cit par part 1 831_.pdfwhy should a finance manager know about citizen participation? 1. to ensure...

Part 1

Essay

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CitizenParticipation

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SummaryThis essay examines ways that citizensinteract with their local governments.We provide a definition of citizenparticipation and describe the benefitsto a local government that establishesand uses citizen participation policiesand techniques. We discuss obstacles tothe use of these policies. Finally, weprovide a compendium of techniquesthat can be used by local governmentsto involve citizens in a timely andconstructive way in the developmentand implementation of public programs.

DefinitionCITIZEN PARTICIPATION is any processthrough which citizens influence publicdecisions that affect their lives and thelives of other citizens. The participationcan be active as when citizens interactwith their elected officials or the staff ofa local government to influence a publicpolicy decision. Or the participation canbe comparatively passive as whencitizens simply attend a public meetingto receive information on the status of anew government program or when theyshow up to vote at an election. The mosteffective citizen participation bringspeople together to learn and discuss aswell as to give their input, and theseopportunities are particularly useful forbuilding a consensus that can be ameaningful guide for government action.

Why should a financemanager know aboutcitizen participation?

1. To ensure that citizenparticipation’s legalrequirements aremet in the mosteffective manneri.e., hold publicmeetings.

2. To support andlegitimize a financial manager’sbudget allocations.

3. To provide a finance manager withnew insights and solutions tocomplex finance and budget issues,i.e., priority setting.

4. To meet and respond to the needsof citizens.

5. To advise elected officials onappropriate techniques to solicitpublic input in finance relatedmatters.

6. To anticipate and be prepared for thetime when citizen participation is thenorm rather than the exception.

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7. To provide leadership and advice toother department heads abouttechniques used in meeting citi-zens’ information needs.

8. To effectively communicate finan-cial information to the public,businesses and community organi-zations.

9. To serve as a means to get tangiblework from volunteers to supportfinancial activities.

Citizen participation infinancial management

As a financial manager, you probably feelmost comfortable when you are workingwith systems, numbers, and processes.No doubt, the prospect of voluntarilyinteracting with the “public” may be abit unsettling. To minimize or excludepublic participation in financial planningand management, the argument issometimes heard from financial manag-ers that involving citizens is tooexpensive and time consuming. Besides,continues the argument, citizens lack thenecessary technical expertise and some-times become emotionally involved inissues rather than detached and rational.Do these arguments sound familiar?

As we move into this important topic,we want to introduce you, as a localgovernment financial manager, toanother way of thinking about citizenparticipation. We don’t need toremind you that the businessof financing local govern-ment gets morecomplicated all the time.The most astutefinancial managersare constantlylooking for newideas andresourcestheycanuse tohelp them cope with this growingcomplexity. In any community thereare citizens with extensive back-grounds, responsibilities and financialcredibility in business, banking, or thenon-profit sector. There are also citi-

zens who may have no financialbackground but who may have anintelligent, common sense way ofapproaching issues. These citizens areaccessible to you and deeply interestedin being of help inasmuch as they havea vital, personal stake in the fiscalsoundness of their community.

In financial management, the mostcommon opportunity for citizen partici-pation occurs with the discussion andadoption of an annual budget. Butthere are many other areas wherepublic input can be helpful, such asestablishing principles or rules forcommunity property fund manage-ment, establishing purchasing andpayment guidelines, serving on revenueand investment commissions, gatheringcommunity support for capital invest-ment programs or general developmentprograms. In other words, you can be abetter financial manager to the extentyou recognize and take advantage of theexpertise that exists all around you inyour community.

But there are other reasons for involv-ing citizens. Not involving them in theaffairs of local government can havegrave consequences in a democraticsociety where people expect an opportu-nity to be heard and to exercise theirinfluence. Leaving them out risks losingtheir confidence in local government,possibly causing them to withhold theirsupport for important public improve-ment proposals. And it may even leadcitizens to begin undermining govern-ment programs either by passiveinaction or direct confrontation.

It is our position in this handbook thatthe question is no longer whether or notto involve citizens in public decisionmaking. The question is how to involvethem. Through the pages of this hand-book you will find countless examplesof how you, as a finance manager, cantake advantage of citizen participationto convey information, solicit advice,head off conflict, create good will andbuild lasting public trust and coopera-tion. In short, we want you to recognizethe value of citizen participation as atool for successfully managing thefinancial affairs of your own city.


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ReflectionGive three examples of how your local government involves citizens in the decisionmaking process and where in that process citizens are involved. Is this adequate?Explain your answer.

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Where there are legal requirements for public meetings or hearings, does your gov-ernment just do the minimum or has it done more? Are there policies that requirecitizen participation? Are they formal or informal?

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Concepts and ideasA concept underlying every demo-cratic society is that those who areaffected by public decisions have theright to participate in making thosedecisions. In fact, in a democraticsystem it is fair to say that it is thepublic that determines where it wantsto go, and it is the role of the electedrepresentatives of the public and theirstaffs to get them there. Citizenparticipation is an affirmation of everycitizen’s right to have a voice ingovernment and government’s duty tofind opportunities to inform, educateand involve citizens in meaningfulways in the process of public planningand decision making.

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The difficult business ofinvolving citizens

Public officials share a common com-plaint about citizen participation. Amayor recently lamented. “I reallywould like to improve our citizenparticipation, but our citizens don’twant to be involved. We hold publichearings, but no one shows up.” Citi-zens, on the other hand, complainabout the “goings on” down at cityhall. How many times have you hearda conversation like this?

• People may not be able to attend apublic meeting, hearing or citizenparticipation event on the scheduleddate. They may have to work orhave other commitments. Somelocations maybe difficult toget to withouta personal caror may be at alocation that isconsideredunsafe.

• People maynot have heardof a publicmeeting orread thepublishednotice on thesign boards ormay not haveheard or readabout itbecause ofshort notice.

• In some cases,otherwiseinterestedcitizens mayfind it difficultto get in touchwith the staffperson in charge for more informa-tion about the meeting and, failingin the attempt, may decide not toattend.

Reasons Citizens Don’t Participate

“Did you hear—those people down atcity hall are talking about balancing thebudget this year? That means anothercampaign to raise taxes. I paid moretaxes this year than ever before, andnow they’re going to try to talk us intoanother increase. If I was on the coun-cil, I’d show them how to live withintheir means.”

Between these two extremes of per-ceived apathy and vocal hostility thereis a middle ground. There is a place forthe responsible involvement of informed

• People feel uncomfortable whenthey don’t know much about theissue to be discussed at a publicmeeting or what might be expectedof them as meeting participants.

• People with little or noexperience as participants

in public meetingsmay be suspicious ofgovernment’s intentfor inviting them asmanipulative and self-serving.

• In a neighborhoodmeeting, people maybe reluctant to be theonly ones expressinga particular view-point, especially iftaking the positionmight make themunpopular withneighbors, friends,associates, clients oremployees.

• People are reluctantto spend time discuss-ing and debatingissues when theybelieve the finaldecision has alreadybeen made.

• People do not like to supply infor-mation if they feel that theircontribution will not be valued orseriously considered.


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1. It brings insight on local issues to the forefront for consideration. Thesemay come in the form of suggestions for improvement or problems thatneed to be solved. The process also helps identify the trade-offs betweencompeting interests and viewpoints.

2. It helps community districts develop a sense oflocal pride in their respective areas by gainingsome measure of influence and control overthe decisions that affect their areas.

3. It assists the local government in establishing priorities and thereby pro-motes better financial planning and budgeting by allocating funds inresponse to identified community needs.

4. It brings citizens and community groups with experience and expertisebeyond that which exists in the city organization into the process andthereby enlarges overall understanding of problems and provides a moreaccurate basis for decisions.

5. It develops leadership and knowledge within the community—a criticalingredient of the democratic process. When citizens learn how local gov-ernment operates, they are more inclined to want to be a part of theprocess. If the local government is doing a good job, people who areinvolved gain respect and appreciation and as a result will be more coop-erative and supportive of local government. Citizen involvement providesan effective training ground for future elected officials.

6. It produces tangible work (i.e., from volunteers) that directly benefits thecommunity. Citizens contribute a significant number of volunteer hours inlocal governments in all parts of the world. For example, one city in theUnited States calculates that 80,000 hours of work each year is attributableto the work of community volunteers.

Benefits of Involving Citizens from the LocalGovernment Staff Perspective

and concerned citizens in their localgovernment. But finding the place ischallenging for the local official. Have youever wondered, for instance, why peopledon’t get involved in the process of localgovernment? The table provides a fewreasons from the citizen’s perspective.

Some local governments have attemptedto address these misgivings aboutcitizen participation by encouragingcitizens and groups to get involved inlocal government and communityprojects. This handbook concerns themany ways that local officials can use toinform and educate citizens about thepublic issues that face their communi-ties and to involve citizens meaningfullyand productively in public planning anddecision making.

Benefits of citizenparticipation

There are many benefits from efforts toinvolve citizens in the affairs of localgovernment. From the elected officials’perspective, citizen participation allowslocal government officials to make betterdecisions by bringing into the process adeeper and broader understanding ofproblems, issues and concerns. Govern-ment decisions or proposals are morereadily accepted by the public if citizenshave been given a voice in the process.Further, opportunities for participationcan motivate individuals and groups tobecome more involved in their commu-nity, thereby spreading responsibility andaccountability for what happens in thecommunity over a larger number ofcitizens.

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From the public’s perspective, earlyinvolvement of citizens in the

public decision-makingprocess, especially by

those directly affectedby an issue or pro-gram, can increaseunderstanding, mini-mize conflict andcreate conditions for awider public consensusin decision making.Including citizens earlyin the development ofnew government

policies and programs ensures that theirissues and concerns are heard and takeninto consideration, thereby assuring thatthe overall public interest is betterserved. In general, including citizens inthe decision making process makeslocal government appear more open andapproachable. When citizens perceivetheir government as open to them, theyare more likely to gain knowledge andunderstanding of local governmentissues and, thus, become more able toassist in the resolution of these issues.

In summary, citizen participation aidsdecision making, increases understand-ing, cooperation, and appreciation ofwhat local government does, reducesconflict, generates support for theimplementation of a project or commu-nity plan and makes local governmentmore open to citizen problems, con-cerns and issues. Citizen participation isfundamental to a democratic society.

Public information asparticipation

When a public notice is postedor distributed, or citizens areassembled to learnabout a new govern-ment program, alocal government isengaging in citizen participation.Any effort by a local governmentto inform or educate citizens isimportant, for meaningfulcitizen participation dependson an enlightened public. Inorder to give informed comment andplay a meaningful role in decisionmaking, citizens must understand theissues. Citizens cannot evaluate alterna-tives intelligently unless they areadequately informed.

There are two types of information that alocal government might provide to helpcitizens participate more effectively. Thefirst type of information is to furnishcitizens with details on a specific task,program or activity such as a review ofthe annual budget or specific projectincluded in the city’s capital improve-ments program. The second type ofinformation is rather general and moreeducational in nature as when a publicofficial lectures to a class of schoolchildren or explains the working of localgovernment to a civic club, professionalgroup or business organization. Whetherspecific or general in nature, a flow oftimely and understandable publicinformation is essential for citizens toparticipate effectively.

Public Information Examples

Supports a citizen participation pro-gram regarding a specific task, programor action

Provides general information about thelocal ongoing activities and programs

• Public hearings on capital im-provements (investments)program

• Budget hearing

• Speeches for civic groups orschool children

• Informational matters for busi-nesses, educational institutionsor community groups


9 Open Meetings

Openness in oraccess to the publicpolicy decision-making process is afundamental conceptof a free and demo-cratic society.Openness meansthat decisionsshould be made, not“behind closeddoors,” but “out in

the open.” The intent is the expression ofboth a real and symbolic principle thatall interested citizens will be informedand encouraged to dialog with theirpublic officials toward more enlightenedpublic decisions. Denied this right andopportunity, citizens who have aninterest in local government will lose itand even become cynical about theirelected leaders and the role of govern-ment generally. In many democracies,the principal of citizen accessibility tothe activities of local government is soimportant that guarantees of access arewritten into “open meeting” laws. Wheresuch laws are enacted, they assurecitizens notice of and access to meetingsof city councils and other public bodiesexcept under conditions that are enumer-ated in the law.

Factors that trigger citizenparticipation

When is the right time to involvecitizens in the affairs of a local govern-ment? The answer to this question iseasy enough—anytime the staff orgoverning body believes that theparticipation of citizens would result ina better outcome (e.g., a more in-formed decision, a better designedplan, a more voter-acceptable revenuepackage) than were citizens not in-volved. Shown below are someexamples of how a finance managermight involve citizens.

• Seek input from council-citizenbased commissions to ensure theannual budget reflects the needs ofthe citizens.

• Ask citizens with financial back-grounds to evaluate twoalternatives for raising revenue interms of cost, fairness and publicacceptance.

• Organize a group of STAKEHOLDERS toplan ways to resolve an issue ofenvironmental sustainabilityconcerning a chemical plant that isa historic generator of toxic wastebut can provide a strong andneeded boost to the local economy.

• Set up focus group meetings to findout how citizens feel about theprivatization of a service previouslyprovided by government.

• Conduct a survey to learn how thecitizens feel about the need toimpound stray dogs, cats and otheranimals.

• Create a residents committee tochoose at which two intersectionsof five with extremely high acci-dent rates to install traffic signals.There is enough money for signalsat only two intersections.

• Create a citizens’ task force on“youth in trouble” to determine thecauses, effects and offer possiblesolutions to reduce crime andvandalism in the community.

Stakeholders

Organized interest groupsthese are groups of individuals who share a common philosophical interest in

an issue, and are willing to commit themselves to the “right” decision or outcomefrom their perspective (e.g., environmental groups, labor unions).

Individualspersons who are

personally interested in orhave expert knowledgerelative to a specific issue.

Under-representedgroups

those who arenot prone to participateon their own and whoare a part of the “silentmajority” in anycommunity.

Communityorganizations

these are individualswho organize to promote acommon interest related to aparticular area of publicservice such as publichousing, condominiums orthe district or community inwhich they live (e.g., tenantassociations, cooperativehousing associations,community associations).

Business and professionalclubs/associations

these are organizations ofbusinesses or business professionals thatsupport and promote a strong andhealthy business climate (e.g., chambersof commerce, professional and serviceclubs).

Political clubsorganizations

that represent variouspolitical parties orparty coalitions in acommunity.

Other publicorganizations

these includecontributoryorganizations,educationalinstitutions, othermunicipalities, otherlevels of stateadministration-district (okresneurady) and districtstrict offices(obvodne urady),and special agencieswithin stateadministration.

(see next page)

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Who participates?

A well established principle of organi-zational change that applies as well tothe activities of local government isthat people tend to support what theyhelp to create. Following this principle,it is important to involve in specificgovernment issues those individualsand groups who are most directlyconcerned with those issues. Such

concerned individuals and groups aresometimes called “stakeholders.”Citizen participation programs aremore effective if they identify thoseindividuals or groups that have a stakein a decision to be made or a problemto be solved. Typically, these stakehold-ers, individuals or groups, consist ofthe following:

Stakeholders

Organized interest groups

these are groups of individuals who share a common philosophical interestin an issue, and are willing to commit themselves to the “right” decision oroutcome from their perspective (e.g., environmental groups, labor unions).

Individuals

persons who are person-ally interested in or haveexpert knowledgerelative to a specificissue.

Under-representedgroups

those who are notprone to participateon their own andwho are a part of the“silent majority” inany community.

Communityorganizations

these are individuals whoorganize to promote acommon interest relatedto a particular area ofpublic service such aspublic housing, condo-miniums or the district orcommunity in which theylive (e.g., tenant associa-tions, cooperativehousing associations,community associations).

Business and professionalclubs/associations

these are organizations of busi-nesses or business professionals thatsupport and promote a strong andhealthy business climate (e.g.,chambers of commerce, professionaland service clubs).

Political clubs

organizations thatrepresent variouspolitical parties orparty coalitions in acommunity.

Other publicorganizations

these includecontributoryorganizations,educationalinstitutions, othermunicipalities,other levels ofstate administra-tion-district(okresne urady)and district strictoffices (obvodneurady), andspecial agencieswithin stateadministration.


11 Citizen roles in theparticipation process

The roles of individual citizens andcitizen groups will vary by issue.Some citizen groups may representparticular segments of the overall“public interest” (e.g., preservinggreen spaces and wetlands from theencroachment of new development).Some will work on behalf of theeconomic, political or social interestsof their various constituencies. Localgovernment officials can play animportant role in discerning whichinterests need to be represented whenaddressing a particular public issueand seeing that as many of them aspossible are present when the issue isbeing addressed. Government officialsmay be the best equipped of all theparties to keep the group’s focus onthe real “public interest” that under-lies any issue or discussion. Moreover,it is the local government that is mostlikely to be aware of the various legaland policy considerations that must beobserved in reaching a decision.Shown below is a description of someroles citizens may choose or be askedto play in governmental affairs and thenature of the issue or activity in whichthey are involved.

PoliciesThe formulation ofpublic policy is alocal government’sway of declaring itsintent to commititself and its re-sources to a specific setof principles and goals.Most local governmentshave no participate in govern-mental affairs only when necessary tosatisfy legal requirements. For example,Slovak Republic law requires that “themunicipal budget be published for atleast 15 days in a way which is commonin the municipality so that the popula-tion can comment on it.”

Laws requiring citizens to be invited toparticipate in some limited event “livereview” of the budget should beviewed as a starting point for muchmore extensive public involvement ingovernmental decision making. Inother words, mandate citizen participa-tion in all activities of localgovernment as a matter of policy. Theadoption of a statement of policy oncitizen participation by the city councilis the public’s assurance that their localgovernment is serious about citizenparticipation and that specific imple-

Providing input on a specific topic like zoning, animalrestraint laws, or the sale of an asset, like park land.

Citizen task force charged with examining a specificsubject and to offer evidence supporting a recommen-dation.

Community groups and boards gather facts and presentinformation on technical issues based on citizens,academic, business leader or consultant input.

Persons who have firsthand experience provide infor-mation to enlarge the understanding of public officialsabout a problem or issue.

A sizable number of citizens asked to offer reactionsand opinions about service quality or other mattersthat could affect decisions on the allocation of publicfunds.

Role

Service qualityfeedback

Expert resource

Shared power

Advocacy

Self-interestIssue or Activity

Policy

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mentation procedures and programscan be expected to follow. Such astatement should include, at a mini-mum, types of citizen participation,providing the public with information,and “open” meetings. (See Handbook 3in this series on Financial PolicyMaking for additional information onthe development of public policy). Thepolicy should bedesigned forlocal needs,prepared inwriting, andadopted by thecity council.

Goals of acitizenparticipation policy

A GOAL is a long term, attainablestatement of intent for a local govern-ment. Goals should reflect a local

government’s prioritiesand the community’sinterests. In the case ofcitizen participation,the following goals, insome form, should beconsidered for inclusion

in a policy statement on citizen partici-pation.

• to ensure the best possible livingenvironment for citizens;

• to encourage citizens to play anactive role in caring for and enrich-ing the community;

• to ensure the public has full andtimely access to and influence onpublic policy and decision-making,assuring full disclosure and readyaccess to public information;

• to ensure equal representation forall interests in decision makingprocesses, balancing differentvalues and needs;

• to foster trust among citizens, localgovernment officials and staff;

• to develop a new, citizen-centeredapproach to city governance.

When to involve citizens

The policy should call for compliancewith all legal requirements for citizennotice and hearing, but should gomuch further to considerinitiating citizenparticipationactivities atthe beginningof any newdecisionmaking processwhen a projectwill alter orinfluencegovernment’srelationship withits citizens. Some areas to be consid-ered for inclusion in a policystatement:

• health and welfare of citizens,

• the character of a neighborhood ora district,

• public values or expectations,

• streetscapes (e.g., landscaping,trees),

• traffic, parking characteristics, andpedestrian movement,

• public safety,

• tax rate andservicecharges,

• economichealth andthesustainabilityof growth,

• level ofservice (e.g.,tram or bustransport)

Policy Statement


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A Sample Policy Statement on Citizen Participation

We, the city council of xxxxxxxxxxxx, believe that:

Citizens represent an integral part of local government functions, programs andactivities since they receive services and benefits of local government and electlocal officials to represent them, and

Consulting with citizens on issues that directly affect them or their community atthe beginning of the process represents a new approach to governance,

Participation in the local decision making process fosters trust among residents,elected officials and staff;

It has been demonstrated that citizens involved in the decision making processplay an active role in caring for and enriching their community:

It is the intent of this city council, therefore, that:

Citizens will be provided timely information about decisions that are beingconsidered by the local government and will be provided the opportunity toparticipate in the decision making process.

Citizen participation programs will be designed and conducted in connectionwith the establishment of new city policies or significant changes to existingpolicy.

All local government departments, offices, agencies and staff will cooperate tothe fullest extent possible by including citizens in decision making.

If questions arise, the need for citizen participation should be determined inconsultation with those individuals, organizations, and other local governmentsthat might consider the action significant.

Note: A policy statement such as this implies responsible judgment on the part ofdecision makers. For example, how big does a decision have to be to constitute adecision? How important does an action have to before it is considered “significant”?These are questions that should be addressed by local officials and the policy mademore specific to meet a specific jurisdiction’s needs.

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A budget policy illustration

Shown below are illustrative policystatements relative to the involvement ofcitizens in local government’s annualbudgeting process. Opposite each policystatement is a rationale for the policy.

Together these policy statements openthe door to a variety of ways for citizensto become involved. Note that the localgovernment in the wording of the secondpolicy statement has gone beyond theSlovak Republic’s legal requirements forcitizen participation in the budgetprocess by opening council budgetworkshops to the public.

Policy Statement Rationale

1. The budget will be prepared insuch a manner that citizens andelected officials have no difficultyunderstanding.

One of the stated purposes of the budgetis to present a picture for the citizens ofthe city government’s operations andintentions for the year. Presenting abudget document that is understandablefurthers the goal of effectively communi-cating finance issues to both electedofficials and the public.

2. In addition to required publichearings, the council or councilcommission will hold worksessions on the budget which willbe open to the public.

Work sessions provide all citizens witha forum for meaningful participation inthe budget process. They enable citi-zens to: obtain an understanding of thebudget that cannot be acquired by thedocument itself, provide public input tothe proposed budget, and to monitorthe council’s or council commission’schanges to the proposed budget.

3. Copies of the proposed budget willbe made available to citizens andelected officials prior to the worksessions.

Providing citizens with copies of theproposed budget in advance of thework sessions enables them to be-come better informed on the issuesfacing the council and the administra-tion during the budget work session.

4. The local government will maintaina policy of full and open publicdisclosure of all financial activity.

Full and open public disclosure of allfinancial activity provides the publicwith assurance that its elected officialsand administrators communicate fullyall financial matters affecting thepublic.


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ReflectionBecause citizen participation is so important to local government decisionmaking, we suggest that you stop for a few moments and reflect on yourgovernment’s policies regarding them. What are the most serious citizen partici-pation problems facing your government? Citizen apathy? Under-educatedcitizens? Limited accessibility? Fear? Limited opportunity?

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What are the consequences of these problems? If citizen participation in yourlocal government is low to nonexistent, what can you do about it?

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Citizen participationtechniques

The term “technique” is used in thishandbook to describe any methodplanned by a local government toinform, educate, or solicit the assis-tance of citizens in planning anddecision making. Fifteen commoncitizen participation techniques aredescribed in the following tables. Twotypes of techniques are identified: Type1) techniques that are specifically

designed to involve citizens in thedecision making process; and Type 2)techniques designed to educate andinform citizens but not necessarily toobtain their ideas and opinions. Moredetail on these fifteen techniques withdescriptions and examples of their usecan be found in the Compendium ofCitizen Participation Techniques thatconcludes this essay.

Type 1Techniques Definition/Purpose Example

Public hearings ormeetings

Formal structured hearing, usuallycalled by the city council

Meet legal requirements toinform citizens about theproposed budget

Town hall meeting Informal assembly usually held in arecreation building, school, church,bank or other facility

Status report on capital improve-ments program in specificgeographical area

Citizen opinion/attitude survey

Gathering information aboutcitizens’ attitudes without holding agroup meeting

Reactions to a proposal to payincreased fees for cultural events

Focus group Meeting of selected citizens to gaugethe probable response of a largergroup

Find out the nature and strengthof citizen sentiment about acontroversial local issue

Advisory committeeand task force

Group of citizens appointed toprovide advice on issue(s); may beon-going or, in the case of a taskforce, focused upon a single issue

Investment committee to suggestalternatives for investing unusedcash

Boards andcommissions

Groups of citizens appointed toprovide control, management andmaintenance of a specific function

Advisory board for review andevaluation of the annual budgetprocess

Technologyapplication (Cable TV,Internet)

Cable TV is an alternative to “overthe air” TV; TV signal is sent througha coaxial cable to homes, apartmentsand offices

Internet—large group of computersexchanging information; citizens cansend to and receive information fromthe City

Live broadcast of the city councilmeeting; posting of city jobopenings

Send electronic mail rather thanphoning or physically going tocity hall

Communityassociation/board

Group of citizens organized around acommon interest or issue

Group formed to defeat aproposed fee increase for the useof a city facility such as arecreation building

Community office Funded and operated by the city, thisis a “satellite city hall,” establishedto serve a geographical area wherecitizens can come to receive certainservices

Services could include healthcare, social assistance, paymentof fees, requesting policeassistance


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Which citizen participationtechnique to use?

A strategy for selecting a citizenparticipation technique is to focus onthe purpose to be achieved by involv-ing the citizen. Typical purposes are to:

• inform the public about localgovernment initiatives and keepthem informed as they take part inthe decision-making process;

• educate the public about therationale for a local governmentinitiative, or the advantages anddisadvantages of alternatives;

• solicit information from the publicto augment other sources of infor-mation;

• consult with the public to learnwhat they know and how they feelabout a local government initiative;

• involve the public in planning todevelop program goals, strategiesand visions for the future;

• obtain feedback from the publicabout the impact of a local govern-ment initiative on them or theirneighborhood;

• provide feedback to the public onthe impact of local governmentinitiatives in general and follow-onactivities; and

• involve members of the publicdirectly in decision making throughparticipation in the activities of on-going boards, commissions, andcommittees.

Type 2Techniques Definition/Purpose Example

Ombudsman A nonpartisan public official whoinvestigates people’s complaintsabout government officials oragencies

Resolving a complaint over acode enforcement citation

Open door program(accessibility)

A method to encourage citizens tovisit city hall or a community officeon a walk-in basis

Come in without an appointmentto complain because your trashwas not picked up this morning

Public information Information provided in the form ofpress releases, interviews, pamphlets,etc.

Publication of a flier thatdescribes city health careservices

Education programsand popular reporting

Direct information/educationprograms that provide citizens anopportunity to meet face-to-face withtheir elected representatives

Popular reports are easy-to-under-stand summaries of the city’sfinancial condition and achievements

Speech to school children aboutthe budget

Use of graphs to demonstratewhere financial resources werespent in the past year

Citizen service requestoffice (complaints,suggestions andinformation)

Centralized clearinghouse establishedto receive and respond to citizenrequests for assistance and informa-tion

City representative acts as anagent for the citizen to refer apayment complaint to thedepartment concerned, andreports back to the citizen withthe result

Media relations Interaction with the media (newspa-pers, radio and television)

Press release written andsubmitted to the press on thecity’s proposed capital improve-ment program

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The following table shows whichcitizen participation techniques arebest suited for attaining each of thesepurposes.

Techniques of citizen participation aresometimes compared according to theintensity of involvement and the degreeof impact their participation might haveon government policies and programs.

A graphic in the form of an invertedpyramid arranges seven typical tech-niques of citizen participation fromlowest to highest involvement.

Highest Level of Citizen Participation

PublicHearing

Survey

Town Hall Meeting

Focus Group

Advisory Committee

Boards and Commissions

PublicNotice

Lowest Level of Citizen Participation

Matching Citizen Participation Techniques to PurposesSolicit On-going

Technique Inform Educate Information Consult Plan Feedback InteractionPublic hearing • • • •Town hall meeting • • • • •Opinion survey • • • •Focus group • • • •Advisory committee • • • • • • •Boards/commissions • • • • • • •Cable TV Internet • • • • • •Community assoc. • • • • • • •Community office • • • • • • •Ombudsman • • •Open-door • • •Public information • •Education programs • •Citizen service office • •Media relations • •


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Around the middle of the 4-year election term, the mayor of the City of Trnavaconvened meetings with citizens of particular constituencies. The formalpreparation of these meetings was secured in the following way:

• posters informing about the meeting were arranged on notice boards andother places which are used to publicize notices;

• leaflets were distributed to citizens’ post boxes in individual constituencies;

• invitations were communicated through regional radio stations, regionalpress and the municipal radio (municipal cable channel was not yet avail-able—today this method is used for announcements.)

Preparatory task force of the municipal office secured the conference rooms,arranged for their notification for citizens’ orientation, seating arrangement forelected representatives in adequate proximity to citizens, and supplied atten-dance sheets. Where appropriate, microphones were provided, and participationof the owner or administrator of the building where the meetings were held wasarranged for.

A structured program was prepared for the meeting which basically guided allthe meetings and proceeded as follows:

• Introduction of the mayor and other elected representatives, i.e., deputymayors and councilors for a particular constituency;

• Introduction of leading city officials and directors of municipal companiesstating areas of their responsibilities;

• Mayor’s introductory address lasting approximately 20-30 minutes;

• Discussion time with individual speakers asked to give their names;

• Municipal office workers were writing down questions and comments raisedaccording to their responsibility;

• Where possible, questions or comments were responded to immediately.Where this was not possible to do at the meeting, citizens were informedsubsequently in writing.

Citizens’ ParticipationAn Example from the City of Trnava

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Time and resourcerequirements

Citizen participation initiatives requiretime and resources (personnel andoperating) to be effective. Local offi-cials should consider the followingtime considerations when planning acitizen participation program.

Schedule of events

• A clear and concise schedule ofevents should be developed at thebeginning of the project.

• The schedule should include majormilestones and decision points.

• There should be a variety ofactivities in which citizens canparticipate.

• Scheduling changes should becommunicated to all interestedparties as far in advance as pos-sible.

Lead time

• The schedule for individuals andgroups to get materials, reviewthem and make plans to attendscheduled activities.

• It should be recognized that groupsrely on voluntary resources andmeet infrequently (i.e., monthly);therefore, internal communicationsbetween members may be slow.Large organizations may need timeto circulate materials and coordi-nate responses.

Holidays

• Citizen participation activitiesshould not be scheduled duringseasonal holidays when prospectivecitizen participants are engaged inother activities.

Speed of decision making

• Some organizations can makedecisions quickly because of theirorganizational structure and staffcapabilities. Others, such as com-munity groups and neighborhoodassociations, may not be able tomake decisions without pollingtheir broader membership. A groupthat needs more time to ratify adecision may feel pressured by thedecision process to make a decisionprematurely.

Coordination

• Citizen participation activitiesshould be coordinated by the citystaff with all affected groups toavoid transferring the burden to agroup’s volunteer resources unableto handle the increased workload.

Length

• The length of the citizen participa-tion process should be establishedafter considering all factors that gointo the final decision.


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OtherDecision making

Processes


41

Planning

1. Identify the key issues

2. Define the objective; relate it tooverall organizational goals

3. Seek organizational commitmentfrom local officials to aparticipating approach withinCity Hall

4. Consult with others at city hall

Coordinate other departments,agencies, affected governmentsinvolvement

Determine need for a facilitator

Review schedules and availabilityof key persons

Determine program requirements(personnel and financial resources)

Determine information require-ments

5. Identify key persons,departments or organizationsthat will be affected

Develop a profile of the community

Identify persons, agencies, etc. byname

Clarify issues

Develop contacts and rapport

Interview community leaders

Program Development

6. Draft Participation Program

Circulate information, issues, andoptions

Determine the decision makingprocess for the program

Determine objectives for each stageof citizen participation

Design citizen participation oppor-tunities with techniques

Establish monitoring and evalua-tion efforts

7. Meet with key persons affected bythe process or program

Confirm issues and options

Confirm objectives for each step ofcitizen participation

Confirm selection of facilitator, ifapplicable

See advice on the overall design ofthe programs and techniques usedin each stage

8. Finalize program design

Finalize program requirements(personnel and financial resources)

Finalize information requirements

Finalize monitoring and evaluationefforts

Finalize schedules and workassignments

9. Consult with key persons andother public agencies on finaldesign as applicable

Analyze results

Make changes as needed

Revise the draft

Determine additional decisionmaking processes as needed

APPENDIX ASteps for

Planning and Implementinga Citizen Participation Process


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APPENDIX BChecklist for

Preparing and Conducting aSuccessful Town Hall Meeting

Pre-meeting Planning

___ Has a meeting space been locatedand reserved?

___ Has the meeting space beenchecked and arrangements madefor keys, seating set-up and cleanup?

___ Does the meeting space haveadequate lighting, can room bedarkened?

___ Are audio visual equipment,microphone and extension cordsavailable at the meeting space? Ifnot, who will provide?

___ Is location accessible by bustransport?; is there ample parkingfor autos?

___ Are participant handouts prepared:agenda, information sheets, feed-back forms?

___ Is sign in or registration formprepared; are there adequate pensand paper?

___ Are name tags needed?

___ Are signs posted to direct partici-pants to the correct building/meeting room?

___ Are refreshments being provided:coffee, tea, mineral water?

___ Are flip charts, easels, markers andpaper available in the meetingroom?

___ Have facilitators, note takers andpresenters been assigned?

___ Do other local officials who plan toattend know their roles?

Meeting Notice

___ Has a mailing list been developed?updated?

___ Has the public notice for signboards and advertisement innewspaper been posted/ published;is the wording of the objectiveconsistent?

___ Has the news media been con-tacted? Press release written?

___ Have key community persons,Council members and departmentsbeen personally contacted regard-ing the meeting.

At the Meeting

___ Are seats placed in a circulararrangement to encourage discus-sion among the participants? Don’tuse the stage.

___ Are there too many chairs?; peopletend to sit in the back; avoid afront table—use chairs only.

___ Identify water closets (WC) andsmoking areas.

___ Clarify the role of the facilitator ifused.

___ Review the rules of the meetingand attempt to get buy-in.

___ Ensure that the participants under-stand and accept the objective ofthe meeting.

___ Start on time and finish on time;advise participants at the beginningof the meeting how long themeeting will last and expected timeto adjourn.

A valuable tool but nopanacea

Citizen participation is a tool for im-proved planning and decision making.It should not be regarded as a solutionto local government’s problems butrather an important contributor tosolving problems so that they staysolved. It is a complement to existingdecision making processes, not asubstitute.

When local government is isolated fromthe public, citizens may come to regardtheir officials with suspicion and mis-trust. Breaking down these barrierstakes considerable time spent in effortsto inform citizens, familiarize them withhow government works and the issues itfaces, and involve them in resolvingproblems that are of direct concern tothem. Consistent efforts to reinforce thebelief that citizen views and ideas areneeded and wanted can help to over-come the cynicism and distrust that sooften characterizes the relations ofcitizens with their public officials.

There are several ways to get maximumvalue from the involvement of citizens.As already mentioned, how citizens areused in planning or decision makingdepends on the objective or what is tobe accomplished more satisfactorilywith citizen input than without it. Agroup of neighborhood residents,selected at random, might be a poorchoice for a task force to developcriteria for the attraction of new busi-nesses to locate in the community.However, they might be ideal for afocus group on increasing residentaccountability for the health and safety

of a neighborhood. Find opportunitiesto encourage positive and healthyinteraction among citizens, particularlywhen there is a climate of suspicion anddistrust. Bring people together infamiliar surroundings, make them feelcomfortable, use simple language theycan understand to explain the issuesand what is expected of them, andconvince them that what they are beingasked to do is important and is expectedto make a difference. Appendix A (page41) contains a detailed list of steps forplanning and implementing a citizen

participation program and Appendix B(page 43) a checklist for planning asuccessful neighborhood meeting.

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ObstaclesThere are obstacles to the implementationof an on-going effort to involve citizens inlocal government activities. Of course,these programs can be costly and timeconsuming. An even more serious barrieris the threat citizens poseto established ways ofdoing things. The involve-ment of citizens may beresisted in governmentalactivities that in the pastwere the sole responsibil-ity of elected officials orbureaucrats. The threat ismost pronounced wherethe involvement ofcitizens results in a shifttoward decentralizedpolicy making authorityand empowering neigh-borhood districts at theexpense of a traditional political powerbase. A word of caution for local govern-ments that have not involved citizensextensively in the past: move slowly into

citizen participation by first involvingcitizens in areas of activity that pose littlethreat to existing power bases.

Finally, don’t expect too much fromcitizen participation. It is no guarantee

that any decisions reachedby a citizen’s group willsatisfy the expectations ofall citizens. Citizen partici-pation only permitsdifferent views to be airedand discussed through anopen process. As a rule,final decisions will bemade by the mayor andcity council. There is nomagic in citizen involve-ment; however, on-goingdialog between citizensand government officialscan be useful to reducetension within the commu-

nity over unresolved issues andproduce a better understanding of realneeds and concerns.


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ReflectionInvolving citizens effectively in local government decision making is important tothe long-term success of local government. However, we often hear that citizens arenot interested in local government and, therefore, do not want to participate. Do youagree with this statement? If you do, list the reasons that you believe keep peoplefrom participating more actively in your local government.

What actions could be taken successfully in the next six months to involve yourcitizens more fully in the decision making processes of your local government?

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Summary of concepts andkey ideas

• Citizen participation is more thanallowing citizens to be heard priorto a public policy decision beingmade; it is providing citizens theopportunity to influence thedecision from the beginning to theend of the decision making pro-cess.

• Citizen participation is fundamen-tal to the democratic process.

• Citizen participation aids decisionmaking, increases understanding,cooperation and appreciation ofwhat local government does, reducesconflict, generates support for theimplementation of a project orcommunity plan, and makes localgovernment more open to citizenproblems, concerns and issues.

• There are a lot of reasons whypeople do not get involved withgovernment.

• To guide their own actions andencourage citizen involvement inthe community, local government

councils should consider adoptingwritten policies on citizen partici-pation, public information, andopen meeting activities in theircommunity.

• Citizen participation programsshould be designed for inclusive-ness rather than exclusiveness.

• A workable strategy for selecting aparticipation technique is to focuson the purpose of the process;practically speaking, the realquestion is not which technique ismost appropriate, but rather whichtechniques can best be usedtogether to achieve the purpose.

• Citizen participation is not a magicpotion. It does not guarantee thatmajority expectations will be met,that different viewpoints will bereconciled, or that negative atti-tudes toward government will beerased. It simply provides variousforums for these differences to beaired and dealt with in the open.


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1. Public hearing ormeeting

Definition/Purpose

A public hearing or meeting is aformal, structured event.(For ease of reading, theauthors use publichearings as synony-mous with publicmeetings.) It iscommonly used to gather citizencomments related to the annual bud-get. A public hearing may be arequirement of law or policy.

Process

The council calls a public hearing byposting notice in a public place (onsign boards) or publishing the notice in

a local newspaper prior to themeeting. The date, time, loca-tion and purpose of the hearingis included in the notice. Thecouncil usually holds thehearing during regularly sched-uled council meetings at city

hall. The council sets the format of thepublic hearing and it may includepresentations by staff. The councilestablishes rules that govern the publichearings and may limit speaking timeto ensure that all citizens are given anopportunity to be heard. Where largenumbers of citizens are expected,speakers may be required to sign up inadvance to speak before the council.

Advantages/Disadvantages

A formal public hearing reaches largenumbers of people and provides oppor-tunities for the public to commentdirectly on an issue. There can be anopportunity to respond directly andimmediately with questions and com-

ments and to clarify facts or ideas. Allsides of an issue can be heard. A publichearing provides a forum for commu-nity leaders to express their positions onissues and provide for venting of angeror frustration. A public hearing is aninexpensive means of obtaining citizen

comments on an issue.

A public hearing has limita-tions. It is not an effectiveforum for conveying complex

ideas or detailed information. Publichearings do not provide for in-depthdiscussions or appreciation of differentviewpoints as they can be dominatedby vocal individuals with narrowinterests. Public hearings are not wellsuited to building consensus or makinga decision. Facilitation is critical anddifficult—public hearing can stray offthe planned agenda. It can be difficultto prevent confrontation.

Compendium ofCitizen Participation Techniques

This section of the essay discusses a number of citizen participation techniques usedby local governments.

Appealing to People’s Prideand Sense of Fairness

The local finance director beganhis remarks at a crowded publichearing on the budget by acknowl-edging his and the participant’sshared concerns. “I understandyour neighborhood’s concernabout the need to invest more inadequate traffic control. My ten-year-old son crosses LiptovskaRoad every day to go to school,and in our neighborhood weparents formed a safety patrol totry to slow down traffic in themorning.” Later he commented,“we’ve all watched our city grow,and I’m proud that so far we’vebeen able to work together to solvethe tough issues.”

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2. Town hall meetingAppendix B contains a checklist forlocal officials on how to set up andconduct a successful public hearing ortown hall meeting.

Definition/Purpose

Town hall meetings are a variation ofthe formal public hearing, serving thesame purpose—to solicit citizen com-ments—but it is less formal. Meetingdates and times are coordinated withlocal residents and are held in thecommunity or neighborhood.

The agenda focuses on a single issue.The informal structure of the town hallmeeting allows for in-depth discussion,direct and immediate response toquestions and comments, and clarifica-tion of facts or ideas. It may be arequirement of local policy.

Process

As an example, a town hall meeting iscalled to discuss the development of aneighborhood improvement plan. First,city staff gives a presentation on theissue which provides a common infor-mational basis for citizens in attendance.Members of the responsible departments

answer any citizen questions and recordthe comments of the citizens. Localelected officials are usually present andmoderate the discussion.


Because the town hall meeting isinformal and focused on a single issue,it is an effective technique to solicit,receive and discuss public commentson an issue. Town hall meetings,because of size and informal structure,are better suited to build consensus fordecision making.

The logistics of setting up and con-ducting a meeting outside city hall,the need to hold multiple meetings indifferent parts of the community, andexpenses may be viewed as disadvan-tages to this technique. However, froma different perspective, the first twoobjections can be positive aspects ofthe technique. If city hall is seen asbeing out of touch with the citizenry,town hall meetings can be a perfectopportunity to get out into the com-munity, change that perception, anddemonstrate commitment to citizenparticipation. Facilitation is critical toa town hall meeting to keep it on theplanned agenda.


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Advertising a Public Meeting

A city council in a small commu-nity was anxious that all itscitizens would be informed about atown hall meeting being held toconsider the merits of a proposedcomprehensive land-use plan. Onadvice of staff, the council investedin a fifteen-foot banner and hung iton the outside of the city hall,facing the busiest city street.Everyone who passed throughtown saw the sign, and manycommented on it favorably whenthey came to the meeting.

Lucenec, Slovakia

Some of the deputies elected forthe constituency of Rubanisko (aresidential district with 10,000population) organized a publicmeeting on a carefully selecteddate, directly at the residentialdistrict. The mayor and competentexperts from the town hall wereinvited to this meeting. Invitationswere distributed widely throughregional newspapers and leafletswere distributed to mail boxes.

Within this meeting the deputieswere expecting comments fromcitizens to submitted urban devel-opment plans for this borough.They also wanted to get informa-tion on how to utilize thenon-residential premises (servingfor business purposes) recentlyreleased and being in the owner-ship of the city. The mayor and themanagement of the town allanswered concrete questions ofcitizens. There was also a feedbackto this process.

3. Citizen opinion/attitude survey

Definition/Purpose

This technique is used to gather factualinformation about citizens’ attitudesand opinions, usually regarding thequality and financing of local govern-ment services.

An opinion survey can include thegeneral population or a specific groupof users. It may cover all municipalservices or just one service, such as theuse and condition of parks and openspace. The results are used to deter-mine citizens’ priorities for services,evaluate existing services, and investi-gate the citizens’ willingness to supporttax or fee increases.

Process

Developing a quality citizen attitudesurvey usually requires the assistanceof a private consulting firm with publicopinion survey experience. City staffcan assist the process by developingsuggested questions for the survey, butthe consulting firm usually preparesthe questionnaire, conducts the survey,and evaluates the results. The surveycan be conducted by telephone, inperson, or by mail. The more personalthe survey (getting answers to thequestions in person versus by mail),the more expensive, but hopefully, themore accurate.

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A scientifically conducted survey,based on a representative sample of theentire community, has the advantage ofrecording the answers of all the resi-dents, not just the voter, the politicallyactive or the influential. By conductinga survey on a recurring basis (everytwo to three years) using similarquestions, local officials can determineany changes in public opinion andwhether actions taken in the interimhave been effective in influencingpublic opinion.

One City’s Experience with a Citizen Opinion SurveyIn 1993, a major metropolitan city in Eastern Europe faced two issues related to citizenparticipation: advertised meetings resulted in little turnout, and many of the governmentprograms offered by the previous system bore no relationship to customer demand. Thesolution was to design and conduct an opinion survey to determine citizen interest. InJanuary, 1994, the city contacted 287 households by telephone. The survey focused onthe 14 largest programs and asked about: (1) satisfaction with service provided, (2)desire for increases or decreases in service levels, and (3) willingness to pay more taxesor charges for program increases. The intent was to establish a link between service leveland customer demand. The survey also asked the public’s opinion on the priorities ofprograms and some of the more politically difficult issues in the budget.

The survey revealed some interesting insights into public opinion and providedobjective information about citizens’ opinion of city services. For example:

• The program with the highest community satisfaction was culture (77 percent)followed by primary education (72 percent) and central heating (60 percent). Thelowest scoring programs were streets (19 percent) and financial assistance to thepoor (25 percent) and water and sewer (34 percent).

• Sixty four percent supported service increases in water and sewer; 58 percent insolid waste, 57 percent in streets, and 54 percent in parks. However, only inprimary education, water and sewer, and parks were the majority of supporterswilling to pay more.

• Eighty percent supported the city’s top priorities of streets, housing andschools.

• On issues that were politically difficult, 81 percent believed that the city shouldcontract out programs to reduce costs, and 97 percent believed that utility ratesshould be based on actual use, rather than everyone paying the same rate.


294. Focus group meeting

Definition/Purpose

A focus group is a meeting of selectedcitizens. It is designed to gauge theprobable response of one or more largegroups to a local government proposalor initiative.

Process

A focus group is usually facilitated bya consultant. Approximately tenpeople are selected for each group.They represent a cross-section of thecommunity. The group is askedquestions in an objective mannerabout the proposal or initiative. Theindividual’s and group’s responsesare either recorded by audio tape orwith extensive written notes so theinformation can be analyzed later.The same interview process is re-peated three or four times withdifferent groups to gather compara-tive information.


They provide a detailed understandingof people’s concerns and values bybringing together people who representdifferent perspectives. Focus groupstend to be less expensive than anopinion survey and less time consum-ing than a full fledged opinion survey.They also are spontaneous in thatparticipants may volunteer informationthat you might not have thought to askin an opinion survey.

They are not effective for providinginformation to the general public. Theyare not designed to build consensus ormake decisions. They are not scientific,and it is difficult to quantify the re-sults. The findings point you in theright direction, but it is wise to use thefeedback as a guideline for furtherresearch. The success of focus groupsoften depends on the availability ofoutside expertise.

Tact and Consideration with CitizensThe focus group was planned to discuss city taxes, a contentious issue in thatcommunity, and the citizens were there in large numbers. Most people acceptedtheir table assignments when they were handed numbered name tags, but one ofthe more aggressive citizens complained: “I want to sit with several of my neigh-bors who feel exactly like I do.” “I understand,” said the staff organizer, firmly, butwith a smile; “but we want to give everyone a chance to speak with people whomight not agree with them. You may even convince someone to consider yourpoint of view.” The complainer reluctantly sat down where she was told. Later,after a particularly lively and creative discussion, she admitted to the focus groupfacilitator that the “opposition” did not look nearly as fierce face to face.

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5. Ad hoc and advisorycommittees/taskforces

Definition/Purpose

An advisory committee is a group ofcitizens appointed to provide continuingadvice on issue(s) to the council. A taskforce is a group of citizens appointed towork on a specific objective or problem.It exists only for the time necessary tocomplete the task. A task force may alsobe a sub-committee to a larger advisorygroup and is limited in size so that itcan be an effective working body. Inboth cases, the selection of members iscritical. Membership must be broadenough yet not too large, and must berepresentative.

Advisory committees aregood for organizing andcoordinating input froma wide range of people.They are especiallyuseful for developingconsensus for action oncomplex issues thattouch upon many facetsof the community.

Process

Expectations of the roleof the committee or taskforce must be clear to allparties. Putting these expectations inwriting is an excellent way to guide thecommittee or task force in their assign-ment as well as to terminate it whenthe job is complete.

Advisory committees and ad hoc taskforces are effective in focusing attentionon an important issue for a short periodof time. They are useful in organizinginput from a wide range of people anddeveloping consensus for action oncomplex issues that touch upon manyfacets of the community. They aredisbanded when the work is complete.However, without clear guidelines,specific tasks and limits, they canassume a life unto themselves.

6. Standing boards andcommissions

Definition/Purpose

In most Slovak local governments, theterm “board” refers to the town ormunicipal board which consists ofcouncil members appointed by thecouncil to serve as an advisory body tothe mayor.

To ensure a broad representation onpolicy and geographical issues, coun-cils often select council committeechairpersons plus some representativesfrom geographical districts to serve onboards. Boards and commissionsprovide control, management andmaintenance of a specific function.

Process

A board or commission isestablished by state lawor local ordinance andstipulates how the bodyis constituted, the qualifi-cations of the members,and the duties of theboard or commission.Board and commissionmembers serve at thepleasure of council for aterm specified by law buttypically have the sameterm as the council.

In the Slovak Republic, most city coun-cils have established permanent standingcommittees to deal with complex policydevelopment or planning issues over alonger period of time. Advisory commit-tees may consist of electedrepresentatives, part elected representa-tives and part citizens, or all citizensdepending upon local law and practice.

Examples

In Lucenec, the council has established15 permanent committees, each con-sisting of five elected representativesand four citizens. Each committeeadvises the city council in a specificfunctional area.


317. Technology

application (CableTV, Internet)

Traditional communication has beenone-way and relies upon the media—newspaper, radio and television—tokeep the citizen informed on localgovernment issues. Recent advances intechnology, such as Cable TV and theInternet, have given cities new commu-nication tools.

Definition/Purpose

Cable TV provides an alternative to“over the air” broadcasts of radio andtelevision. It uses a coaxial cable tosend multi-channel TV programming tohomes, apartments or offices through-out a defined service area.

The Internet is a network thatallows computersfrom all over theworld to exchangemessages andelectronic files. Thisnetwork of comput-ers has now grownto include thousands of computers inpublic and private agencies.

Cable TV and the Internet can be usedby a local government to enhance citizenparticipation in three different ways:

Information dissemination—Internet:and Cable TV: An electronic bulletinboard can provide information oncouncil agendas, recreation schedules,cultural event schedules, bus route andschedules, instructions how to get abusiness license, etc.• A local government access channel

on Cable TV provides:


They are effective for providing citizenoversight of specific local governmentactivities. Citizens bring specializedexpertise into local government and gainexperience for future leadership roles.

Boards and commissions are noteffective in providing information tothe general public or developingconsensus outside their area of respon-sibility. They can become so narrowlyfocused on a single function that theylose sight of larger, city-wide issues.

Lucenec, Slovakia

The council has established 15permanent committees (economic,entrepreneurial, trade and tourism,agricultural, forestry and watermanagement, environment, trans-port and local communications,housing, public order, construc-tion, education and youth, culture,sports, board of health), consistingof five elected representatives andfour citizens. Each committeeadvises the city council in aspecific functional area.

Advisory committees and ad hoctask force are effective in focusingattention on important issues for ashort time period. They are usefulin organizing and coordinatinginput from a wide range of peopleand for developing consensus foraction on complex issues thattouch upon many facets of thecommunity.

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• A public bulletin board that informsthe public in advance of scheduledpublic meetings for the city council,boards and commissions, andcouncil committees. It can beupdated immediately for last minuteschedule changes.

• Job announcements.• Other activities scheduled at city

hall.• Coverage of council meetings from

beginning to end as well as rebroad-casts at times convenient forcitizens.

• Programs with reports aboutcouncil proceedings, hosted “talkshows” or discussions with themayor or members of the counciland press commentaries.

• Viewer call-in programs throughwhich viewers can directly questiongovernment officials about issuesand policies.

Public relations—Ease of gettinginformation puts your municipalgovernment in a more favorable light.

Communication to/from citizens—Internet: Electronic mail (email) is analternative to telephone, fax or regular

mail. It can be theway citizens accesslocal government inthe future to reportservice problems,have an inspectionperformed or applyfor a license.

The World Wide Web can also replacetraditional telephone, fax and mailservices. It can be a way for councilmembers to establish a home page thatcan be accessed by constituents tokeep abreast of district activities. It canalso be used by the city to inform thepublic about city activities or bycitizens to access city documents orapplications without having to come tocity hall.

Process

Cable TV operates as a subscriptionservice in which citizens pay a monthly

fee for services. In the U.S., privatecable companies obtain permission fromthe municipality to provide this servicein the city and to use the street right-of-way for their cable. In exchange, thecity is compensated for the use of right-of-way and may require that one ormore public access channels be pro-vided for local government use.

Access to the Internet is made throughan Internet Service Provider (ISP). TheISP connection is made via localtelephone for a monthly service charge.The subscriber is responsible forproviding all equipment needed toaccess the Internet including personalcomputer, modem, software andperipheral equipment. Anyone payingthe required fees and having therequired equipment can access theInternet and World Wide Web.

The Internet is a wide-open entity thatis by design loosely controlled. Issuesto be examined include: security,corrupt or virus-infecting data, andwho will manage the content on thecity’s Internet site. These are basicissues that local government shouldaddress in an Internet use policy. Localofficials interested in accessing theInternet or putting their local govern-ment on the Internet should refer tothe guidelines included in Appendix C.


Cable TV is a cost effective tool forinforming the public; however, notevery household subscribes to cableTV, limiting its effectiveness to reachand communicate to all citizens. Thecost of subscribing to cable TV mayalso be a disadvantage.

Internet: As more and more use ismade of the Internet for disseminatinginformation, local government willsave valuable staff time and papercosts. It provides the ability to marketthe community to relocating businessesor vacationing tourists.


338. Community

association/board

Definition/Purpose

A group of citizens organized around acommon interest in an issue(s) related to aspecific geographical area, such as zoning,land use, or neighborhood planning. Itprovides a forum for discussing problemsand exchanging ideas between city staffand association members. The associationhas been successfully used to administerneighborhood projects and service deliverycontracts.

Process

Neighborhood associations may be alegal entity or informally organized.Membership is open to all residents,property owners, business licensees andrepresentatives of not-for-profit organi-zations in that area. Each associationelects a board of officers to lead theorganization annually and to representthe interests of the association tooutside groups. Committees within theassociation are established to focus onspecific issues such as planning, trafficor economic development.

Council can establish an office in cityhall for coordinating and communicat-ing with neighborhood associations.The following is a suggested list ofbasic functions for such an office:• Notify interested persons of meet-

ings, hearings, elections and otherevents.

• Provide for the sharing of informa-tion and maintain a list of reports,

studies, data sources and otheravailable materials.

• Provide referral services to indi-viduals, neighborhood associations,and others.

• Keep an up-to-date list of neighbor-hood associations and theirprincipal officers.

• Assist neighborhood volunteers incoordinating projects on behalf ofneighborhood “live-ability.”

• Encourage individuals to work withexisting neighborhood associationswhere possible.

• Assist in reproducing and mailingnewsletters and other printedmatter when supplied by a neigh-borhood association.

• Act as a liaison while neighbor-hood associations and municipalagencies work out processes formunicipal involvement.

• Assist in contracts with othermunicipal agencies on behalf ofneighborhood associations or otherinterested individuals.

• Assist in educational efforts relatedto citizen participation in municipalgovernment.


Neighborhood associations tend to lackpermanence. They often are created inresponse to a single issue, in whichresidents mobilize to address theissue, and then disband when theproblem is solved or interest subsides.To promote the long-term continuanceof neighborhood associations, localofficials should provide support interms of staff and resources.

Educating CommissionersThe finance staff was frustrated because one group of commission members wascritical of them for not being visionary enough to spend more on facilities whileanother group wanted them to take a more conservative approach. Finally staffmembers brought both factions together, challenging them to come up with a spend-ing plan that the majority could accept. After a staff presentation about the currentsituation, commissioners were divided into groups of eight people each and given theamount of money the city had to spend in “play money.” Each group was then askedto agree on reasonable allocations that they thought would meet the community’sneeds. This gaming approach brought the groups face-to-face with the reality ofhaving only a finite amount of money to spend, and commissioners began to under-stand the trade-offs that finance staff members had to make. The commission’s finalconsensus reflected everyone’s heightened perception.

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10. Ombudsman

Definition/Purpose

An ombudsman is a nonpartisan publicofficial who investigates people’scomplaints about government officialsor agencies. The scope of work variesby city, but usually involves com-plaints of unjust or harsh treatment onmatters such as housing, taxation,voting, or old age pension payments.

Process

Local government elected officialsdetermine the need for an office ofombudsman in accordance with stateor local law. If there is a need, theygenerally establish its duties andresponsibilities by ordinance. Anombudsman is appointed followinglocal personnel policies.

After investigating a complaint, theombudsman may dismiss it or mayseek correction of the problem bypersuasion, publicity or occasionally byrecommending prosecution.


An ombudsman meets the citizens’need for impartial and informal han-dling of complaints. The program isdesigned to improve government’sresponse to citizens’ concerns in a fairand impartial fashion. It is particularityeffective in helping citizens deal withthe complexities of bureaucracy inlarge cities.

9. Community office

Definition/Purpose

This is a variation of the neighborhoodboard/association described above, butit is typically funded and operated bythe city. It can provide one or a group ofservices depending upon needs. Servicestypically include: neighborhood ser-vices, health care, social assistance, andaid to pensioners. It extends municipalservices into a geographical district orneighborhood of the city, and bringslocal government to the citizen ratherthan the citizen traveling to a city hall.

Process

Local government officials determinewhich services can best be provided bycommunity based offices. They shouldconsider the benefits and costs of decen-tralizing an activity from both city andcitizen viewpoints. Operational fundingis provided through the annual budget.


It is more accessible to the public andfosters close rapport and improvedcommunication with citizens. The officebecomes a part of a community andcreates an increased level of trusttoward government. After a neighbor-hood office is established in acommunity, involving citizens in citizenparticipation activities is much easier.

The office workers tend to focus onissues within their geographical areaand may overlook city-wide issues andneeds. Decentralizing some servicesmay increase costs for people andresources.


3511. Open door program

(accessibility)

Definition/Purpose

It encourages citizens to visit city hallor a community office at any time on awalk-in basis.

Process

Currently, Slovak municipal govern-ments designate the hours each daythat citizens can visit city hall toconduct business, i.e., pay bills, resolveproblems, obtain licenses and permits.For example, one city hall sets hoursfor the public as follows:

Monday, 800–1600;

Tuesday, 800–1200;

Wednesday, 800–1700;

Thursday, council meeting oradvisory commission meetingsonly; and

Friday, 800–1500.

Establishing regular hours of operationfor city hall shows that city hall andstaff are accessible and open to citizenissues and concerns.


An open door program facilitatescommunication with citizens. Openingcity facilities to the public on all daysthat employees work may increasecosts, but will generate far greaterintangible benefits due to the percep-tion that government is open, there toserve, and available to hear concernsand issues.

12. Public information

Definition/Purpose

Publication information is provided inthe form of press releases, interviews,pamphlets, etc. There may be a publicinformation department responsible forthis function. Public information keepscitizens informed of the activities ofthe city.

Process

Local government officials who decideto use the public information staff tosupport citizen participation activitiesmust insure that the staff is seen asobjective and a credible source ofinformation.


A strong and effective public informa-tion program creates a positiveenvironment. Well-informed citizensare able to participate more intelli-gently, have a better understanding ofprogram issues and impacts of variousactions and a historical perspective tothe program being initiated.

Citizens have been known to criticizethe public information staff for notsupplying objective information,believing that the public informationstaff acted as a marketing organiza-tion for the city. When this happensthe public information efforts under-mine the citizen participationprogram.

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to the general public and often used incitizen education and citizen participa-tion programs. The Slovak city ofLucenec prepares a Budget in Brief andan Annual Performance Report forcitizens interested in how the city’sfinances are being managed. Copies ofthese excellent documents may beobtained by contacting the director offinance for that city.

13. Education programsand popularreporting

Definition/Purpose

Direct education programs are those inwhich city officials or staff present aprogram directly to the public, inperson; for example, a talk with schoolchildren about local governmentactivities. Indirect education programsstill provide public information, butuse printed material to convey themessage instead of a person. Popularreports are designed to communicate—simple and straight forward—avoidingcomplex terms and bureaucraticjargon.

Direct education programs providepersonal contact with the citizen.Indirect education program provideinformation. Popular reports are aneasy-to-use method for providingimportant financial and operatinginformation to citizens.

Process

Typical educational materials includepamphlets, newsletters, publicationsand reports. Some of the more inno-vative local governments haveattempted to demystify financialreporting for annual budgets and end-of-year accounting reporting. Thecurrent expression for this practice is“popular reporting.”


A direct education program provides anopportunity to present information,interact with the audience, ask andanswer questions, respond immediatelyto concerns and issues, and put a“human face” on what otherwise mightseem like a faceless bureaucracy.

Citizens like popular reporting becauseit summarizes information, uses chartsand graphs to display complex ideas,and is easy to read. Documents such asthe Budget in Brief and Annual Perfor-mance Report convey a lot ofinformation in a 20-25 page booklet.The booklets are widely disseminated

Increasing Attendance at PublicMeetings

A city in a growing urban area washaving trouble getting citizens toattend a series of meetings titled“Contemporary Urban Issues.” Whencity officials published a noticeannouncing a “Summit Meeting toSolve Our Pressing CommunityProblems,” attendance doubled.

Lucenec, SlovakiaSome of the deputies of the citycouncil have been regularly takingpart on the lessons of humanities atthe primary schools, grades 7 and 8.They lead the whole lesson, theyspeak about organization of localgovernment, rights and obligations ofdeputies, democracy, etc. Theyanswer the questions asked by thepupils, they make notes of their ideas.

Pupils are invited to the session of thecity council. Therefore it is notexceptional that the sessions areattended by 60-70 pupils from pri-mary schools.


3714. Citizen service

request office(complaints,suggestions andinformation)

Definition/Purpose

A citizen service request office is acentralized clearinghouse establishedto receive and respond to citizenrequests for assistance or information.It provides a single point of contact,thus simplifying contacting city hallfrom the citizen’s point of view. Nolonger does the citizen have to knowwho to contact or which department tocall to be able to get information orhave a service request handled.

Process

These requests generally come to theoffice by mail, telephone or in person.The office is designed to:• provide the information, or if a

service request, record the request,route it to the proper departmentfor action, and when it is com-pleted, notify the citizen of theaction taken

• help council and citizens get actionon requests for information andservice

• improve responsiveness of localgovernment to the council

• coordinate the municipal serviceresponse effort of the local govern-ment

• provide an internal communicationnetwork available to all city depart-ments.


Centralizing information and servicerequests permits the city to track therequests and ensure that they are actedupon within a specified time frame.The result builds credibility with thecitizen that local government actuallyworks for them.

Establishing a citizen’s request officecan be costly and a major disadvan-tage; however if a local governmentdecides to create such a department,consider using resources that arealready doing this type of workwithin the organization. Anyonewhose current job consists of dealingwith customer information andservice requests more than 60% ofthe time is a potential resource tostaff a central agency.

Example of Citizen Participationin Liptovsky Hradok

Citizen participation is encouragedand often takes place in theconduct of government within theCity of Liptovsky Hradok. Anexample of this can be demon-strated in the development of thecity’s strategic plan through theyear 2000.

The plan was drafted by the mayorand other city staff and madeavailable to the public for com-ment and input. The plan waspublished in the local newsletter,copies were available at city halland directly mailed to the businessand educational community. Apublic hearing was held and wellattended. At the conclusion of the20 day public comment period, allcomments received were consid-ered and appropriate inputincorporated.

Contact: Julius Medvdei, Mayor

Address: City hall, LiptovskyHradok, Slovakia

Phone: 0844.20.21.40

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brevity is critical and the story linemust be short, to the point, and easilyunderstood.

Here are some suggestions for estab-lishing a good working relationshipwith the media:• Be honest and straight forward in

responding to questions; honesty isthe best policy.

• Avoid “no comment” responses—itsounds evasive.

• Return phone calls promptly;reporters usually have deadlinesthey are attempting to meet.

• Do not speculate or answer hypo-thetical questions.

• If you do not have a factual answerto a question, apologize, and saythat you do not have it readilyavailable, but you will get theinformation for them. Dependingon their deadline, they may or maynot need it.

• Do not downplay controversialitems (the media thrives on contro-versy); if you do, you losecredibility.

• If the media catches you off guardregarding an event that has justoccurred, say you just heard aboutit and will have a response afteryou have had an opportunity tostudy it. Get the answer outquickly.

• If you choose to establish a per-sonal relationship with the media,remember that you cannot dictatehow a story will be reported.

• If you disagree with the way a storyhas been covered, address the issuewith the reporter in private orignore it altogether. Do not com-plain to the newspaper editor or theradio or television news director.

15. Media relations

Definition/Purpose

Every citizen participationprogram requires workingwith the media (newspa-per, radio and television)to reach the generalpublic. The mediaassists citizen partici-pation at thebeginning of theprocess by announc-ing the program andinviting public in-volvement; duringthe middle, byreporting theprogress of theinitiative; andfinally at the end, by reporting itsresults and implementation.

Process

Sometimes, local officials have toencourage the media to cover citizenparticipation programs. Two commonlyused methods are press releases andpress conferences. These help themedia gather the important facts withminimal effort.

Radio and television may be the majoravenues by which citizens hear thenews, but the opportunity to get yourmessage across is much smaller, 30 to60 seconds, and the competition for airtime is much greater. Local governmentradio and television coverage dependsupon the extent to which it is currentand newsworthy. Any news releases forradio or television must take theseconditions into account. Therefore,


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____________________

Note: Seven of the examples (non-Slovak) used in this compendium were adaptedfrom Elaine Cogan, Successful Public Meetings, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Pub-lishers, 1992.


Establishing a media relations programcan be an effective way to positivelypromote local government activities.Using the media relations office as acentral point of contact for all mediaimproves press relations and enhancesthe media’s access to information.When accurate and timely informationis provided to the public the image oflocal government is improved. Localgovernment officials should be cau-tious, however, not to overmarket thecity to the point that the office isviewed as a propaganda tool.

Getting media attentionA local government in a heavilypopulated urban area embarked onan ambitious program of sponsoringcommunity meetings about thepressing issues of growth andtransportation. After failing tointerest the newspaper editor inprinting articles of any size or depth,the city produced and paid for itsown six-page, four-color supple-ment, which was inserted in theSunday edition of the paper. It wasread by 250,000 people, and the citycouncil saw the fruits of its laborsand investment rewarded. Thissingle, ambitious effort increasedinterest and attendance at the publicmeetings. As a by-product, theproject finally attracted free mediaattention; reporters realized thatthese issues did concern a broadrange of citizens in the community.

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Glossary

CITIZEN PARTICIPATION any process through which citizens influence public decisionsthat affect their lives and the lives of other citizens

GOAL a general purpose statement describing what a local govern-ment functional unit would like to accomplish in the future

STAKEHOLDERS concerned individuals and/or groups that are directly affectedby specific governmental issues or decisions


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Planning

1. Identify the key issues

2. Define the objective; relate it tooverall organizational goals

3. Seek organizational commitmentfrom local officials to aparticipating approach within cityhall

4. Consult with others at city hall

Coordinate other departments’,agencies’, and/or affected govern-ments’ involvement

Determine need for a facilitator

Review schedules and availabilityof key persons

Determine program requirements(personnel and financial resources)

Determine information require-ments

5. Identify key persons, departmentsor organizations that will beaffected

Develop a profile of the community

Identify persons, agencies, etc., byname

Clarify issues

Develop contacts and rapport

Interview community leaders

Program Development

6. Draft Participation Program

Circulate information, issues, andoptions

Determine the decision makingprocess for the program

Determine objectives for each stageof citizen participation

Design citizen participation oppor-tunities with techniques

Establish monitoring and evalua-tion efforts

7. Meet with key persons affected bythe process or program

Confirm issues and options

Confirm objectives for each step ofcitizen participation

Confirm selection of facilitator, ifapplicable

See advice on the overall design ofthe programs and techniques usedin each stage

8. Finalize program design

Finalize program requirements(personnel and financial resources)

Finalize information requirements

Finalize monitoring and evaluationefforts

Finalize schedules and workassignments

9. Consult with key persons andother public agencies on finaldesign as applicable

Analyze results

Make changes as needed

Revise the draft

Determine additional decisionmaking processes as needed

APPENDIX ASteps for

Planning and Implementinga Citizen Participation Process

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Program Approval

10. Obtain a decision on finalprogram design and schedule

Publicize the decision with therationale

Emphasize accountability

Program Implementation

11. Involve participants inimplementation and evaluation

Evaluation

12. Evaluate the program

Seek comment from key personsand others on the consultative partof the program

Evaluate the results of the partici-pation program; did it achieve theobjectives?

Document the evaluation for usethe next time a participationprocess is planned


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APPENDIX BChecklist for

Preparing and Conducting aSuccessful Town Hall Meeting

Pre-meeting Planning

___ Has a meeting space been locatedand reserved?

___ Has the meeting space beenchecked and arrangements made forkeys, seating set-up and clean-up?

___ Does the meeting space haveadequate lighting? Can the room bedarkened?

___ Are audio visual equipment,microphone and extension cordsavailable at the meeting space? Ifnot, who will provide?

___ Is location accessible by bustransport? Is there ample parkingfor autos?

___ Are participant handouts prepared:agenda, information sheets, feed-back forms?

___ Is sign in or registration formprepared? Are there adequate pensand paper?

___ Are name tags needed?

___ Are signs posted to direct partici-pants to the correct building/meeting room?

___ Are refreshments being provided:coffee, tea, mineral water?

___ Are flip charts, easels, markers andpaper available in the meetingroom?

___ Have facilitators, note takers andpresenters been assigned?

___ Do other local officials who plan toattend know their roles?

Meeting Notice

___ Has a mailing list been developed?Updated?

___ Has the public notice for signboards and advertisement innewspaper been posted/published?Is the wording of the objectiveconsistent?

___ Has the news media been con-tacted? Press release written?

___ Have key community persons,council members and departmentsbeen personally contacted regard-ing the meeting?

At the Meeting

___ Are seats placed in a circulararrangement to encourage discus-sion among the participants? Don’tuse the stage.

___ Are there too many chairs? Peopletend to sit in the back. Avoid afront table—use chairs only.

___ Identify water closets (WC) andsmoking areas.

___ Clarify the role of the facilitator, ifused.

___ Review the rules of the meetingand attempt to get buy-in.

___ Ensure that the participants under-stand and accept the objective ofthe meeting.

___ Start on time and finish on time.Advise participants at the begin-ning of the meeting how long themeeting will last and expected timeto adjourn.

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___ Make sure flip charts and otheraudio visual aids can be seen bythe participants in the room.

___ Keep presentation as short aspossible (15 minutes maximum).

___ Provide maps, clear instructionsand signs to break-out rooms forsmall group discussions, if needed.

___ Ensure that participants completeand turn in meeting evaluationforms.

___ Make sure that participants leavethe meeting knowing what hasbeen accomplished and what willhappen next.

After the Meeting

___ Transcribe flip charts and meetingnotes.

___ Add names from registration tomailing list.

___ Review the evaluation forms andsummarize them.

___ Make copies of notes or summariesof the meeting available as soon aspossible.


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APPENDIX CBasic Steps for Local Governments

to Access the Internet

Note: The following information wasobtained from an ICMA publication,MIS Report, Local Government and theInternet, September, 1996. This chro-nology represents only a general guideto the steps that a local governmentneeds to take to access the Internet.You should read the report in itsentirety prior to embarking on creatinga Web site for your local government.

1. Subscribe to an Internet serviceprovider (ISP) through a dial-upmodern connection so that you canlearn about the Internet.

2. Define your community’s objectivefor using the Internet.

3. Identify staff who will be involvedin the project. Responsibilitiesmight be divided into technicalmatters (getting connected) andcontent matters (collection, format-ting, and maintenance ofinformation).

4. Identify potential partners withwhom you might collaborate andshare costs.

5. Determine funding and/or establisha budget for use of the Internet.

6. Identify information that should beput on the local government’sWorld Wide Web site and decidewhich information should go onfirst, which second, etc. Draw a

diagram of the information hierar-chy.

7. Discuss options for staff connectiv-ity and Web site services withseveral providers.

8. Discuss Web site design withservice providers and Web designcontractors.

9. Decide whether to provide staffwith fast networked access to theInternet or rely on a few dial-upaccounts (this will primarily be afinancial decision).

10. Solicit bids for the services youwant, preferably through a detailedrequest for proposals. Address staffconnections, server hosting orinstallation and set-up and sitedesign. You may divide theseresponsibilities among two or morevendors.

11. Select a vendor or vendors andregister your domain name withInterNIC.

12. Before giving employees access tothe Internet, develop an acceptableuse policy and training for employ-ees.

13. Develop a procedure for employeesto publish information on-line,remembering to provide for qualitychecks, coordination and mainte-nance of information.

The ICMA publication can be obtained from the Finance Managers’ Association, theAssociation of Town Managers or the Association of Towns and Communities.

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