cinematography - california state university, northridgemed61203/film art cinematography.pdf ·...
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CINEMATOGRAPHY
ESSENTIALCONCEPTS
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• Thefilmmakercontrolsthecinematographicqualitiesoftheshot –notonlywhatisfilmed butalsohowitisfilmed
• Cinematographicqualitiesinvolvethreefactors:
1.thephotographicaspectsoftheshot2.theframingoftheshot3.thedurationoftheshot
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Inotherwords,cinematographyisaffectedbychoicesin:
1. Photographicaspectsoftheshot2. Framing3. Durationoftheshot
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1.Photographicimage
• Thestudyofthephotographicimageincludes:
A.RangeoftonalitiesB.SpeedofmotionC.Perspective
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1.A:Tonalitiesofthephotographicimage
Therangeoftonalitiesinclude:I. Contrast–black&white;color
Itcanbecontrolledwithlighting,filters,filmstock,laboratoryprocessing,postproduction
II. Exposure–howmuchlightpassesthroughthe
cameralensImagetoodark,underexposed;ortoobright,overexposedExposurecanbecontrolledwithfilters
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1.A.Tonality-cont
Tonalitycanbechangedafterfilming:
Tinting–dippingdevelopedfilmindye Darkareasremainblack&gray; lightareaspickupcolor
Toning-dippingduringdevelopingofpositive print Darkareascoloredlightarea; white/faintlycolored
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1.A.Tonality-cont
• Photochemically–basedfilmmakingcanhavethetonalityfixed.Donebycolortimerorgraderinthelaboratory
• Digitalgradingusedtoday.Ascannerconvertsfilm
todigitalfiles,creatingadigitalintermediate(DI).DIisadjustedwithsoftwareandscannedbackontonegative
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1.B.:Speedofmotion• Dependsontherelationbetweentherateatwhichthe
filmwasshot&therateofprojection• Bothratesarecalculatedinframespersecond• Inthesilentera,filmswereshotatavarietyof
speeds,usualrangingfrom16to20framespersecond,graduallygettingabitfasterinthemid-1920s
• Oncesoundwasadoptedinthelate1920s,itwasnecessarytorecordbothsoundandimageatauniformspeed,sothattheycouldbesynchronized
• Therateofshooting&projectionforthesoundcinemawasstandardizedat24framespersecond
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1.B.:Speedofmotion-cont
ObservethatifItherearefewerframespersecondthantheprojectionrate,thescreenactionlooksspeededup
• Slowmotion:moreframespersecond,theprojectionactionlooksinslowmotion
• Ramping:varyingframerateduringshooting• Timelapse:oneframeperminute,ormoretime,
whenprojected,looksspeededup• Highspeed:hundredsofframespersecond
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1.B.:Speedofmotion-cont
• Fordepictedmovementtolookaccurate,then,therateofshootingmustcorrespondtotherateofprojection
• Thejerkinessoftheimagesinasilentfilmisusuallytheresultofprojectingafilmshotat16to20framespersecondat24framespersecond
• Thefilmmakercancontroltherateofthefilm’smovementthroughthecamera
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1.C.:Perspective
Perspective:setofspatialrelationsorganizedaroundapointofview
Itcomprises:A.Focallength-wideangle middlelens longlensortelephoto
B.Depthoffieldandfocus
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1.C.:Perspective
Perspectiverelationscanbemanipulatedthroughspecialeffects:
• Superimposition• Rear&backprojection• Mattework
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2.FramingtheimageFramingisapowerfulcinematictechniqueItcomprises:• Dimensionsoftheframingspace• Space–onscreen/offscreen• Cameraposition
Angle–straight,high,lowLevel–paralleltothehorizonorcantedHeightDistanceofframing
• Functionsofframing• Mobileframing
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2.Framing
Framedimensions&shape
Theratioofframewidthtoframeheightiscalled aspectratioTheroughdimensionsoftheratioweresetquite earlyinthehistoryofcinemabyEdison, Dickson,Lumière&otherinventorsThefilmframewastoberectangular,itsproportion approximatelythreetotwo,yieldingan aspectratioof1.33:1,orAcademyratioSincethe1950s,avarietyofwidescreenratios havedominated35mmfilmmaking
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2.Framing:Distanceofframing
Framingsuppliesnotonlyanangle&heightandonalevelplaneoratacantbutalsowithrespecttodistance
Itgivestheviewerthesenseofbeingfarawayorclose tothemise-en-scèneoftheshotThisaspectofframingiscalledcameradistance
–thescaleisthehumanbodySeveraltypesofshots,rangingfromfarthesttoclosest
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2.Framing:Distanceofframing
Typesofshotsaccordingtocameradistance:• Extremelongshot• Longshot• Mediumlongshot• Mediumshot• Mediumclose-up• Close-up• Extremeclose-up
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2.Framing:Typesofshots
• Extremelongshot–thehumanfigureisbarelyvisible;framingforlandscapes,bird’s–eyeviewsofcities&othervistas
• Longshot–figuresaremoreprominent,butthebackgroundstilldominates
• Mediumlongshots–fromaboutthekneesup;verycommon;theypermitagoodbalanceoffigure&surrounding
• Mediumshot– framesthehumanbodyfromthewaistup;gesture&expressionsbecomemorevisible
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2.Framing:Typesofshots-cont
• Mediumclose-up–framesthebodyfromthechestup
• Close-up–traditionallytheshotshowingjustthehead,hands,feet,orsmallobjects;itemphasizesfacialexpression,thedetailsofagesture,orasignificantobject
• Extremecloseup–singlesoutaportionoftheface(eyesorlips),isolatesadetail,&magnifiestheminute
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2.Functionsofframing
Thecontextofthefilmwilldeterminethefunctionoftheframing,justasitdeterminesthefunctionofmise-en-scène,photographicqualities&othertechniques
Wemustlookforthefunctionsthetechniqueperforms
intheparticularcontextofthetotalfilmFramingcanbeusedforemphasis,subjectivity(point-
of-viewshot)&motif
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2.Framing:Mobileframe
MobileframeisspecifictocinemaTheframemoveswithrespecttotheframedmaterialMobileframingmeansthatwithintheimage,the
framingoftheobjectchangesThemobileframeproduceschangesofcameraheight,
distance,angle,orlevelduringtheshot
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2.Framing:Typesofmobileframing
Thecamerausuallyrestsonasupportwhilefilming;thissupportisdesignedtomovethecamera
Eachcameramovementcreatesaspecificeffectonscreen• Thepan(shortfor‘panorama’)rotatesthecameraona
verticalaxis.Thecameradoesnotdisplaceitself,itturnsits‘head’rightorleft• Thetiltrotatesthecameraonahorizontalaxis.The
cameradoesnotchangeposition,butits‘head’swivelsupordown
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2.Typesofmobileframing-cont
• Trackingshot(ordolly)–thecameraasawholedoesnotchangeposition;ittravelsinanydirectionalongtheground–forward,backward,circularly,diagonally,orfromsidetoside
• Craneshot–thecameramovesabovegroundlevel;itrisesordescends,oftenthankstoamechanicalarmwhichliftsandlowersit
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2.Typesofmobileframing-cont
Pan,tilts,trackingshots&craneshotsarethemostcommonframingmovements,butvirtuallyanykindofcameramovementcanbeimagined:somersaulting,rolling,andsoon
Rememberthatinboththepan&thetilt,thebodyof
thecameradoesnotchangeposition;itsimpleswivelsleftorright,upordown
Rememberalsothattypesofcameramovementscan
becombined
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2.Mobileframing:Movement&machinery
Manycameramovementsaremadewiththecameraonadolly
Beforethe1970s,itwasstandardpracticetomount
thedollyonrailsforlengthymovements–‘tracking’shot
Today,aSteadicamisused–acameramount,attached
totheoperator’sbodybymeansofabrace.Theoperatorcanwalkwiththecamera,guidingtheframingbyminimalhandmovementswhileviewingtheimageonavideomonitor.Anotheroperatoradjustsfocusbyremotecontrol
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2.Mobileframing:Movement&machinery
Sometimesthefilmmakerdoesnotwantsmoothcameramovements,preferringabumpy,jigglinghand-heldimage.Thisisachievedthroughtheuseofthecamera.Itbecamecommoninthelate1950swiththecinemaveritédocumentary
Eventhoughcameramovementisthemostcommon
wayofmakingtheframemobile,thezoomlenscanalsobeused(thecameradoesn’tmove–thelenscreatestheillusionthatitismoving)
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2.Functionsofframemobility
Considerhowframingstrategiesfunctionsystematicallywithinfilms–howdoesmobileframingrelatetocinematicspace&time?howarepatternscreated?
Themobileframeneednotbesubordinatetothe
movementoffiguresatall.Itcanmoveindependentlyofthem,too.Often,thecameramovesawayfromthecharacterstorevealsomethingofsignificancetothenarrative
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3.Durationoftheimage:thelongtake
ItispossibletomanipulatescreendurationwithinasingleshotAtake: onerunofthecamerathatrecordsasingleshotLongtake: unusuallylengthyshotWhenanentiresceneisrenderedinonlyoneshot,thelongtakeis
knownbytheFrenchterm‘plansequence',orsequenceshot
Mostcommonly,thefilmmakerusesthelongtakeselectivelyAlternatively,thedirectormaydecidetobuildtheentirefilmout
oflongtakes,e.g.Rope(Hitchcock,1948),withonlyeightshots,eachrunningthefulllengthofareelofilminthecamera
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3.Thelongtake&themobileframe
ThelongtakeoftenreplaceseditingItisfrequentlyalliedtothemobileframe:byusing
panning,tracking,craning,orzooming,itpresentscontinuallychangingvantagepointsthatarecomparabletotheshiftsofviewsuppliedbyediting
Aclassicexampleofhowthelongtakecanconstitutea
formalpatternistheopeningsequenceofWelles’TouchofEvil(1958)
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Summary• Thefilmshotisaverycomplexunit
• Mise-en-scènefillstheimagewithmaterial,arrangingsetting,lighting,costume&figurebehaviorwithintheformalcontextofthetotalfilm
• Withinthatsameformalcontext,thefilmmakeralsocontrolsthecinematographicqualitiesoftheshot–howtheimageisphotographed&framed,howlongtheimagelastsonthescreen
• Digitalpostproductionhasreshapedeveryareaoftechnique:editing,cinematography,sound&mise-en-scène
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Filmssuggestedasexamples
• Tonality– TheBattleofAlgiers(1967,Pontecorvo)SavingPrivateRyan(1998,Spielberg)
• Telephoto– Tootsie(1982,Pollack)• Zoom– TheConversation(1974,Coppola)• Slowmotion– TheWildBunch(1969,Peckinpah)• Deepfocus–CitizenKane(1941)• Splitscreen– TimeCode(2000,Figgis)
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• Mobilecamera-Saboteur(1942,Hitchcock) YoungandInnocent(1937,Hitchcock) Notorious(1946,Hitchcock) GrandIllusion(1937,Renoir)
• Hand-heldcamera– Primary(1960,Drew)• Longtake–TouchofEvil(1958,Welles)
Gravity(2013,Cuarón) StationsoftheCross(2014,Brüggemann) Birdman(2015,GonzálezIñárritu)
• Steadicam&longtake– SnakeEyes(1998,DePalma)
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Source:
ThisoutlinefollowstheconceptsoncinematographydevelopedbyDavidBordwell&KristinThompsonintheirFilmArt,AnIntroduction(2001&2010)
Thelistoffilmexampleshasbeenpreparedby
MaríaElenadelasCarreras