Civil Rights issues Civil Rights issues after 1965after 1965

Urban riotsUrban riots

Despite advances made 1955 – 65, Despite advances made 1955 – 65, racial racial relations remained acuterelations remained acute, , esp. in large cities of the North and on esp. in large cities of the North and on the West Coast (untouched by civil the West Coast (untouched by civil rights campaigns).rights campaigns).

Watts ghetto riotsWatts ghetto riots, LA, 11 – 15 , LA, 11 – 15 August 65. One of over 200 US cities August 65. One of over 200 US cities 1964 – 68 where there where 1964 – 68 where there where outbreaks of racial violence escalated.outbreaks of racial violence escalated.

Federal response - JohnsonFederal response - Johnson

Kerner CommissionKerner Commission – National – National Advisory Commission on Civil Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders – created July 1967, Disorders – created July 1967, published Feb 1968.published Feb 1968.

Highlighted the extent of social and Highlighted the extent of social and economic deprivation in many black economic deprivation in many black ghetto communities.ghetto communities.

Called for sweeping reforms in Called for sweeping reforms in employment, education, welfare, employment, education, welfare, housing & law enforcement.housing & law enforcement.

Federal response - JohnsonFederal response - Johnson

Early Johnson – ‘Great Society’ e.g. Early Johnson – ‘Great Society’ e.g. Community Action Programmes Community Action Programmes (CAPs) estab. at local level across the (CAPs) estab. at local level across the nation to overcome poverty and social nation to overcome poverty and social injustice BUTinjustice BUT

Finance was difficult – increasing tax Finance was difficult – increasing tax burden on middle class & escalating burden on middle class & escalating cost of Vietnam War. cost of Vietnam War.

Led to shelving of main Led to shelving of main recommendations of Kerner report.recommendations of Kerner report.

King’s change in philosophy King’s change in philosophy after 1965after 1965

King and SCLC attempt to move King and SCLC attempt to move North e.g.campaign in Chicago 1966 North e.g.campaign in Chicago 1966 – focus on fighting economic injustice – focus on fighting economic injustice as well as racism (more radical).as well as racism (more radical).

‘‘Poor People’s Campaign, Poor People’s Campaign, Washington – May/June 1968 Washington – May/June 1968 (overshadowed by death of King in (overshadowed by death of King in April 1968)April 1968)

CR Movement divided by CR Movement divided by Vietnam WarVietnam War

CORE passed anti-war resolution in CORE passed anti-war resolution in 1966 but NAACP maintained a policy 1966 but NAACP maintained a policy of public support – as did Roy Wilkins of public support – as did Roy Wilkins & Philip Randolph& Philip Randolph

King’s ‘Beyond Vietnam’ Speech, King’s ‘Beyond Vietnam’ Speech, NYC, April 1967 – spoke out against NYC, April 1967 – spoke out against warwar

Radicalisation of civil rights Radicalisation of civil rights groupsgroups

SNCC and CORE – growing social and SNCC and CORE – growing social and political radicalisation e.g. lack of political radicalisation e.g. lack of tolerance about white volunteers (Stokely tolerance about white volunteers (Stokely Carmichael – the ‘Pepsi Generation’Carmichael – the ‘Pepsi Generation’

Emergence of more militant Emergence of more militant spokespersons – Malcolm X – influence spokespersons – Malcolm X – influence SNCC and CORESNCC and CORE

Black Panthers – founded Oakland, CA Black Panthers – founded Oakland, CA Oct 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Oct 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby SealeSeale

Backlash against CR Backlash against CR movementmovement

Exodus of white liberals from civil Exodus of white liberals from civil rights movement (& financial rights movement (& financial donations)donations)

Urban ghetto riots, attitude of Black Urban ghetto riots, attitude of Black Power, Vietnam war & media fatique Power, Vietnam war & media fatique with civil rights issueswith civil rights issues

Reflected in Nixon’s Southern StrategyReflected in Nixon’s Southern Strategy FBI operation COINTELPRO to discredit FBI operation COINTELPRO to discredit

and sabotage Black Power groups – and sabotage Black Power groups – destroyed Black Panthersdestroyed Black Panthers

NixonNixon

Attitude to civil rights was one of neglectAttitude to civil rights was one of neglect Contrary to Burger Supreme Court eg.Contrary to Burger Supreme Court eg. Alexander v. Holmes CountyAlexander v. Holmes County (1969) – (1969) –

immediate desegregation of schoolsimmediate desegregation of schools Swann v. Charlotte Mecklenberg Board of Swann v. Charlotte Mecklenberg Board of

EducationEducation (1971) – approved bussing (1971) – approved bussing Exception was introduction of affirmative Exception was introduction of affirmative

action to promote action to promote black capitalismblack capitalism

CarterCarter

Offered new hope for AA (a southern Offered new hope for AA (a southern liberal Democratliberal Democrat

Appointed 14 black ambassadorsAppointed 14 black ambassadors But disappointed AA looking for a But disappointed AA looking for a

return to Johnson’s reforms (US return to Johnson’s reforms (US economy in recession)economy in recession)

CarterCarter

SC – Regents of the University of SC – Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978) – California v. Bakke (1978) – affirmative action unconstitutional affirmative action unconstitutional but ruled race could still be a but ruled race could still be a determining factordetermining factor

ReaganReagan

Challenged legitimacy of affirmative Challenged legitimacy of affirmative action programmes and racial quotas action programmes and racial quotas – argued positive discrimination was – argued positive discrimination was no longer necessaryno longer necessary

Severe cutbacks in federal Severe cutbacks in federal expenditure on social and welfare expenditure on social and welfare programmes e.g. 1988 Family programmes e.g. 1988 Family Support Act compelled welfare Support Act compelled welfare recipients to do community service – recipients to do community service – AA hit hardest by these measuresAA hit hardest by these measures

ReaganReagan

Opposed plan to make MLK birthday Opposed plan to make MLK birthday (20 Jan) into public holiday. Gave (20 Jan) into public holiday. Gave reluctant consent in 1983.reluctant consent in 1983.

Appointment of Nixon appointee Appointment of Nixon appointee William Rehnquist to Chief Justice William Rehnquist to Chief Justice 1986 & other conservatives e.g. 1986 & other conservatives e.g. Antonin Scalia & Anthony Kennedy Antonin Scalia & Anthony Kennedy (Bush also appointed David Souter (Bush also appointed David Souter and Clarence Thomas)and Clarence Thomas)

Political successPolitical success

AA made high profile gains unknown AA made high profile gains unknown since 1860s and 1870ssince 1860s and 1870s

e.g. 1994 – over 40 black e.g. 1994 – over 40 black congressmen & 1992 Carol Mosely congressmen & 1992 Carol Mosely Brown – first AA woman to be elected Brown – first AA woman to be elected to US Senateto US Senate

Most spectacular – election of black Most spectacular – election of black mayors thoughout US e.g. Harold mayors thoughout US e.g. Harold Washington in ChicagoWashington in Chicago

Political success?Political success?

BUT in 1994 – AA comprised 12.5 BUT in 1994 – AA comprised 12.5 percent of US population but only 2 percent of US population but only 2 percent of elected and appointed percent of elected and appointed officials & terms in office often short-officials & terms in office often short-livedlived

Jesse Jackson –MLK’s right hand man in Jesse Jackson –MLK’s right hand man in Chicago – activist with SCLCChicago – activist with SCLC

1970s – People United to Save Humanity 1970s – People United to Save Humanity (PUSH) – campaigned for more job (PUSH) – campaigned for more job opportunities nationally e.g. Coca Colaopportunities nationally e.g. Coca Cola

Political success?Political success?

Jackson stood as a candidate for Jackson stood as a candidate for President of US (Democrat) in 1984 & President of US (Democrat) in 1984 & 88 – sought to increase voter 88 – sought to increase voter participation & brought him national participation & brought him national and international recognitionand international recognition

Other gains?Other gains?

Significant nos of blacks achieved advances in Significant nos of blacks achieved advances in employment in the professions (middle classes)employment in the professions (middle classes)

1990 census – over 9m of 31m AA lived in 1990 census – over 9m of 31m AA lived in households with total annual income of at least households with total annual income of at least $35,000 (benchmark for middle class status)$35,000 (benchmark for middle class status)

1990s 31 percent of AA families officially 1990s 31 percent of AA families officially classed as poor (compared to 10 percent of classed as poor (compared to 10 percent of white families) – twice as likely to be white families) – twice as likely to be unemployedunemployed

Class becomes more of a division than race?Class becomes more of a division than race?