity-time graphThe velocity-time graph of a uniform linear motion is a horizontal line. You may find some examplesat figures 1.7 and 1.8.

time

velocity

Figure 1.7: Here, the velocity is constant andpositive, so the object is moving to the rightor upwards.

time

velocity

Figure 1.8: The velocity is constant and neg-ative, so the object is moving to the left ordownwards.

1.4.5 Acceleration-time graphThe acceleration is the rate of velocity change over time. In a uniform linear motion the velocitydoes not change, so the acceleration is zero. The graph is zero everywhere.

time

acceleration

Figure 1.9: The velocity does not change: the acceleration is always zero.

The acceleration is zero:a = 0 m/s2


1.5 Uniformly accelerated linear motion

It is also known as uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion.

• Uniformly accelerated means that the magnitude of the acceleration is constant, so the mag-nitude of the velocity doesn’t change.

• Linear means that the trajectory is a straight line, so the direction and sense of the acceler-ation is constant.

If the magnitude, direction and sense of the acceleration do no change with time, we conclude that:

A uniformly accelerated linear motion means that the acceleration is constant (meaning thatthe magnitude, direction and sense of the acceleration do not change over time).

It is important to note that distance and time are not proportional.

1.5.1 Distance-time graph and equationThe distance-time graph of a uniform linear motion is a parabola that passes through the origin.

time

distance

Figure 1.10: The distance-time graph in a uniformly accelerated linear motion is a parabola passingthrough the origin.

Note that the steeper the slope, the greater the speed.The corresponding distance-time equation is:

d = v0t+1

2at2

where d is the distance traveled, v0 is the initial speed, a is the acceleration and t the intervalof time. Here, all quantities have positive values, except the acceleration, which is positive if theobject accelerates faster or negative if it is slowing down.

1.5.2 Position-time graph and equationThe position-time graph of a uniform linear motion is a parabola line which do not necessarily gothrough the origin (but it could). The slope could be positive or negative (as in the figure below):

Note that the steeper the slope, the greater the speed.The corresponding position-time equation is:

s = s0 + v0(t− t0) +1

2a(t− t0)2


time

position

Initial position

Figure 1.11: The position-time graph ina uniformly accelerated linear motion is aparabola that do not necessarily have to gothrough the origin. This object is goingfaster because the slope is increasing.

time

position

Initial position

Figure 1.12: This object is slowing down.The slope is decreasing.

where s is the position of the object at time t, s0 (initial position) is the position of the object atthe inital time t0, v0 is the initial velocity and a stands for the acceleration. Everything has a signwhich depends on the frame of reference (except time, which is always positive).

The sense of the acceleration is the same as the velocity if the object goes faster. The sense ofthe acceleration is the opposite of velocity if the object slows down.

In most situations we can set the intial time as zero, so the equation may be written:

s = s0 + v0t+1

2at2

1.5.3 Velocity-time graphThe velocity-time graph of a uniformly accelerated linear motion is a straight inclined line. Youmay see some examples in figures 1.13 and 1.14.

time

velocity

Initial velocity

Figure 1.13: Here, the velocity is increasinguniformly.

time

velocity

Initial velocity

Figure 1.14: The velocity is decreasing uni-formly.

The corresponding velocity-time equation is:

v = v0 + a(t− t0)

Usually, t0 = 0. So then:v = v0 + at


1.5.4 Acceleration-time graphThe acceleration is the rate of velocity change over time. In a uniformly accelerated linear motion,the velocity increases or decreases uniformly, so it is a inclined straight line.

time

acceleration

Figure 1.15: The acceleration is constant.

1.6 Circular motion

1.6.1 Concept

In Physics, circular motion is the movement of an object along the circunference of a circle.

Examples:

• An artificial satellite orbiting the Earth.

• A stone which is tied to a rope and is being swung in circles.

• A car turning through a curve in a race track.

• An electron moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field.

• A gear turning inside a mechanism.

A circular motion can be positive or negative. It is positive if it is anti-clockwise and negativeif it is clockwise.

1.6.2 Arc and angle

radius (r)

arc (d)

angle(θ)

arc = angle · radius

d = θ · r

So the angle can be worked out dividing thearc and the radius:

θ =d

r


The angle is positive if it is anti-clockwise and negative if clockwise.The angle has no units because it is a length over another length:

θ =arc

radius=

lengthanother length

−→ metre

metre−→ No units

which is strange because we are used to measure angle in degrees. So when we use the aboveformula for angle we call this unit radians.

One radian is the angle formed when the arc is equal to the radius.

Exercise: Convert 360 ◦ to radians:

θ =arc

radius=

2πr

r= 2π rad

Then, 180 ◦ = πrad.Another exercise: Convert 30 ◦ to radians:

30◦ · πrad180◦

=π

6rad

2. Forces and their effects

2.1 Forces

2.1.1 Concept

A force is anything that can cause a deformation or change the motion of an object.

Usage:

• To exert a force on . . .

• A force is exerted on . . .

• To apply a force to . . .

• A force is apply to . . .

• To push . . .

• To pull . . .

• To stretch . . .

• To compress . . .

Force is a derived quantity of the SI. Its SI unit is N "Newton".

2.1.2 Types of forces• Contact forces are those types of forces that result when the two interacting objects are

percived to be physically contacting each other.

• Action-at-distance forces are those types of forces that result even when the two inter-acting objects are not perceived in physical contact with each other. In fact, all forces are ofthis type (contact forces are only apparent).

2.1.3 Deformation. Hooke’s law

Deformation is the change in shape or size of an object due to an applied force.

2.1.4 Types of deformation• Elastic deformation results when the object being deformed exerts a restoring force and

returns to its original shape and size when the external force ceases.

• Plastic deformation results when the object being deformed does not return to its originalshape and size when the external force ceases to act.

If a solid object does not deform under an external force (or the deformation can be neglected)it is called a rigid body.

15

CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND THEIR EFFECTS 16

2.2 Hooke’s law

This law only applies to elastic deformation. Every elastic object follow this law. We generally usesprings as elastic objects:

Hooke’s law states that the restoring force of an elastic material is directly proportional tothe displacement. Mathematically:

F = −k x

where:

• F is the restoring force exerted by the spring (elastic object) on its end.

• x is the displacement of the spring’s end from its equilibrium position.

• k is called the spring constant (or elasticity constant). Its unit can be found from Hooke’slaw, being N/m (Newton over metre). Its physical meaning is the force needed to (ideally)displace the object 1 m.

• There is a negative sign on the right hand side of the equation because the restoring forcealways acts int the opposite direction (opposite sense) of the displacement. For example,when a spring is stretched to the left, it pulls back to the right.

Hooke’s law in simple terms says that stress is dirctly proportional to strain.

2.2.1 DynamometerDynamometer is an instrument that uses Hooke’s law to measure forces.

2.3 Forces are vector quantities

Force is a vector quantity, so it has: a magnitude, otherwise known as force intensity, a directionand a sense in that direction.

The point where a vector is located is called the point of application.A vector can also be represented using coordinates (one coordinate in case of one-dimensional

forces, two coordinates in two-dimensinal forces, etc).The sum of all forces applied to an object is called the resultant of of these forces.

2.3.1 Torque

The torque of a force with respect a given point is a vector quantity whose magnitude canbe calculated by multiplying the magnitude of the force times its distante to the point.

τ = F · d

where τ is the torque’s magnitude. Its SI unit is N m. F is the force, and d is the distancefrom the force to the point.

Torques are very important in some non-linear motions.

CHAPTER 2. FORCES AND THEIR EFFECTS 17

2.3.2 EquilibriumAn object is said to be in equilibrium if it is stationary or it is moving with a uniform linear motion.

For an object to be in equilibrium, the resultant and the total torque must be zero.

3. Newton’s Laws of Motion

3.1 Newton’s first law of motion. Law of inertia

If an object experiences no net force, then its velocity is constant (the object is either at rest if itsvelocity is zero, or it moves in a straight line of constant speed if its velocity is not zero).

3.2 Newton’s second law of motion

The net force acting on an object is directly proportional to its acceleration.

~F = m~a

The constant of proportionality is the mass of the object.Force is an SI derived quantity. Its SI unit is N (Newton):

1 N = kg · ms2

Definition of N:

1 N is the force that, when applied to a 1 kg mass, produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2.

3.3 Newton’s third law of motion. Action-reaction law

When a first body exerts a force ~F1 (action) on a second one. Then, this second one, simultan-eously, exerts another force, ~F2 (reaction) on the first one. Action and reaction are both equal inmagnitude but they have opposite direction.

~F1 = −~F2

18

4. Forces in fluids

4.1 Pressure

When a force is applied over a surface we get pressure:

Pressure is the force exerted per unit area.

P =F

S

The SI unit is N/m2 which is known as Pa (Pascal).

19

5. Inorganic formulation

5.1 Elements

An element is a pure substance which has atoms that have the same atomic number, Z (atomswith the same number of protons or atoms that have only one kind of atoms).

5.1.1 Metals

Metals are elements that have a very low electronegativity (i.e. a small ability to attract electronsshared with other atom).

Formula

The chemical formula of a metal is the same as the symbol of the element to which it belongs.

Examples: Sodium Na, potassium K, aluminium Al, lead Pb, tin Sn, . . . .

Formula NameNa sodiumK potassiumPb leadSn tinCa calciumFe ironAg silverAu goldNi nickelCs caesium... ...

This doesn’t mean that atoms in metals are isolated from each other. Actually, metal atomsform a crystal which is a solid material whose particles (atoms in this case) are arranged in anordered pattern. The number of particles in a crystal is undetermined. This formula is calledempiric formula, which means in this case that sodium, for example, is made of only one type ofatoms (Na), but there are many (an undetermined number) of them in a crystal.

20

CHAPTER 5. INORGANIC FORMULATION 21

5.1.2 Nonmetals

Nonmetals are elements that have a high electronegativity.

Nonmetals that form molecules

Formula Traditional SystematicH2 hydrogen dihydrogenN2 nitrogen dinitrogenP4 white phosphorus tetraphosphorusO2 oxygen dioxygenO3 ozone trioxygenS8 sulphur octosulphurF2 fluorine difluorineCl2 chlorine dichlorineBr2 bromine dibromineI2 iodine diiodine

Nonmetals that consist of isolated atoms

Formula NameHe heliumNe neonAr argonKr kryptonXe xenonRn radon

Other nonmetals

The rest of nonmetals can be written as their symbol (because they usually form crystals):

Formula NameB boronC carbon (diamond or graphite)Si siliconAs arsenic... ...

Sometimes, sulphur, phosphorus and others may be written as the symbol of the element theybelong to due to their complex structure: S, P, ...

5.2 Compounds

A compound is a pure substance which has atoms with different atomic number, Z.

If a compound has only two different elements it is known as a binary compound, otherwise itis known as polyatomic compound.


5.2.1 Oxidation statesWhen two different atoms bond together, the most electronegative one attracts the electrons thatshares with the other and gets a negative charge; the other one get a positive charge. If thedifference is not big enough, the charge is very small and they keep sharing the electrons, but if itis very big, then the most electronegative one takes off the electrons and it gets a complete negativecharge (becoming an anion) and the other (usually a metal) becomes a positive ion (cation).

The atom that loses the electron is oxidised and the one that gain electrons it is said to bereduced.

You should have been handed out a table with the most common oxidation states of theelements. Metals have only a positive oxidation state, and nonmetals may have a positive or anegative one depending on the other atom.

5.2.2 Binary compounds

Hydrides

Hydrides are binary compounds made of hydrogen and other element.When a metal is found in compounds, they are always positive, so in metal hydrides then

hydrogen is the negative part (-1) and metal is the positive. Remember that hydrogen with anoxidation state of -1 is called “hydride”.

When there is no metal, then hydrogen is the positive part (+1).

Some hydrides Algunos hidrurosStock IUPAC Stock IUPAC

AlH3 aluminium hydride aluminium trihydride hidruro de aluminio trihidruro de aluminioAgH silver hydride silver monohydride hidruro de plata monohidruro de plataPbH2 led(II) hydride lead dihydride hidruro de plomo(II) dihidruro de plomo

Some hydrides Algunos hidrurosBH3 borane – borano –CH4 methane – metano –SiH4 silane – silano –NH3 ammonia azane amoníaco azanoPH3 phosphine phosphane fosfina fosfanoAsH3 arsine arsane arsina arsanoSbH3 stibine stibane estibina estibanoBiH3 bismutine bismutane bismutina bismutano

Hydracids

Hydracids are acids that do not contain any oxygen. All acids have hydrogen.

Hydracids HidrácidosHF hydrofluoric acid hydrogen fluoride ácido fluorhídrico fluoruro de hidrógenoHCl hydrochloric acid hydrogen chloride ácido clorhídrico cloruro de hidrógenoHBr hydrobromic acid hydrogen bromide ácido bromhídrico bromuro de hidrógenoHI hydroiodic acid hydrogen iodide ácido yodhídrico yoduro de hidrógenoH2S hydrosulphuric acid hydrogen sulphide ácido sulfhídrico sulfuro de hidrógenoH2Se hydroselenic acid hydrogen selenide ácido selenhídrico seleniuro de hidrógenoH2Te hydroteluric acid hydrogen teluride ácido telurhídrico telururo de hidrógeno


Oxides

Oxides are binary compounds in which the oxygen with an oxidation state equal to -2 is combinedwith another element (except fluorine). Oxygen with a -2 oxidation state is called “oxide”.

Examples:

Some oxides Algunos óxidosStock IUPAC Stock IUPAC

Al2O3 aluminium oxide dialuminium trioxide óxido de aluminio trióxido de dialuminioCuO copper(I) oxide copper monoxide chloride óxido de cobre(I) monóxido de cobreCO2 carbon(IV) oxide carbon dioxide óxido de carbono(IV) dióxido de carbono

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