WW2:

Black soldiers: - 1.2 million black men joined the US army- Experience helped them understand the extent to which

they were discriminated against- Hypocrisy of USA discovered; fighting war of freedom yet

Blacks in the USA treated as 2nd class citizens double V sign

- Segregation continued in war, some denied right to fight, sent to most dangerous parts of battle

- There was no formal segregation in Europe- Changed the minds of white soldiers, seen as equals at

times- Encourage black Americans to fight for their own equality

Economic Changes: - factories for war goods would not employ blacks- A. Phillip Randolf threatened march on Washington if

govt didn’t change employment, showed that putting pressure on govt could improve racial equality

- FEPC created to help get blacks jobs- Migration from south to north for jobs in cities- Blacks paid better than before- Unemployment of blacks 1940 937,000 1945 151,000- Blacks paid less than white counterparts

Political Changes : - before war 2% Blacks could vote 1945 15% of Blacks voted

- Number of lynching increased after war- North Black communities could sway elections- Elected Dawson and Powell into congress- Politicians now began to appease Blacks for voted using

affirmative action Social Changes: -southern states still remained segregated

- North eating, transport and education integrated but blacks were poorer and were forced into ghettos

Truman (1945):

Truman (democrat) Committed to challenging southern racism – knew the importance of Black votes

To secure these rights: - 1946 president’s committee on civil rights established

- ‘To secure these rights’ report, highlighted black’s problems, proposed radical change

- Lynching seen as big problem 300 in 5 states over 60 years

- Police brutality ie pistol and bull whipping, forced blacks to admit to crimes they hadn’t committed, drowning

- Grandfather and literacy clauses denied blacks the right to vote

- Discrimination in the army

- Employment and education inequality; black workers got 45c/h white workers got 65c/h ; black teachers earn $765 less than white teachers

- Separate but equal was not working Recommendations: - govt should step in and help blacks

- Enforce civil rights at local level- More funding to civil rights department - Create permanent presidential and congressional civil

rights committees- Remove funding from racist organisations- Outlaw police brutality , force police to intervene in mob

violence and prosecute lynching mobs- FEPC made permanent- All local initiatives preventing blacks from voting should

end- Southern state govt forced to end segregation- Report recommendations seemed great but were

unrealistic southerners had racism ingrained into them so only dejure change could happen not defacto change, not everything could be achieved due to lack of support from congress.

Govt Action under Truman: - used affirmative action to hire Blacks - Used fed govt power to guarantee FEPC in civil service- Ensure lucrative govt contracts went to non-

discriminating companies- Federal housing administration couldn’t lend money to

housing which would end up segregated - Fair deal programme – to help struggling blacks in

poverty stricken areas Desegregation: - Desegregated armed forces 1948

- Inauguration allowed blacks and whites to sit together- Many foreign dignitaries flew into Dulles airport so

Truman tried to desegregate it but only managed o desegregate airport restaurants.

Presidential election 1948: - Commitment to CR meant northern democrats supported him but southern democrats didn’t. - 1st time Americans elect president committed to CR - black votes got him the election even though he lost southern voted

Truman’s success: - Truman backed up his words with action. - Achievements were limited FEPC underfunded CGCC

couldn’t force companies to adopt FEP, Fair deal poorly conceived.

- Couldn’t change defacto racism

Jim Crow laws:

Popular challenges to segregation: - NAACP used the courts to challenge segregation

- 1945-55 golden years of the NAACP- Took Jim crow laws to court- Put pressure on politicians in Washington- Organised popular resistance to racism in the south

NAACP : - created to get Black rights, counter hatred & racial discrimination

- 1939 membership 50,000 1942 membership 450,000- Went to court because they could take the fed or state

govt to court when their constitutional rights were being infringed. They appealed to the 14th (everyone born in the USA has full citizenship rights) /15th (all citizens have the right to vote, regardless of their colour) amendment.

- NAACP provided lawyers and funds to support individual cases.

EARLY CASES: - Smith Vs Allwright 1944; voting rights of black people in Texas

Lonnie Smith challenged the idea that black people could not vote in Primary elections, 15th amendment help them to make this illegal and all white primaries were banned in all states, as it became common law.

- Morgan Vs Virginia 1946; segregation of interstate buses1944 Morgan was fined $100 for not letting a white man have her seat on and interstate bus, she argued it violated her constitutional rights and in 1946 segregation on interstate buses was deemed illegal.

Non-violent resistance: - use between 1945-55- 1947 NAACP picketed new Orleans department stores for

not letting black customers try on hats- 1951 NAACP picketed schools in Alexandra because black

schools closed for the cotton harvest but white schools didn’t

- 1953 NAACP boycotted Lafayette school as it was inferior to the local white school

- 1953 United Defence League (UDL) boycotted buses for a week in Baton rouge and ran a carpooling scheme

- 1940-57 Committee on Negro Organisation (CNO) had voting rights campaigns running

- 1947 Journey of reconciliation (CORE); 1946 desgregation of buses was a dejure change but by 47 there was no dejure change 8 white & 8 Black core members travelled from the north to the south highlighting the dejure change hadn’t happened. Lasted for 2 weeks. Resulted in 12 arrests and southern buses remained segregated.

How successful was direct action: - Voting rights 1.5 % black voters 1940 to 17.3% black

voters 1947- 1946 NAACP lynching unit collected evidence from

lynching sites and brought criminals to justice lynching had decline by 1955

- CORE journey of reconciliation failed but showed that legal and non-violent campaigns could be linked

- UDL bus boycott unsuccessful was too short to hurt finances

- Baton rouge failed- NAACP generally improve Black morale and courage rose

and more people challenged segregation

Segregation of education:

NAACP and education: - showed that the doctrine of separate but equal was not working

- NAACP showed that according to Plessy Vs Ferguson segregated education was illegal

- 1949 south Carolina spent $179 on a White child’s education but only $43 on a Black child’s education

- Improving education meant improving the lives of Black people help them out of the poverty cycle

- Sweat Vs Painter 1950; sweat wanted to study law at Texas university but it was segregated so he was denied a place, NAACP said this was illegal. Texas university said they would make a law school for black students the case was taken to supreme court as black law school was inferior to white one. Supreme court ordered that sweat was to become a student at the white law school.

- Brown Vs Board of education 1954; case for younger education brown’s daughter force to walk to black school 20 blocks away rather than attending white school nearby. After 3yrs supreme court stated segregation in all American schools was illegal. End of separate but equal. Supreme court said it had a –ve affect of black children Black middle class more assertive

to make sure education was equal, integrate schools USA looked hypocritical therefore USA couldn’t

champion democracy Chief judge more sympathetic to civil rights

Reaction to Brown case: - thought end of all segregation near, encouraged more campaigns and protests.

- White Backlash; white citizens council set up raised money to make schools private instead of desegregating.1956 ¼ million people joined the council.

- KKK revival Emmitt till was lynched. His murders face an all white jury and were found not guilty.

- NAACP banned in many states

- 1956 southern manifesto signed by 101 congressmen, it said that the supreme court’s decision was

unconstitutional as education wasn’t mentioned in the constitution.

- Eisenhower said that it only created white resistance and that it could never cause defacto change

Brown II 1955: was to help the defacto desegregation happen faster by getting the court to make a timeline but the

court was vague. Brown Case importance:- Supreme court signalled support for CR.

- Failed to bring about desegregation for all schools 1957 750/6,300 schools had desegregated

- Showed white resistance & lack of support from Eisenhower

Conclusion: 1945-55 court cases had huge success dejure but had slow defacto desegregation.

- Campaigns could be used to test court rulings- CR couldn’t be forced onto south- South resistance intimidated campaigners- Southern racists were effective and quickly organised

Civil Rights 1955-62:

Montgomery bus boycott (Alabama segregation): - 1955 Parks refused to give up her seat for white man

- Led to NAACP legal case and direct action targeting local bus companies.

- MIA created under MLK organised boycott of all buses until segregation had ended, committed to non-violence

- Boycott lasted a year 85% of blacks in Montgomery boycotted buses this hit the whites economically 65% of revenue was lost

- 156 leaders and MLK were arrested created media attention

Brower Vs Gayle 1956: 1956 segregation of buses outlawed Bus desegregation: - showed economic power of blacks

- Direct action + legal action = success- Media was great help- MLK brought to surface- Plessy V Ferguson overturned- SCLC created

Little rock Campaign: 1957 school deseg hoped to be sped up by enrolling 9 black students into Little rock all white school. Governor order the students not to be let in. Eisenhower got National Guard to help students get into school.

- Faubus passed law so he could close schools instead of deseging

- Cooper V Aaron –illegal to stop deseg- 1959 little rock reopened and black students enrolled- Ensured defacto change

Greensboro sit-ins 1960: -CR shifted to public places- 4 students went to Woolworths and sat in white only seats

refused to leave until served- Store closed to end sit-ins- Protest spread elsewhere

Boynton Vs Virginia: 1960 segregation on interstate buses was illegal Freedom rides 1961: -make dejure change

- Organised by CORE expected to be faced with violence which they would use to gain media attention

- Bull o’connor refuse to protect them, gave police day off so racists would be free to attack them

- King gave speech supporting them- Deseg on interstate buses ha to be enforced- Combined effort SNCC, SCLC and CORE

- Kennedy admin sympathetic to CR Albany movement 1961-62: - Media attention was denied to campaign as

police were respectful, stopped racists, released king from prison in public.

- Showed peaceful protest didn’t always work- Caused divisions in CR movement- People turned to violence

Meredith and University of Mississippi 1962: - governor refused to let him enrol

- Supreme court backed Meredith, when he arrived faced mob violence

1955-62 CR campaign showed power but effect was only case-by-case didn’t end segregation for all.

Civil rights campaigns1963-65:

Birmingham campaign1963: Birmingham’s bull o’connor reacted violently to civil right this would give MLK the media sympathy.

- MLK hoped provoking O’connor and subsequent violence would lead to desegregation of the city.

- Birmingham was committed to seg and there were no black policemen , fire-fighters, bank workers or bus drivers.

- Organised by SCLC focused campaign on deseg of public places in city, end racial discrimination in employment.

- O’connor used court injunctions to weaken protest not violence, released high profiled campaigners to stop -ve media.

- SCLC changed tactics recruited students as imprisonment of students wouldn’t affect family incomes also imprisoning youth would make Birmingham look awful.

- 1300 children power hosed and arrested may 1963 media coverage was strong an police brutality resurfaced , Kennedy forced to act and support bill to end seg for all

- CR protestors released without charge, Large department stores desegregated, End of Racial discrimination in employment

- KKK bombed Black church which led the Birmingham campaign, beginning of demonstrations, civil rights got more sympathy and Kennedy was committed to CR.

- SCLC condemned for using children and endangering them

March on Washington 1963:- SCLC, SNCC,CORE, NAACP commemorate black freedom

- Put pressure on president & congress to pass CRA

- ‘for jobs, for freedom’- 20% of campaigners were White, showed level of support

for civil rights legislation.- ¼ million people marched to Lincoln memorial, king gave

‘I have a dream’ speech.- CR seen as united front- Remained peaceful, white support increased- Got +ve media attention- Government given mandate to force deseg of south

states. Campaign for voting rights:

- Need legislation to guarantee black voting rights- CR act of 1965

Mississippi Freedom Summer 1964:- Mississippi had lowest voter registration 6.2% in 1962,

blacks had to take literacy test- 800 northerners volunteered (many were white) to

campaign. Escorted blacks to registration offices, established 30 ‘freedom schools’

- KKK and police put up resistance 30 homes and 37 churches were bombed, over 1000 arrests. white juries didn’t convict KKK members who killed 3 CR activists till 2005

- 17,000 blacks tried to register only 1,600 did- Johnson and CR broke apart and American system seen as

racist Selma Campaign 1965: - register black voters

- SCLC focussed on Alabama because 1% of blacks registered to vote, and sheriff would put up violence.

- Held demonstrations, police used electric cattle prods on protestors. Police murdered 26 yr old black man protecting mom & grandma.

- 50 mile march, had to turn back 2 times due to violence but 3rd time 8,000 people began the march ended with 25,000 people.

- Led to 1965 voting rights act, media images upped support, cooperation between different groups, tension in CR movement beginning to show.

Martin Luther King:

Shift of focus to north:- There was racial discrimination economically and socially

which wasn’t being addressed- 1964 act only helped south not north

Moynihan Report 1965:

- Highlighted level of crime in black community and poor living conditions, ghettoisation in the north was bringing about defacto segregation of education and housing.

- Blacks blamed for economic problems created more tension between Johnson and radicals, whites used it to stop govt help to blacks

Chicago freedom movement 1966:- Kings 1st campaign in north; used non-violent direct action

to challenge northern defacto segregation in education, housing & employment.

- 1st rally 30,000 people due to a heat wave blacks used fire-hydrants to cool down, water was cut off and violence broke out

- North upset by comparison to south’s racism and put up resistance

- Increased violence meant that mayor had to compromise restricted further marches, fair housing was promised to be enforced but wasn’t

- King’s failure made him weaker blacks turned to radical groups

- Johnson wouldn’t support king due to king’s opposition to Vietnam.

Poor people’s campaign 1968:- Nationwide civil disobedience, boycotts, march on

Washington by all minority groups and poor whites- Demanded; $30 billion to combat poverty; govt

commitment to full employment; ½ million new houses a year.

- Campaign got support from labour unions and religious groups

King’s assassination: - Symbol of end of the CR movement- National day of mourning 50,000 mourner joined funeral

procession- Black Americans reacted violently over 130 cities in 29

states

Federal government’s role:

President President’s position Major CR legislation Date

Eisenhower(1953-61)

-republican- thought black position improve on its own-Two CRA passed but had lots of opposition from congress and were weak

CRA- Voting rights 1957

CRA- Voter registration 1960

Kennedy(1961-63)

-democrat-sympathetic to blacks- created CEEO

CRA initiated

March on Washington made him fully support CR

Johnson(1963-69)

-democrat-wanted to make USA more fair- watered down Eisenhower’s CRA

CRA- outlawed segregation and created FEPC

1964

voting rights act 1965CRA – fair housing act 1968

Role of Congress and supreme court:Congress:

- Congress changed mind due to violence CR campaign faced

- CR bill could not be postponed anymore too much support- Johnson knew how to get the bill passed- Liberal democrats replaced conservative southern

democrats more support for CR- Act would be Kennedy’s legacy

Supreme Court:- Earl warren chief justice sympathetic to CR- Civil rights could use new common law to help enforce

desegregation. Conclusion: congress, Supreme Court or president couldn’t enforce

defacto changes but ending segregation came from their support.

Opposition to change 1955-68:

Federal opposition:- Eisenhower black people should be patient equality will come when it comes

- Kennedy disagreed with methods of campaigners but set up voter registration, tried to keep fed govt out of struggle.

- Johnson worked with CR to bring about change, but after king denounce Vietnam distanced from CR and disagreed with king’s methods

- Congress: 1957/60 CRA filibustered; weakened 1957/60/68 CRA acts laws couldn’t be enforced by govt

- FBI: CR groups had links with communist party FBI infiltrated them and tried to weaken them from inside

State and local government: - local politicians did all they could to resist change E.G. Faubus and little rock campaign,

Daley and restriction of campaigns in Chicago- Police: Bull O’connor and Pritchett, 1966 closure of fire-

hydrants- Public: white flight

Peaceful Protest achievements:

What achieved? Limitations of change:

Education 1. Sweat Vs painter – equal 1. 1957 - 730/6,300 schools

educational resources for all.2. Brown V board of education-

separate schools couldn’t be equal.

3. Brown 2 & cooper Vs aaron- speed up integration

4. 1964 act – govt had power to enforce integration

5. 1965 higher education act- increased number of black students in college/university

were desegregated2. 97% of black students still

in segregated schools3. 1968- 58% of black

students still in segregated schools

Transport 1. 1946 Morgan Vs Virginia – segregation of interstate buses illegal.

2. 1961 freedom rides – govt enforced desegregation of interstate buses

3. 1955 Montgomery bus boycott & Browder Vs Gayle desegregation of transport in Montgomery. Segregation of all transport illegal.

4. 1964 CRA fed govt had power to enforce desegregation in the south

Public Places

1. 1960 Greensboro sit-ins – challenged segregation in public places.

2. 1963 – 161 desegregated canteens and restaurants

3. 1965 214 southern cities desegregated due to CR 1964-65 act force

1. Local authorities avoided instead of enforcing desegregation.

2. 1963 Birmingham general desegregation not reached.

Voting Rights

1. 1965 voter registration act helped voter registration

2. 1965-66 230,000 blacks registered to vote

3. No of blacks elected to get positions increased.

1. 1957 /60 CRA- ineffective in helping black voters

2. 1963 40% of black population registered to vote

3. Voting rights effective only in north not south

Employment and income

1. 25/31 states with high black populations instated FEP laws

2. Govt tried to ensure FEP for govt positions

3. 1964 CRA outlawed racial discrimination

1. Black unemployment 2x national average

2. Moynihan report showed black workers got 53% of white counterpart

3. 1968 black umept 7% white unempt 5%

4. Income of blacks increased to 61% of white counterparts

Housing 1. 1967 22 states had Fair housing law

2. 1968 fair housing act stopped discrimination of 80% of America’s housing market.

1. $1,000 fine for racism in housing market not big enough deterrent

Pubic CR support

1. 1954 55% supported desegregation of education

2. 1964 80% supported desegregation of education

1. Only 50% supported equal housing rights

2. 80% supported voting and employment rights

Conclusion: - 1968 legal revolution, segregation no longer legal, federal government had the power to challenge racial injustice. Blacks still not equal.

Reasons for Change:

How much Change? Limitations:

Presidents 1. Eisenhower used influence to pass 1957 & 1960 CRA.

2. 1965 impetus from back groups

3. Civil rights campaigners had to keep CR on agenda

4. Push for change came from CR

5. Varied from president to president

MLK 1. Good leader, good speaker2. Brought groups together

1. Criticised heavily2. Failed to persuade people

poverty and ghettos were problems

Peaceful protest & mass activism

1. Spokespeople got lots of support for the movement

2. Controlled mass movement 85% boycotted Montgomery buses

3. Attracted media attention

1. Could pressure govt without their masses

2. Campaigns weren’t guaranteed success

Malcolm X:

Nation of Islam: believed in Black supremacy- Black and whites couldn’t live together peacefully

advocated separatism- Black people could be seduce by sex, drugs, cigarettes,

and alcohol so they had to stay pure and work hard to avoid this

- Self-improvement came from hard work and purity Black Americans: - black men were trying to get out of the world of

prostitution, gambling and drug - Nation of Islam advocated self-discipline and was

appealing to ex-cons Malcolm X background: - 3 uncles murdered by whites, home torched ,

black legion murdered his father.- Adopted by nice white family, visited sister realised how

he was discriminated against - Joins nation of Islam while in jail, rejected his surname

given by white slave owners. - Could relate to working class blacks

Beliefs: - NAACP couldn’t set blacks free because the American system wouldn’t let them.- Thought King was working for the government - Ballot or Bullet ‘experienced the American nightmare and

suffered from American hypocrisy’- Advocated gun ownership, liberated themselves ‘ by all

means necessary’ Break with N of I: 1964 left N of I

- Set up OAAU aimed to re-educate blacks to gain economic security

- Organised voter registration campaigns; school boycotts in bad areas; rent strike in poor housing; social programmes to help drug addicts

- Integration: 1964 ballot or bullet said use vote to vote for black representatives

- Willing to work with CORE/ SNCC Assassination: - 1965 Malcolm X shot at close range 15 times

CR Movement divisions:

Tensions: - disagreements over methods, jealousy and rivalry- Moderates Vs radicals

Source of tensions:- use of violence in CR movement - Should black and white people collaborate in movement- Could dejure change bring about defacto change- Integration or separation

Methods: - Peaceful or violent- King SCLC peaceful nonviolent methods worked- SNCC/ CORE peace pragmatic not ideological, Use guns

for protection- Collaboration- NAACP/SCLC black and white members but

CORE 1965/ SNCC 1966 expelled white members Goals: - Integration vs Separation:

- N of I separatism - NAACP/SCLC integration use of law- CORE /SNCC separate facilities to improve education as

law wasn’t working Personalities: - king seen as glory seeker criticised by other groups

- SNCC told to join SCLC by king but they wanted to be independant

- CORE not supported by king - All groups wanted media coverage- King too close to presidents, radicals said govt failed to

protect protestors so should support the govt Effects:- criticism from radical groups made it easier from moderates to

work with govt- Damaged king’s reputation- Difficult to organise mass campaigns- Vietnam to attention away from civil rights

Black Panthers:

Origins and aims: Black Panther Party for Self-Defense founded 1966, by Huey and Seale.

- BPP was to organised the working class- Self defence and economic improvement

- Organised welfare schemes for northern ghettos Ideology: black nationalists

- Black’s govern themselves- Opposed Vietnam

Methods: Patrol the pigs- protect blacks from police abuses of power- 1967 35 local groups in 15 states- Free breakfast clubs, free health clinics, free ‘liberation’

schools- By1974 over 200,000 people treated in 200 clinics

Decline of Black Panthers: - FBI paranoid that violent black extremist would banned together and have a revolution.

- Infiltrate BPP phones, homes and other places- Forged death threats to senior government officials- Lost support and money was being used in legal cases

instead of schools and clinics- Split in party women , men , cleaver, Newton

Conclusion: women didn’t want cleaver in party was a rapist, newton and cleaver both ran for leader. FBI thought education was to raise future revolutionaries, ‘reds under beds’

Black Power Achievements:

Political & economic: organised northern blacks which king couldn’t do. Related to working class blacks

Black Identity: provided black with powerful black examples- Educated about culture - Rejected term negro and coloured called themselves black- Black music grew- Media – star wars 2nd inter racial kiss stirred political storm

didn’t mind it was interspecies. Conclusion:

- Impact on society and culture- Sickle cell campaign- Improved black identity

USA in populuxe ( majority of Americans enjoyed luxury)1945-60 economic growth in USA, 1950s low inflation, 1956, 60% of Americans in white collar jobs

Politics of affluence: good economy made the middle class less weary of Blacks getting better opportunities.

Liberal politics: 1961 Kennedy established the peace corps- volunteers worked in the developing countries; 1966 15,000 people

volunteering.1969 Apollo landed 2 men on the moon. Kennedy hoped to improve education and healthcare but congress blocked his bills

Great society: Johnson believed that the new wealth should be used to help the poor1966-69 Johnson committed $1.2 billion to schools and $2.9 billion to improve inner city areas. 1965 social security act free healthcare to all over 65

Mass culture: - Media culture: by 1960 90% of Americans owned tvs- Corporate culture: US’ largest 100 companies made 70%

of countries manufacturing- Individualism and independence was stressed

Other America: - showed that populuxe didn’t apply to all blacks and elderly were excluded

Counter culture:

Made up of Black panthers, hippies, feminists, peaceniks. Counterculture believed America was corrupt, believed America was un-

free unjust society, also traditional parties could not provide radical change.

Protested in the streets

Disney and counterculture origin:

Disney films popularised rock music, dances were Latin or African. Disney films included psychedelic 60s drug culture. Often Disney heroes were young rebels like robin hood.

Youth culture:

By the end of the 50s teenage market was established Rock n Roll Elvis Presley and the Beatles very popular with American teens Outsiders: rebels were identified in films and were glorified Beatniks: -encouraged experiments with sex and drugs. They rejected

populuxe and focused on drugs, sex, poetry and philosophy. They rejected traditional gender roles.

Hippies: refuge for youngster who ran away from home, they rejected ownership and supported communes and co-operatives. The diggers set up a money free community goods were traded or given away for free. They had free healthcare, transport, drugs and food. Hippies were from middle class backgrounds and could afford to have a luxurious lifestyle but choose not to.

Student rebels (New Left):

New left was a political movement, young radicals became fans of communism and socialism as they were shocked by the inequality in American society.

New left’s 1st group SDS 1960; members had been a part of the SNCC, they set out their aims in Port Huron statement 1962.

2nd group FSM (free speech movement) by University of California students Had little support before1965, activists came from wealthy backgrounds at

elite universities, they became more influential over the Vietnam war.

Make Love, Not War:

Vietnam 1945-75: -1963 comms on brink of winning- USA scared of domino effect- 1965 Johnson sent 160,000 men into Vietnam, were

defeated sent in more men and more money 1968 still no sign of winning

1965 majority of Americans in support of war but became unpopular due to :

- Deaths 1968 11,000 men died- The Draft conscription of 18-25yr olds but most didn’t

want to go- An unfair draft wealthy whites could avoid the draft by

enrolling in colleges, poor whites and black couldn’t get out of the draft.

- Low morale- soldiers used drugs and 20% abandoned - Racist war- seen as whites trying to dominate Asians- Tactics- women and children were killed unnecessarily

Anti war movement:- Vietnam showed corruption of the Us government- Affected uni students the most; their friends who died and

them who’d be drafted- 1965 SDS organised mass rally in Washington against the

war 20,000 people joined. Teach-ins happened where students and teachers debated the war and with prominent academics joining the movement got respect

- Anti war groups joined and 40,000 people marched on Washington.

- MLK spoke out against Vietnam and led a 5000 people march in Chicago 1967

- Burning draft cards - Draft created resentment govt criminalised burning draft

card, this was taken to court and new law stated that it didn’t violated freedom of speech. SDS membership grew 1967 30,000 from 1965 1500

Impact of anti war movement:- Failed to sway the American people 1968 only 28% were

doves. Conclusion: counterculture had disappeared by 1970s, Hippie communes

had been infiltrated by criminals E.G Charles Manson. Communes couldn’t deal with abused children and sexual liberation often meant sexual exploitation for women.

Background: - First wave of feminism ended in 1920 and it addressed voting rights for women.

- Second wave liberal feminism; economic issues- Third wave radical feminism; women’s roles,

domestic/sexual relationships Economics: - 3 concerns; employment, income and unpaid work

- By 1960 3/5 women not at work, only 30% of married moms at work being paid.

- Income meant women earned 57% of what men earned 1961 men $21,000 women $15,000

- Argued that women were expected to do a double shift.

- Campaigned for ERA to challenge sexual discrimination in work and pay

Identity: - radical feminists said that women’s identity was defined by men.

- Betty Friedan argued that women had become focused on husbands and children they needed to be more involved in work

- Radicals advocated lesbianism; men made women submissive by used Sex; celibacy; feminist separation

- Promoted gay rights 1970s Kennedy: 1960 election of Kennedy brought up new lobbying of

government- Set up presidential committee on the status of women- Suggested amendment to 64 CR act out law sexual

discrimination.- Govt didn’t enforce Title VII - Widened income inequality by 1969- Women took on more radical action NOW was set up in

1966 Growth of feminism: - SNCC & CORE excluded white members and they

turned to other issues.- Women played key role in CR movement - SDS was male dominated so women focused on women’s

rights NOW: - set up 1966 by Betty Friedan, aimed to bring women into full

participation of American society.- By 1967 had many legal victories: - Johnson signed

executive order 11375 outlawing sexual discrimination in companies working for the Govt

- EEOC enforcing Title VII of 1964 CRA- 50 women appointed to top govt posts- Weeks Vs Southern Bell; Weeks was not promoted

despite being more qualified than the man who was, she lost 1st round of legal battle won 2nd round & got a back pay of $31,000 in 1971 despite being harassed by the company during case

- 1966 Daniel convicted of robbery Muncy act meant she got longer sentence than male counterpart. Muncy act was struck down by high court.

Radical Feminists: - split from NOW, created the Feminists- Campaigned against pornography and marriage and were

pro-choice- Advocated feminist separation- NYRW – New York radical women organised women speak

outs about abortions encouraged people to rethink abortion laws

- 1968 miss world pageant was protested against as made women sex objects, crowned a sheep miss world

Successful? – title VII & executive order 11375 meant legal foundation for women’s rights in work place

Law could be used to help women Neither title VII or executive order 11375 helped get women better pay Radical had limited success, abortion laws weren’t relaxed, 1973 roe Vs

wae relaxed laws Female separatism was unrealistic

Hispanic Americans:

Cesar Chavez:- from very poor catholic background he renounced violence but fought for justice.

- 1952 joined CSO fighting for Chicano rights - 1962 director of CSO- 1962 reisgned and set up NFWA because CSO failed to set

up labour union Nation farm workers Asssociation (NFWA):- make union to help provide

welfare support to Chicanos- Organise national campaign for Chicano Workers

economic rights

- 1962 set up credit union so workers could borrow money- Help families deal with local authority to ensure fair

treatment- 1962; 200 people to 1965; 1200 people

La Huelga:- 1965 NFWA had 1st campaign walked out of Delano vineyards, starting strike sept 196, la huelga lasted 5 years involved 10,000 workers

- Firms didn’t negotiate tried to evict workers by recruiting strike breakers

- UFW created- Wanted to attract media attention to expose awful

conditions- Organised pilgrimage 340 mile march from vineyard to

Californian Governor’s office- 1968 boycott of Californian grapes began- Lasted 2 years and 17 million Americans stopper buying

American grapes The UFW’s achievements: - 1966 Schenley vineyard negotiated fair

contract with workers. Delano group introduced higher wages.1975 Californian Agricultural Labour Reform Act passed gave unions legal rights

Other Hispanic American protests:- MAPA encouraged Mexicans to vote and run for office posts

- 1962 MAPA president elected to house of representatives- YCCA campaigned for better education, employment

practices - 1968 Chicano blow outs school walk outs demanding

better education for Hispanic schooling - Never received full success of black CR because- only

made up 6% of population, fed government didn’t help as not many of them voted, movement was fragmented heavily.

Native Americans:

Population: 1960 ½ million Native Americans in America. 25% lived on reservations, organised into tribe which had different cultures.

Politics: US government gave Indians right to govern themselves, had own courts and police force and tribal councils.

- Were almost completely wiped out due to small pox jibe with Americans earlier.

- BIA was part of federal govt- BIA an council blamed each other

Economic and social problems: - 1965 only 8,000 Navajo’s had jobs- Endured social problems such as alcoholism- 1964 CRA outlawed racial discrimination- 1965 education act meant Indian literacy rate issue was

addressed

- 1968 National council on Indian opportunity given $400 million to tackle alcoholism, discrimination and improving education

- 1968 CRA ended discrimination of Indians in housing. Activists and campaigns: - 2 pan-Indian groups

- 1950s policy of termination made to help ensure fair treatment of Indians

- 1953 congressional resolution 108 to force Native Indians into mainstream culture.

- 1966 compulsory termination ended- 1967 Indians could mortgage land and resources to fund

communities

Conclusion:

Cesar Chavez was inspired by MLK and used non-violent direct action and boycotts to fight for Chicano workers to get a better deal.

NIYC were inspired by black student radicals and fought for red power and red nationalism.

NCAI saved Indian tribes by forcing govt to end policy of termination.