cicero_on moral ends_bk iii copy

7/28/2019 Cicero_On Moral Ends_Bk III Copy

1/25

Book III1 r ) lf pleasure laclecl such ten:rcious ldr ocatcs, Brutus, irnd spokc fr-rr hcrsclf,I think the prcrious book \\rruld conrpel hcr to conccdc dcfeirt to lcirl \\orth.llos shamelcss she lould be to lcsist liltuc anl longcr, to plcle:'lhat isl)leirsint to \yhirt is good, or to contencl that boclilr cnjolncnt and thc nrentllJc!ighr that it causcs ar c of nrore lalue thar a steldfast sctiousncss ofpurpusc.

So lct us clismiss her :rnd ordel her to stal s ithin hcl onn borclcrs. \\'c donot wilnt thc rigc-rur of our rlcbatc to be hnmperecl bl hel secluctile charms.(z) \\c must inrcstigate \hcre thlt suplcmc good thirt \\'c \rirnt to disco\el isro bc firund. Plersure has bccn eliminirtcd [r'om thc inqtiilr, and plcttl muchthc same objcctions holcl agirinst thosc l.ho maintaincd thlt thc ultimatc goodl ls l'rccdom fi'onr pain. Indecd no good should be dcclarcd supleme if it islrrcking in r-irtue, since nothing cirn bc su1'rctiol to that.\\ic l cle folcehrl cnough in our dclxtc $ ith 'lbrquatus. But rr still ficlccrstiugglc Nith Lhc Stoics is.rt hrncl. 'l'he topic of pleasure militirtes ilgirinstlclllr sh:rlp or plofirund discussion. 'fhose lho dcfend plcasure;uc not lellr crsccl in u gumcnt, ilnd hel opponents aLc conh'onting a casc that is not hlldto relutc. (.j) Er cn Hpiculus himsclf slitl thirt pleirsulc is not ir natter ftr llgunrent, sincc the critcrion fbr judging pleasurc is locltecl in thc scnses. T hus irlccollectiou ol plcasurc is suflicient; proof is ilrele\ rnt. So thc detlittc * c heldrvas l simplc olc on cithcr sidc. Thcle \1,1s nothing in\ol\cd or itbstruse iuTorquirtus' c\pr)sition, :lncl mr oln spccch, so I bclicre. rras ltrl-ectlr lucicl-Thc Sroics, on thc othcr hancl, ls 1ou rcll knol, hle l rnr of:rlguirrgru hiclr is not so nuch subtlc irs obscurc, cr en iit thc Glcck readcr', irncl tl'tusl:rl mole ro lirl us Romus l ho har c to fincl a net rrrcatrulur and in\ent ne\tclnts to ntttclt nel conccpts. This ncccl r ill surplisc no onc ol er en moclet-irrc lcirr-ning oncc it is rccoqnizecl thlt itnr lielcl ofknouledgc shose crelcisr:irrrohes i clcglec ol spccializatiorr hls l lrrrilc uny,^c ofncl telnrs sct up t()(lcsignirtc the subject-mrttcl of thc rcler rnt 6cld. (+) 'l'hus hgic irncl Irhr sicsusc terminologr unknorln clcn to thc Grccls. Gcolrleh\ trrd music, its lcll:ls y,^r'imm:tl j hlle thcir osn llngu;rg-e. l}cn the irlt of rhctolic, dcspite bcingtl'roloLllihl\ public rrncl lirniliar, still uses rr roclbuhn tir thc pulposcs ofinstnrction lhich is plettl nrucb its orrn-

6a


2/25


3/25

Bouk I IISenate-house. Hc did this \rhile thc Scnate sas irssembling, so as not to:ntrudc on public business. All thc rnorc, thcn, tith total lcisurc and ir husc.uppll of re:ldinlt-mattcq did he appcal to bc go|gi[g himself on books. if Inr.rr applr t)ris term ro s,) hunour'3bls dD occufitlion.(8) Oul mceting being ir mutuirl surprisc, hc immcdiltelv sptang to his lcet.'\\'hat brings 1ou hcrel'he askccl. 'l supposc 1'ou hllc cone from t.out rill,r.li I had known vou \\'erc thcre) I soulcl hare paid rou a risit m1self.' "fhctirmcs bcppn l cstcrclal ', I leplicd, 'so I left torr n and iurir cd in thc er cning.\lr rc:rson for cominpJ hcre \\'as to lict hold o1'some books fi'om the libralr.Our 1l'icld I ucullus should start familiarizing himself l ith this grcat collcc-rion. I hopc hc tirkcs more dclight in thcsc books than in all thc other olna-mcnts of the house. I know this is reallr lour oun cluq, but I :rm tcuibll.rnsious that hc should get an cduc,ttion th.rt s ill makc him the match of hisi:athcl and dclr Cacpio and 1ou vourself * ho are such a closc t el;rtion. I har cgood Lcason fbr m1'concern. I chelish the memorl of his unclc (1ou knoshorr highh l lated Cacpio in m1 opinion hc lvould nou trc one of oul lc:rclingfigurcs had he !ilcd). Lucius l-ucullus too is at the forcfront oi'm1 mincl. He\\rs a min of enormous distinction. Elcrl lttitudc rncl opinion rrc heldcemcntcd thc bond of fricndship bct*ccn us.'

(9) 'lbur rcmcmbrance of thcsc mcn, each of t hom berlucathed their chil-dren to \1rur care, dr)cs Jou glcxt credit', slid Crrtq 'as docs rlur conccrn forroungi Lucullus. I am far from shilking lhat lou call mr' "dutr". but I shallenlist \ou to sharc it. I $oulcl acld that the bo1 has alrendl shoNn me signs ofboth moclcstl and intclligencc. But lou knol hol loung he is.''I do indced',I replied, 'but still, it is high timc fbr him to gct a tirstc ofthe skills s hich $illbcttcr cquip him fol the adult world should hc imbibc thcm in his l outh.'l'Ycs', said Gto, 'and uc s ill discuss thcsc matte rs morc clrcfulll irnd frc'qucntlv in thc futulc, and takc joint acti{)n. But let us sit dolr n, shall Nei' Anclso le did.(ro) CLrto thcn said,'\Vhrt is it th:1t Jou, the o$ncr of so mlnl lolumes,need from this placci' 'l came to pict some ofthc {ristotlc notc-books,+ nhicl'tI knen scre herc', I rcplied. 'I can lcatl them during shat is a larc holidil ft,r'me.''If onll', crclaimed Clto,'-rou hird madc cause sith the Stoics! liru, ifanlone, should sulclr belier,c thirt there is nothing good erccpt rirtuc.''Perhaps rou Stoics ought not to hilc dressccl up the samc itlcirs in nes tel-minologl', I replied,'givcn thirt therc is rgrcemcnt bctleen us on the pointI I his uDdc.lines rhc pirthos of rhe f:rct. rtich (l;crro ,rssunrcs thit his k.rdcrs $;ll tno\\. rhrtthc rounger l,ucLrllus sas kilietl in thc civil uar in +2. tighring igrinst (:iesrr rs \rrrs (]ln).'l hc rounger Lucullus rrrs thc r rrd o{ (lrto, his nnnhcr's step-brorhra rnd Cicero sc(ms ioh e hrd sonc inllLnrl Icsponsibilitr lbr hinr. 'l he relcrcncc ftr Crcp;o hcLc is puzzlirrg. rnd

thcre is some conlusion in thc nrnuscripts ('uncle'rrinsi.llcs ,r conjccturc lor'grrndlllh(r'.vhich produces impossible rcsults). Thc pcrsrn ncant is pmb:rbh (Iuintus Scnilius (ircpr,.Cato's step brother and unclc to both llrutus end I-ucullus. sho dicd rLrung ind fbr $h,'scson Ciccro app,rrcntlt rlso hacl somc rcsponsibilitr:I Sec Inr.oductioD, p. \\iii. cspccirllr norc:o.

6j


4/25

On l'lorul Enlsofsubstance. Oul arguments coincidc; it is mercll-in thcir form ofexprcssionthat our dispute irises.''Thev do not coincidc in thc slightest', said Cato. 'In saving that anl thingcscept lirtuc is to be sought, ol countcd as goocl, 1.ou dcstrol moralin itsell.the vcrl light of \ irtue. and lru dismantlc \ irtue complctclt.' (t r ) 'Splcndidsords, Cato', I said, 'but rre lou alr'.rrc that you sharc l-our glort with Pvrrhoand Aristo, s.ho clcclare all things to be cquali I rrould klc to hcar louropinion of thcm.'5'lbu lrc lsking mv opinionl' crclaimed Cato. "l'hesc nlcn \\'ere liood.brale, just and tempcrrte in public lifc, rrs ue havc cithcr hcard told ol sec'nfil oursclves. \\'ith no s]stcmxtic doctrine, thel follolcd nlture hcrself, lnclachicvcd rr grcat dc.l thirt is praisesorthr In mr-opinion thcJ'$ere bcttcrinstructcd bl nirturc thrn thcl could h*c becn br philosophr, had thc\adoptcd anl othcr philosophl than that shich holds moralitl to be the onl\g;ood, imnloralitl' the onll er,il. All other philosophicll slstcms - some morethan others, no doubt, but still all - count somethinli othcl than viltue :rs lgood ol cr,il. Thcse slstcms. in m1 r'ies, not onlv fail to assist or cncourage u.to become bettcr, but actualll corrupt our r.en-nature. Unless it is mtintaincdth.t $h{t is moral is the onlr good, thelc is no s a1 of establishing that it i'lirtue thrt b ngs ibout the happl lifc. And if this is so, then I do not sce s hrs,c should trouble oursclles lith philosophr'. If it s.cre possible frrr rr si:.pcrson to bc unhappr,, I fear I uould set littlc r alue on gkrlious irnd \ronder-ful virtuc.'(rz)'\\ihrrt rou harc srrid so fiu', Cato', I replicd, 'could cquall) be said [r\ ifblloser of Ptrlho or Aristo. You alc u,ell atllc thlt this morilitJ $ e arc di.-cussing is rcgarded bl thcm not iust as thc highcst good but also, in linc t'itlrlour os.n liet; u the onll good. Ancl ifthat is correct, the conclusion thirt 1knol yru uphold docs indced follor' - cvcrl n isc pcrson is aln al s hlppr'. ,{ r.rou thcn commending thcse philosophers ancl adrising us to follo\ thci:lincl'

'Not at ill'. sxid Cato. 'It is of thc essencc of \.iltuc thirt onc makes choicc.:rmong the things th:rt are in accordirncc \rith niturc.'fhcsc philosopher.makc elcrlthing ctlu:rl and collapsc all distinctions betlcen altcrnlrire'Hence no selection is possible, irnd rirtue itselfis abolishcd.'(r3)'.{ rcrv rrr,,..point', I rcplied. 'But lct me ask if Iou arc not committed to the same porition u hen 1


5/25

Book III'l'hc anss cr rvould bc 1cs', he said, 'if I u cre guiltl of such abandonment.But I am not.'(r4)'Hou sol'I askcd. 'N,lolalitl alone is the onc rhingl rrhichrou crll lirtuous, right, praiserrorthl and deccnt (its natule rvill be bcttcr

undcrstood ifI rcfer to it b1 a variet-r ofslnonl ms). So I ask 1rru, if that is thconll'' good, rvhrt elsc rvill thcre bc to pursuci On the othcr sicle, if the only clilis $'hat is basc, r'icious, indeccnt, crlrrupt and fuul (hcre too a \,rrictl- of tcrmss ill make things clear ), r.hat elsc rvill vou sal should bc nloided?''liru s cll tnol l hat I shall sa1', he rcplicd. .-{nd I suspect r-ou cannot t ritto scize upon somc point or othel il'I makc:r bricf lcsponse. So I rr ill not rcpllpoint bl point. Instead, since le have plcntl of lcisurc, I trill erpound the\\ hoic slstem of Zcno lnd thc Stoics - unless vou u-ould rather I did not.''qritc thc contrar]', I said. 'Your crposition Nill bc of grcnt assistitncc inrcsolving thc qucstions \\c arc investigating.'(r5) ''I'hen let us make therttcmpt', hc replicd, 'ho|erer diliicult rnd obscurc Stoic doct ne may bc. Atone timc the tcrminologl used ftrt thcir ne\.ide,.rs did not see'm lcccptableer en in the Greck languagc. Long habituiltion hds no$ madc it familiar Butlhlt do rou think uill happen in thc case ofLatini''Thcle is no problcm s'hatsocrcr', I rcplied. 'IfZcnrl las allotcd to invent! ne\1 term to match the discorcrl ofan unfamiliar idca, thcn sh1 not Catoi'\one thc lcss, thelc is no nced for ln crilct \r-ord-for-$ord correspondenccs hen a more familiar term alrcadl crists to conr,el the sxmc meaninli. 'fhitis thc mirrk of an unskillcd translator. \,Il usual plactice, rrhcrc thcre is nolltcrnrrtive availablc, is to erprcss l single Greek rvord bl seleral l,atin oncs..{.nd I still think rvc should be lllolccl to usc :r Grcck $ord $ hen there is n{)I-atin equivalcnt. If"cphippia" and "acratophora" irre irllolecl, then "prodg-mcna" and "lpoprogmena" should celtainll be rrllosed too, crcn thoughthcv mar correctll bc rcndered as '!relerr ecl" :rnd "rejected."'('(r6)'I apprcciatc lour hclp', said Cato. 'I shall usc for prcfcrcnce the non-Grcck rcrsions 1.ou har.c just gi\.cn. If l ou sce mc in dillicultl in other cascs,pleasc comc to rn1 aid."l certainll sball', I leplied,'but fortunc firours thcblarc, so I bitl l ou press on. \\'hat more sublime lcntut c could * c undcrtakei''Those l hosc thcorl I ircccpt', began Oato, 'hale the follon ing vicr'.t Evcrr" "llphipp;:r" rl'c saddles, rnd "'rkratt4rhora" jars ot ncl]r {ine. Pcrh.rps thcse Gecl srrrds\rrucli Ciiccro as beins.rs clurnsr rs Zcno's coiuscs ')rcfcLrcd" rrnd'\cjccled" t,r'tlisp.c-lcrrcd"), introdLrced to relcr to thc Lind ofralur posscssed bf elcr\rhin8 orhcr rh.rn \irhrc.Olto frequcntll refcrs to Stoic ttchnic.rl tcrnrs in Grceli. His plcsrnration is rathcr lilc lLertboot. scll nrfoLmerl but rel.rtirch gr celess. crnxrnsting $ith rhc rmtrteur enthusi,rsm ol'lirrqu.ttus in bool t and thc polishcd rctoric ol Pim in book t.; (iato begins rrith thc Stoic idea ofarld,jsr.r or lirm;litrriztrtion (thoush no lcrm 1o[ it). Thc idoris drat of fincling somcthing congcnirl rnd reg.rrding it as onc's o{n. }ro'n 16 to 2i Clrto

crpounrls 'pcrsoml a r'izj's. shich tnccs our crrlicsl rrlcm pls i t lind ing rh ings congcn irtl toouro ginllrudimcntxry sen\c ofscll .\s $c gro\; \\'e come b hrlc morc maturc corceptionsofl)odr \h.t $c rcrlh arc rnd t\hrt i\ rcrlll congrn;rl or ikin n) uq. I)crclopmcrt rnd mrnrmtion t:rlc us fr onr thc bib\'s priniti\ e le11--lo\ e to thc ritioDal person's rccosniti()n that thconlrgoodforhin.as.rrtrtionrlpcrson.is\irtuc.('SociNl ,tidt N'. erplicficd fron 62 to 6ar.is l colresponding dcrclopmcnt lrom primirilc conccrn for othcrs \\ho ,rre'1ours () mortrlconcern tbr nll mrn,nnl bcings.)

6g


6/25

On llorul Ewlsanimal, as soon as it is born (this is rvhere onc should statt), is concerncd rr ithitsclf, and takcs calc to prescrrc itscll It farrrur s its constitution and $hitevcrpreserrcs its constitution, lhcreas it rccoils from its destluction and rrhatcrcr'appcars to promotc its dcstluction. In support of this thesis, the Stoics poinrout that babics seel $hat is good for thcm and aroid thc opposite bcfore thelevcr fccl ple,,rsurc ol pain.s This s'ould not happcn unless thcl r'alued thciro$n constitution and fearcd dcstruction. But neither could it happcn that thelsould seck anl thing at all unless ther, had sclf-awareness and thcrebl- self-lorc.So onc must rcalisc that it is self-ftlrc which prolidcs the primar) motivation.(r7) '\{ost Stoics do not belie\,c thnt pleasurc should bc ranked irmong thenirtural principlcs - I passionatcll agree. If it $ cre othcnrisc, if nature \\-ercthought to hare includcd pleirsurc itmongst the prinirr objccts of desilc.then a host of loathsomc conscquenccs sould follor-. As to uhl r'r c lorcthosc objcctii lhich br naturc rre lirst take up, thc follrling is sufficientexplanation: anyone, givcn thc choicc, lrluld prefer all thc prrts of thcir'bodl to bc s,cll adaptcd and sound rathel than of equal utilitl but impailedand tlvisted.'Nos cognitions (rrhich rre mal call graspings or pcrceir,ings, ori if thcscterms irre dis;rgreelblc or obscurc, "cirtalepscs" from thc Grcek) rvc consider'\\orth rttaininin thcir o$n fight, since the! harc nithin thcmsches anclemcnt that irs it rvele enfolds and cmbr:rces thc truth. This ma1 be scen inthc crse of thc loung rrhom le can obserlc taking; delight in har ing; lorkcdsomething out for thcmschcs clen where therc is no ultcrior moti\c. (r8) \\ealso bclierc that the scicnces should be tlkcn up for their otn sake, lirstllbccausc l'hat thel contrin is somhl of adoption, and sccondl) becxuse thelconsist of cognitions and embrirce a bodl of tork cstablished bl slsrcmati,,rcasoning.e As for irssenting to \rhat is false, the Stoics hold th:rt r.rf:rll thingsthat are against nlture, this is thc most repugnant to us.

f['Of the nrcmbcrs or parts ofthc bod1, some appcar to hare bccn bestowcclbl naturc for thcir oln usefulness, such as hands, legJs and fcet, and also theirternal organs, though the ertent of thcir utilin is a matter fbr dispute o cnrmonst doctors. Othel palts, though, hare no apparcnt utilitl and are thcrcas a kind ofdecolation, lix cxamplc the pcacock's tail, the dove's plumagc thatchanges colour, ancl thc nipples and beard of the adult malc.ll'(rg) '\,I1 exposition has pcrhaps bccn rathcl thlcrdbarc. I have bccnclealing rvith rlhat might bc crllcd thc basic clcmcnts of naturc, and a fullness$ lhis.rnri Epicurcan point hus bcen used inbooLn. lo; inbool\,2+-tl \ntiochus gree'.The shled idca is that to c\plain rhe rpproprirtcncss ol an rnimrl s or lnbr's lcsponses iithilc kr rssunre rhrt the aninrrl or b:rb] is bi nging ro dic siir.rtioD some c( 'ne'cpri( )n of thc kintiol rhing it is. not mcrell r'circtirrg to pxrlic!Llnr encountels r ith plcrsure ,rrd p.rin." \ cognit;on is r grtrsp of ,r lirct, r grusp \hich could nol bc \ rong (xnd thus rnounrs n) \\ har$c \r(,uld c:rll Lno$lcdgc of thit fict). 1s rhese trrc Iinlecl b! s\stcDr.tic rcrsoning, rhe\ build

up into the rrrxe srstcmatie lno\\ledsc Ihrt constitutcs rhc scienc!s or brinches of lno\ lcd!.r" 'l his plrrgrnph is brnckctcd b\ thc OC'f rs it hr$ no rele\ince ro its conrcrt.

7o


7/25

Baok III,rt strle is thcrcforc scarcell appropriatc. In anl case I lm not nrirclccl ro.rttcmpt it. Nonethcless, \'hcn one discourses on lir',rndcr thcmcs. thc \cr\arpic carrics thc langu.rgc along lith it. l'hc more leightl the c(ntcnt, thcarorc brilliant the stlle.''-[ust irs lou sa1', I rcplied. 'But still, in m1 r'icl, $ hcn ir $orthr theme i5crpoundcd s ith claritl, it is thercbl erpoundcd u ith clistinction. It is surchihildish to tant to discuss a to;ric of the prcsent sort in ir rhctolical st lc. For,,nc of lcarning rrnd intclligcncc, r clcar rrnd straightfolsard erposition is therim.'(zo) "fhcn let us mor.e on', srrid C:rto.'\1'e halc becn tlig-r'essing liom thcnltural principles, lnd it is lith thcse thrt uhrrt fbllols n'rust cohcre. \\ehegin *ith a chssilicntion: thc Stoics cirll "r rrlulble" (this. I think, is thc tern'rrre should use) r'hatelcr is cither itsclf in accordance tith nature, or brings.ri)out somcthinli that is. \\irrthl of selection, thercfbre, is s,hatcr er hirs sufli-.ient importxnce to be \r,orth\ of laluc (r'aluc tlre Stoics call a]irr). On thc,rrhcr hand, thel-call "non-virluirble" rlhat is contru\ to the abo';c.'l'hc stllt-ing point, thercfrrr e, is tlut things in rrccorclancc u ith nature arc to bc ltkrptctltirl thcir o*n s.rkc, irnd thcil contraries arc likelr- isc to bc rcjcctccl.li)'\\iith this established. thc initial "rpplopriate action" (this is n hat I crrllrhc GlccL lrilhilar) is to preservc oncself in one's nltural constitution. 'lhcnert is to trke Nhat is il lccorclancc \\ ith llirture rnd rc;cct ils oppositc. Oncerhis method of selcction (and likctisc rcjection) has bcen discolcred, selcc-rion then gocs hlnd in h;rnd \1 ith :rpproplirrte rction.'l'hcn such selcctionbecomes continuous, tlnd, llnnll\, strblc rntl in agreement r ith nxtulc. -\t thisp()int that \i hich can truil bc srtid to be good first irppcu s irncl is recognizedlbr $hat it is.(zr)',1 hunran being's eallicst conccrn is firr shirt is in irccordancc sithnitturc. But as soon xs one bas girincd some undcrstirnding, ol lirthcl "conccp-rion" (nhat thc Stoics call ennait), and sees iur ordcr ancl as it rlerc concor-rl:lncc in thc things l hich olc ought to clo, onc thcn lalues that concordancenruch mole highlr than tirosc hrst objects ol':rlTcction. llcncc thtough lcrrn-ing rncl Leason olc concluclcs thirt this is thc phce to 6nd thc supreme humirnrood, that gootl s hich is to be pnisecl lnd sought on its ol n irccount.lr 1'hisliood lies in * hrt thc Stoics clll iarr/agia. Let us usc thc tcrm "consistencr ",il vou apprrlrc. Hercin lics thirt liood, n:rmcll moral action rnd trrorillitJitsell, .rt thich elcrlthing clsc ought b l)c dirccted. 'l'hough it is a lrter: 'l'hings other thrn rirruc. li)r rlrc Sto;cs.,rc not g(nrd. r)r ro be choscn'. bur br\c rheil o\nLind of'sclectir c' r rluc: \c h.l\ r- rcrson to sclcct fur rciccr) rhcrr. sincc rhc\ irc h rcco(hncc{ilh our nfl rc (r'not). 11 is irr dc\cl(4)ing thr trll\ rc sebcr rhcm rlur Nc tll.e lcd to rc(otr-nizc\ir1uc,\rhichisSoo(lrndrohechoscn.hr\ingddiflcrcnttnal(,ilrluellr)n]ihcLin(lrhclr\\crlcrelopfronrrlluingourrc.rsoningrrsame,rnsrorcquirirgthingsrirhscl$tirc\rluc,lilic

herlthrndrcrlth,tosccingthxtihisrcisoningisrhconllthirgralu'rblc its o\D r;ght.'l'hisrttitude isirlcntjfied lith rilruc, rathcrsnilih;'rs r'1lcrr, thc nroc !s nurc pliusiblr \\hrr) hrrrsecn ir thc contcrt olothcr Sn)ie idcis. such is s,rci.rl rft,r,ris .

71


8/25

0n,lloral l')nlsder clopment, it is nonc the lcss the onlr thing to bc sought in r irtue ofits ol nposcr and \1orth, \\,hctqrs nonc of thc plimall objccts of nature is to besought on its osn itccount.(zz) '\\'hat I have c lcd "appropriate actions" otigin.rre lrom naturc'sst 'ting points, and so thc fbrmcr must llc dirccted to$ alds thc latter. 'l'husit ma1 rightll bc srrid that all approprirtc actions ar-e iimcd at our attainingthe n:rtural principlcs- It docs not mcirn, ho$crer', that this irtt:rinmcnr is ourultitnirtc good, since mor:lI rction is not inclucled rrmon!i oul oligintl nttulnl;rtt:lchmcnts. l{|ther', such action is a conscqucncc tnd il l:ltcl' det clr4rment, asI said. But it too is in accordirnce Nith nature irnd, to a fir glcatcr e\tcnt thanlll thu rLrrlier objeets, stimuldlcs uur pursui[.

'Hcrc, though, one must jmmcdirtelr iuoicl thc error of thinking thAt thcthcrlrl is committcd to there being t\\'o ultim.ltc goods. Tirkc thc casc of onc*hosc task it is to shoot a speu or itro\! strnight ilt somc tiu!,..ct. Onc's uki-mirte irim is to do all in onc's po\cr to shoot str':riliht, irnd the samc appliesl ith our ultimate grxrd. In this kind of cr.lmplc, it is to shoot stririliht that onemust do all one can; nonc thc lcss, it is to clo all onc can to accomPlish thc t.6kthatis rcall) thc ultimatc ain, It is Iust thc sanrc l ith rr hat l e call thc suprcmcgood in lif'c. To rctuall) hit thc targct is, as se sar, tr) be sclccted bur lrotsought.l2(23)'Sincc all appropriatc irctions oligtinatc fiom the naturll principles, sotoo must sisdom itscll Nos it often happens that \rhen onq is introclucecl tosomcone, onc comes to rllue that person nlrrc highll thin one docs thepcrson \rlro madc the introduction. Similalll it is the strrrting points r-r1-nirture \\lrich lilst introducc us to \\isdom, bur it is no surprise that .\\'e thencomc to chcrish risdonr hcrsclf lil nrorc than \rc do those objccts br shich\1c qlnrc to her'. 1he bodill P:uts that \'\'e iuc ui\'en iue er iclcntll giicn tl) usfol sonrc prrticular s a1


9/25

Rook lIIures of virtue. Onlr tisdom is dirccted at itsclf in its cntirctl; this is not thcc,rse rith othcr ar ts.ll(25) 'Nos it is foolish to compiue the goal of rr isclom rvith that of meclicineor navigation. \Visdom embrrces magnanimitl rnd justicc, and juclgcs itsclt'supcrior to rnl thing l hich might bcfall a pcrson. 'lhis is not a fcaturc of thcothcr arts. lndccd no one could att:rin those \.er1 r irtucs that I just mentioncd\\ ithout dctermining thlt rll things are indiflcrcnt :tncl indistinguisluble fi on',nc rlnothcl c\ecll lor r iltur rnd r ie,..(26)'Let us nos see hol cridcnth thc fbllosing points f'los f'rttm lhat IhLne just liricl doln.r{'lhe linal nim (l think yru rcalizc it is the Grcck sordtr,/as I halc long bccl translating, somctimcs irs llrat is "finll", somctimcs''ultimate" irnd somctimes "suprcme", though onc ma1 also usc "cnd" folrr hrt is finrl or ultimate) - thc finll rrim, then, is to lire consistcntll and h:rr-moniousll u ith naturc. 1'his being so, all rr ho alc t ise ncccssarilv live happl'pcrfect lnd trlcssed liles, tith no impedime:rt or obstlclc, lacking nothing.'l'hc controlling idca bchind not onll thc phikrsophicai slstcm I am discuss-ing but our li\cs rnd clcstinics too is the belicf that shirt is moral is thc onlr'qood.rj This itlea crn bc claboratccl rnd drcssed up in lhctotical stl le, s ith rrnlbundant outpouling of evcrl choicc phrirse and rrcightl sentjment. Ihosercr prcfcr thc blief aud pointcd rral in lhich thc Stoics c\plcss thcit'''conscclucnces",

(27) '-fhcir' irgumcnts, thcD, rle summrrized in thc fbllol ingi srllop;ism:rr hrrter er is g


10/25

0n Moral E sis the onc that is normallr challenged. There is no disagrecmenr thar'$hat-elcr is pririsc$ orthl is moral. But it rvoulcl bc the height of absurdity for thcrcto bc a good that should not be sought; or somcthing to bc sought \rhich $asnot pleasing, or pleasing but not \rorthy of choicc, and so also commenclable.and so also praisc\\orth\; but thcn it is moral. So it is the case that whatevcris good is also moral.(28) 'Ncrt, I ask, can anlonc be proud of a lifc thrrt is miserable or nothappl'l It follols that onll a happt life is a soulcc of pride. Hencc a happllifc, if I mal put it this rra1, dcsen cs to be takcn pridc in, and this can onllrighth happen s'ith a life that is morll. So it is thc case that the moral lifc isthc happl lifc. One uho justiliabll' r'ins praisc has outstandingl cause forhonour and pride; rnd thesc in turn arc potcrful enough to makc one happ\on thcir o\rn account. So the lifc of such a person u,ill quite rightlv be cnlledhapp1. Hcnce, ifa happl life is marked out bl its moralin, onll lhat is moralshould be leglclcd as goocl.

(zg) '\krreorcr, unlcss it is cstablishcd thirt pain is not an cvil, it is undcni-abl) the crsc that no onc of steadfast, constrnt tnd loftl spirit such as $'ecall "brar e" - could evcr crist. One lho counts clcath an cr il can nelcr fail tobc afiaid of it. So $ ith anl thing, one cannot scoln or disrelitrd \,i hirt onc hasclcciclcd is an elil.'fhis is a hrpothcsis that commirnds unilcrsal irssent. \\ealso ilssumc thilt a brlvc ancl loftr spilit has no respcct ot regxld for anl ofthcmisfurtuncs likcll to befall rr human being. This bcing so, it lbllols that thcrcis no eril ercept lhirt is immoral.'\tr'hat llc arc tn ingJ to producc, I tell rlu, rhc objcct of our search, is rperson noblc and distinguished, l lofty spirit, trull bralc, rho mrkcs lighr ofrll hunan r icissitudcs ancl lcgarcls thcnr as insignificant. Such a person mustsurell harc sclf'-confidence as lcll as confidencc in thcir lif'c both past antlfutulc; high sclf-cstcern ancl thc liel th:1r norhirg bad can belall the s.ise.l'-rom this irrgumcnt too onc can scc thirt \\ h|t is moral is thc onll gootl, andthat to lilc happill is to lilc morlllr, thar is, \'irh fir.rue.rT(ro)'\or I arn rvell rrl ue that therc lrc dillcrenccs ofopinion amongst thelarious philosophers $ ho loelrcd thc supremc good (t hat I crrll thc ultimategood)rs in thc mind. Some o1'thcse philosophers' r'ie.n s u.c fJilrecl. None thcr; C.rtrr is nor claining thrt thcre nre:rdutrll\ iirntrus pcoplc;uouncl. but thrr \c (lo h1r\c rhc

idcnl ofsucb cour:rge.rn(l r irruc. so thrr thcorics establishing less thrrn rhis f.ril to tlo jusricc roour Lo'rs lered ric$s.r3 I n jo r Cr to rcfels bricil to Cnr.ne.rdes' tlirision (sec I n rrod ucdon. pp. \\iii-rr!ii). I Ic bcgins\riIh those \rho issulne thrrt our 6nal good rquircs rgrsoning. not just thc use of thc stnses.Flc rejccts final goods rhich erclude rir.ruc. or.inclurlc it in crnbin.rrion wirh xnorher ircm.llc rlistinguishes rlrc mrinsrc.nr Sroic !ic$ from thc ercosirch inrellccturt ric\ of\irruchcld (rllege(lh ) b\ Billus. and rhc rllcged \ irs of \ri\ro. thrr !;ruc hrs \llue iD i \\r\ rbrtrenders crcr\1h;ng ehe uttcrh in.eleranr lirr h,rpprnc\\ (S(( hoot ii. nurc -to ) Fl( (,'n.:tuLlesb\ insisring rhat nrrinstrcnD Sroicism c\rdes rhc dilemmr C:iccro susgesred. ro rr.'IheSroics hold lhat rirtuc is thc onh s^ood. but rrc nor commitrcd ro ig-rloring ererlrh;ng clsc:rirtue is ercrciscd in mlling choit'cs.rnrong thin5 th.rt arc naturalh prcferrblc li,r us or nor(thus in liringconsisrentl\ \'irh nrrurc).

11


11/25

Book IIIless, I still rank them abovc trrtr othcr classes of philosophcr Thc lirst, rviththrcc members, regards virtue as distinct from the supreme good, and iden-tifies the latter u,ith pleasurc, or frcedom from pain, or the primarl objccts ofnature. The second, also numbering three, considers virtue inadequatervithout somc further good; and so adds on one ofthe three items I just men-tioned. An1' philosopher, of whatever kind, who locates the supreme good inthe mind and in virtue, is to be prcferred.(3r) 'It is, horvevcr', an absurd philosophical position to declare that the ulti-mate good is to livc knou,lcdgeabll'; or that all things are indifferent, and thewise person will be happy in not ranliing an_vthing abore anything else tothe slightest degree. Absurd too is the supposed view ofthe Academ-r* that thefinal good and suprcmc duty of the l'ise person is to resist appearanccs rndresolutell' withhold assent to thcm.'The usual procedure is to lespond at lcngth to each of these latter posi-tions in turn. But obvious ripostes do not need to be long ones. It is perfectlyclear that if one does arvay with thc notion of choosing bet$'ccn Nhat is inaccordance with nature and what is againsr, then thar highly sought after andhallorved virtue of practical reason rvill be completell' abolished. Hcnce wceliminate the positions I just set out and anl likthem. \\ihat remains is thatthc supreme good is to live applling one's knos,ledge of the natural order,secting what accords (ith nature, and rejecting $,hat is contrarl,. This iswhat it is to livc consistcntly and harmoniousll- $,ith nature.(32) [['Nol in the case of the other arts, the term "artistic" should in asense be considered applicablc on11'subsequent to and as a rcsult ofthe acti\ity in qucstion lvhat the Stoics call epigenntnatikon The tcrm "wise", onthe other hand, is quite properly applied at the outset of a $'isc act. Every actthat the rvisc person initiates must be immediatell- cornplete in all its parts,sincc rve say that the desirablc end is located vlithin the act. Some things arejudged wrong by rcference to their outcomes betraying one's countrl',assaulting onc's parents, robbing temples; but fear, grief and lust are wronglvithout reference to outcome. These latter, then, arc wrong not so much intheir subsequcnt effects as in their original and immediate nature. So too anact motiratcd by virtue should be judged as right at its inccption, not its completion.llr'(33)'The term "good", uscd so much in this discussion, may also be clarified by a dcfinition. The Stoics define it in a number of slightll' differentrval's, rvhich nonc the less point in thc samc direction. I side rvith Diogenes indefining the good as what is complete b! nature.re Following on from that, healso stated that the "beneficial" (as one might rendcr the Grcek |lrhelima) isD ltr Diogenes of Babylon see book r note 7. Simil,rr dcfinitions of good crn be fouDd atDiogcnes Lacrtius 7.9,t Ior, and Arius Didlmus in Stobaeus, t,tusrr 2,5d 5m. \\rhat is good'is rhat benefits in thc most basic r'.r1: \\'c necd r.rtional infcrcncc ro reach the notion ofgood,

since ir has r laluc $hich is dilTcrcnt in kind from nhat ne halc encountered in cxpericncc.r' This paragraph is bnckIed bI the OCT as it has no rcler ancc to its contcrt. Sce n 13 abolc

'75


12/25

Ott,'l'loral lintlsmo\cment or rest $hich originates from Nhat is completc b1- naturc.(jonceptions of things rrlc for med in our minds bl larious cognitire proccsscs: erpcricnce, associxtion of ideas, anrlogr; r'ltional inferencc. Ournotion of thc go'od is si|en br thc fourth and last of thqsc. Br thc proccss ofrational inlercncc our mincl ascends fiom thosc things $hich arc in accor-dancc \\'ith nirturc to a conccption of the liood.(34) 'It is not br irddition or crtension or comparison s ith other objects that1\,e hllc :r\\'arencss of this g;ood in itself, and clll it good, but b1 rcfcrencc toits o* n propcr qullin. I{oncv is the srleetest thing; but it is pcrcci\.cd as swectthrough its oNn pirticular kind of llarour, and not bl compalison l ith otherfbods. In thc samc lnl thc liood uc are discussing is suprcmclr lalulblc, butits laluc is a mattcr of kind, not quantin-. \hluc (thc Grcck a.rirr) is notcountcd amongst goods nor again nmongst elils, so it l ill lemlin in its otvncirte!ior\, ho\\'ercr nuch lou add to it. Hcnce the particular $aluc of {irtue iscliitinct: l nratt


13/25

Book IIIments of the hcarenh bodics. \\'hatevcr barbarian st:rndards onc livcs b\,hosevcr absolutcll one might bc sct lgainst scicntific pursuits, no onc couldfind such forthJ objects of stud]- rcpugnant in themselves and scck them onllas a merns to some plcasute or adlantage, and othcr$ ise virlue them rt nought.\\iho can fail to contemplate sith dclight the noblc dccds and rrise nords ofthc \'laximus and Africanus families, or ofml os n great-grandfathcr - a mannever fir from voul lips - :rnd mln! othcr outstandinglv brar c and distin-guished men?rr

(38) 'On thc other-hand, no onc ruiscd in a good familr and brought up s ithdcccncl can fail to be sickencd b"r inmoral bchl iour in its orvn right, r'cgarcl-less ofu hcther such bchlviour causcs onesclfhllm. It is impossiblc to regartllith cquanimirl onc lho lires a sordid and profligatc lifc; impossible toapplove ofsqualicl, cmpt\ -hcadcd, ficlile or unffust\\orth) peoplc. One mustdeclale that immoralitl is to bc shunned on its o\rn account; othersisc thereis nothing to be said apiainst those s ho act dislcputabll but do so alone orundcl cor cr of dirrkncss. '.fhc onll clcterrent hcrc is thlt immclrirl bchaviour'is hidcous in itsell I could go on encllesslv in suppolt of this vie*, but thercis no necd. \othing is morc ccrtain than that nroralitl is to bc sought for itsorvn sirke, and immoralitl Iilel isc :rroided.

(39)'Norv lc carlicr esttblished thc point that \\'hat is moral is the onl1.goocl- From this it cannot but be undclstood that moralitl has a higher r aluethan those intcrmecliate objccts which it procurcs. \1.e also sav th;rt lixrlish-ncss, coualdice, irjusticc and intemperance are to be ar oi


14/25

On Moral Endssilent assent. Exposition of such simplistic ideas is hardlv a mattcr of greateffort for them.)

'l am concentrating closcly on rvhat you sa1', and committing to memorl allof the vocabulary "lou arc using to exprcss youl themes. It may lell be that Ishall have to make usc of it myself.22 In ml view your choice of "vices" as thecontrary of "r'irtues" is absolutely right, and in the idiom of our language.Whatever is "vitupcrable" in its orvn right is thereby called "vice", or perhaps"to bc vitupcrated" is delived from "vice". If 5'ou had rendered "huhia" as"badness", Latin idiom would have pointed us towards one particular vice.dAs things are, vice is the correct contrary for lirtue in general.'(4r) Cato then continued: '\(ith these principles establishcd, thcrc follo$'sa great controyers]-. It was handled rather ueaklr by the Peripatctics, s'hose

ignorance of dialectic makes their usual way of arguing somethat less thanacutc.ll Your beloved Carneades, holvevel with his cxceptional proficienc5' indialectic and his porvcrful cloqucncc, brought the matter to a real hcad. Hclould tirelessly contend that on the $,hole issue knorvn as "the problcm ofgood and evil" there lvas no dispute betl,een the Stoics and the Peripateticsother than a verbal one.

'To m"r' mind nothing could be more oblious than that thc disputc bcts,centhese schools is substantial rather than verbal. The difference, I assert,between Stoics and Peripatetics is far more a matter of ideas than language.rlAftcr all, thc Pelipatetics claim that the whole range ofthings thich, as far asthey are concerncd, arc to be called good, contribute to a happy lifel lvhercasrve Stoics denl' that a thing's having some valuc makes it constitutir,e of sucha life.(42) 'The theory that regards pain as an evil has this certain consequence:thc $,ise person cannot be happl \l'hen bcing toltured on the rack. The theorlthat docs not consider pain an evil carries the cqually inevitablc conclusion?: In cr-rmplimcnting Cato on his excellent uanslarions, Ciccro is of cour.se congnrularinghimsell In tbe nronths filllo$ing hc $as to $rite several more philosophical ro.ks - sccChronology He rlso sneers rt thc st\le ofrhe Epicureans.rr Cato can hardly be refcrring to Aristotle, Nho inlenred logic, or.ro his pupil ThcophrNsrus,\rho cxtcnded it; he must htc in rrind later heads of rhc school, $ho losr intcrcst in logiecl book \, r3-r.t.rr Cato nor mccts hcad-oD theargumcnr rhrtStoicand Aristotclian thcorics differonlv lcrbalh:IhckinJol\alue,h


15/25

Buolt IIIihit the \\isc pcrson's life rcmains happr $hateler the tormcnts. Thc samc]r'rin is bornc morc casill shcn cndured for the srkc ofone's countrl thrn fol.ome lcss rvorthl cause. This sho\\'s thrt it is one's attitude, not its o\\ n nlturc,rrhich makes pain more or less intcnse.2s

(43) 'Thc Pcr'\ratctic r-ie$ is that thcrc xlc thrcc kinds of goods, :rnd thirtrhe richer one is in bodil-r or erternal goods, the happicr But it is hardh con-\istent for us Stoics to agrec that posscssion of $'hat is grcatl\' \'.lucd \\'itllrcg-ard to the bodl mikes one hxppicr. Thc Periparetics think that no life iscomplctell' happr rrithout bodill ucll-bcing. \\'c Stoics could not agrce lcss.In oul opinion it is not an abundrncc evcn of those gioods s hich tre rcrlll docrll good that makes ir diffcrcncc to thc hlppincss, dcsir.rbilitl or ralue ofone's life. So shcn it comes to a happl life, thc amount of bodilr advrntageshls no relcr-lnce at all.(44) 'If l isdom and health are both rvorth sccking, thcn the t\\o togcther.lrc more \\'orth sceking than uisdom alonc. But if cach commancls sontcr alue, it does not fbllon that thc trro tugethcr are North morc tban $ isdom onits oln. In judging thlt health comnlnds i ccrtilin virhe, but not dccming ita good, rre thelcbr considct that thcrc is no r rluc grcat cnoug5h to takc prcc-cdcncc ovcr r-irtue. 'l'his is not the Pclipatctic position. 'Ihel have to sirl thrrtnn act that is both r irtuous rnd painlcss is morc \\orth sccking than ir \ irtu-ous lct accompuied br pain. \\'e think difTcrentll. \\rhcthcl rightll or'nlongll is lr qucstion to be considelcd hter. liut thcre could hrrdll be agreatcr dillcrencc bet\een the t\o |icNs.(45) 'It is like thc light of n lamp eclipsed ancl oblitcrated bl thc r;r1s of thesun; likc a d|op 0f hone\ lost in thc rirstncss of thc -\cgean sca; a pcnnr addcdto thc richcs of Croesus, or l singlc stcp on the roird fi om hcre to Indil. Suchis the r aluc of bodill goods that it is unaloiclabll eclipsed, ovcrl helmcd irnddestrorccl l-rl thc splcndour and grandcur of virtuc ls the Stoic canditlrte lilrthc highcst good.16'Ripcness (this is ho* I trrnslirtc rirl'ai).ia) does not incrcirsc sith length oftimc, bcci,ruse sirat is cllled "r'ipe" hirs rcirched its full mersure. In thc slmcnar riglht conduct (this is ho* I trlnslate Latorthisis, ftoto]thinu berng f,i'lindilidual right act) - dght corcluct, irs I sr1, consistcncl likel ise. and goocl-ness itsclf, r'hich is fcrund in one's being in harmonl l ith nlture, do not admitof cumullti\c enlnrgcmcrt. (46) LiLe ripencss, theiic fcNtures lhich I amr: \risrotlctsiccdismissesth.idrithin\;rtucissutlicicnrli,rhippincss(.\io tu,h ttht'tt.5 llnd 7. r t)since rhis $olrld irnph rhri the \ irtuolrs person on tbc lacl roLrld bc btrpp\', { hichhc rcganls rrs obrioush absurd. Gro hcre rcgards ir rs;r prinu lircie obiection to 'r drcorl thrtit cloes rar hold thar thc rir mrLrs pcrsor on thc rack is hnpp\. I le thiilis it ob\ idrs rlrrr piin;n ;rsclf is nor significxnt; it depcnds on the pcrwrn\ rtrirude ro it and the rolc iI plx\ s in hisliter" tbrthcSroics\;riuerndcon\entionrl'goods'areinvmcralinconnrcnsulrblc.'fhe.rnalogirs hcrc nrnl,e ii sccn1 trs thouuh $ htu this conrcs to is rh thcl ire inc(,mpartrble in quanrir\l.rrhcr rlin difiercnt nr kind. rlthough tbe prc\ioLrs account ol ho\ \c conre to icqLrir! the

conccpt ol rinue suggrsred thc lattcr'.

/'9


16/25

On.l,lorul Enls

spcxking of do not bcconc grertcr'orcl timc. That is u,h11 firt thc Stoics, ahappr lifc is no morc dcsirablc or $orth sceking if long than if shom. 'lhe]use thc follovinei comprrison: a shoc is iudgcd b1 horv ucll it lits thc fbot.N{an1 shoes iuc no better thxn fc\1, ltreiel no bcttct th:rn smallcl. So t


17/25

Brnl'lllrhirt is not N good can be csscntirl fbr an] thing thlt is a good. r-orr thoughtlnd unclc|standing iue thc b:rsis o1'elel\ art rnd stinlulatc our desile. IJtLtjincc \\eilth d()cs not count ils ir g)od, it cannot bc csscntinl fol iln\ illt. (5o)fllcn if this point t elc conccdcd fur the othel arts. thc case of \ irtuc \\oulcl'tillbedifiercnt.\'iltuercqlLircsx\rstalnountofstudJirnde\pcricncc,$hichrhc other arts do not. -\ Lrcor cL r irtuc dcmancls Iifc long sterdiness, lirmncssof purposc lnd consistencl, s hich is er iclentll not so l ith thc othcr arts.'Nest I shall crpound our p: inciple of rtnking. If nothing ranLecl above.ln\ thinsi eisc, the \\ holc of lifc rrluld bc thr o$ n into chaos, as it is b1 .\risto.il\\'isdom tould ltlre no tolc oL function. since tl'tcte srruld be:ro dill-elencc\ hatsocler bctNecn anl of the things thirt pertain to thc conduct of lifc, and\o no mctlrod of ch(rrsing coulcl prt4rclll bc applied. It bas been $cll estlblishccl that sh:rt is mrlral is the onh good ancl shirt is immorll thc onll oil,but :rs lirr those itcms rhich hu e no bcirring on s hcther one lir es haltpih ormisclrrbll, thc Stoics thcr dctclmincd r certain lankittg lnt)nli thenr. Somchlr e positile r irluc, some thc opposjtc. othcr$ :ue ncutral.

(5r ) 'Fbl somc. though not all, of the itcms s hich arc r irluitblc, therc is gioodrenson to prefcr thcn to othcl things. ns is the cisc \\ith hcalth, $cll-func-ti(lnin!i scnscs, ticcdom firrm pain, honour, le:rlth and so on. Likcrr isc, u iththc itcms \\'hich lrrc not dcser'\'ing of lillue, somc offer good rcison to rcjecttlrcm - fbl erlmplc plin. illncss, Joss {)f a scnse, polclq, iginonrinl ancl sofirrth - n lrile othcrs clo not. This is the sourcc of Zcno's ternr prori{nenon, andits contr:r11 a2alioeglrrrral. Rx all the irbunclancc of thc Greek langu,rge, hestill arailetl himself of ncrr arcl :rltificial lrlds, somcthing not irlkrl'ed us,dcspitc our thrcidblte Littin tongue though \r)u :uc in the habit of sal in5that Lrtin is actualll mole rbundlnt than G:'eck. Nonc the less, it s ill not bcout of pllcc tcr crplirin Zeno's rcason fol ldopting thc tclm 2 tuili e o , sincethislill mirke its mc:rning more rcldill undcrstood.(52) !\t coult. say s Zenu, no onc spcaks of the kiny,.., nith reg:rld to r;rnk, irsbeing "pr-cfenecl" (that is uhrrt l/"l3rtrrra mcans). l'he tetm is appliccl tothose \ho holcl irn oliice thich, shile loscr in otdcr, lpproaches ncrrest tothc pre-emincncc of a king. So roo in life, it is not thc itenrs thrrt occupl thclir st llnL, but rnthcr thc sccoud, n hich shor,rld bc crllecl 2r'ar'.9rtrra - that is,"prcferrccl". (1'his is thc tcrn lc mat usc - it is litcrll. \lternrtilc)1, "lrtomotcd" ind "dcmotcd", or as l e har e long sirid, ":rcllirntlgeous" or' "supcr-ior'", and "to bc rejcctcd" lor the opposite. lf the rncirningi is undcrst


18/25

On Moral Enltrve call adr antlgeous ur supclior must be s hat is neithcr goocl nor bad. I Iencenc definc this as "indiffcrent" (it occuls to me thit I should render thcil termuliutrhoron x "inclift'erent") but *ith r modcrlte value. It hrrd to be the cirscthat thcre \\.clc somc things left in the middlc that rould bc eithcr in accor'-dancc $ith niltul'c ol not. 'fhis being so, thcrc $ere bouncl to be incluclcdirmonli thc former carcgor| items of somc raluc. And givcn this, thc|c had tobe somc things th:rt Ncrs xdrantirgcous.(5.1)'Thus thc distinction rrc arc discussing is a corrcct onc, rnd thc Stoicsoffcr thc follorr ing analogr to facilitate comprchension: assumc (thcr sa\) thltour'6nll cnd \as to thro$: the Lnucklc-bonc so thit it sttled upright. -\knucllc-bone thro$n so as to lunl uplight will halc some advantagc lithregud to rrchicling this cnd; onc thros-n othcruisc son'rc disadr,:rntrgc. Butthe "adr antirgc" of tl'rc knuckle-bonc t ill not constitutc the cncl I hnre men-tioncd. In the samc \\"n\, the actuirl ird\ilntagcous itcms ilrc certirinll relcrirntto achic\ ing the end, but do not constitute its csscnce and n.lturc.rl(55) '\.-e\t comcs the fbllos ing dir ision: somc goods ;rre "constitutir c ol-thc li nal cnd" (this is hol l rcndc: rr hat thcr- call lc,/ilr. Hele rr c mlv dccidc.as agreed firr the sake of intelligibilit\, to use selerill \\'ords \!herc one qrnnorscrle); somc arc "productilc" (the Greck2alllr,{,a), ancl others arc both.ii Thconll constitutirc goods:ue noral acts; thc onl\ procllrctir.e good is a fiicntl.But sisdom thel tlcclare to be both constituti\e tDCl plocluctirc. \\iisdom irharmonious action. rnd so is includcd in the constitutir c chss that I mclr-tioncd. But, in so litr ls it occasions and produces morirl acts, it can tre srid lobe productirc.

(56) "I'hosc items shich le cirll adrlntageous.;tre in somc cascs rd\lntilltcous in their os'n tight, in somc cascs instrumentilllr so, ancl in othcrs both.In thc first cirtegor') $ill bc a certain qunlitl of countcnancc and cripressioD.r certlin beirring, 4 certnin \\ irJ of mor ing - thesc irrc fcitures thnt might bradvantageous or disadlantirgeous. Othel things, for crlmplc monc1, are clllccladuntalieous becirusc thcl bling about somcthing else. Still others, tirrcxamplc scll functioning scnses ol good health, arc so callcd on bothtccounts.rr Thc knuctlrbonc cranr plc is non rrr hclp lirl. Thc point is clcar, h o\ c\ cr': prctcrrcd in d ifl ( rcnts are rclcrrnt k, thc rchic\cnrcnt ol h.rppincss (in rnorher Stoic imlog\'. rhe\ xrc tl.mntcrill for it). but clo n()l forln ptirt ol $h,rl hxtpincss (ssenri.rllr is (it is ichie\ cd b\' \ iriu.Nhich is thc skillofputting nrrtcriils ro !rsc).rr Ilappincss consists in hr\ing Sood things. sincc thcse bcnetit us. Onlr \iftuc is good iD rl:.propcr scnsci hencc r-rnlr \irtttc bcDclits us irnd rendcrs us h.rpp). Ho$ercr, the Stoics rrt '

retain, and to trrnslbrn in thcir osn lcrms. distinclions orclinarilt dr:r\D bcr\rcc'r ri\\hcinggoodrnd$pcsofCood.('Ihcritthcrrcadcmicmtrtcr;:rlofNhichthisistlne\an+l(.much fuller in 1)iogcncs Laertius ud .\ius Didr mus, our odrcr t$o sourccs for Stoic cthi..Somcthins ern bo good as i nreans to our linrl cnd or ns constiturinc iL \ irluous icridrs .i ,tlle onlr good thrt constitutes our linnl cnd (s;ncc that is a Iile ol rirtuous.rctilitr)i \is!t,':con*itutcs our 6nal cnd ind is also the nrerns to it, since it produccs choiccs ol \ir!u,,i.rcrions. I'hc onh rhing borh g('od. i.e. \ irt(,us. rnd prod ucti\ e ol \ ou'' Gn il cncl \rirhou r r .constituring it. is anothel person (rinuous, it is assumcd) $ hosc rclxtionship rr itlr rou gir,.\ou thc occision tbr !irruous cri\in.

8u


19/25

Baok III(57) 'As tar as good reputation is conccrned (nhat thel call udoit: ir tsrlore suitablc in thc prescnt context to tl'anslatc it as good reputation thtn asronour), Chrl'sippus himsclf and Diogenes uscd to sa1- that, asidc from lnl

instrumcntal benefit it mal havc, it \\as not [orth lifting a linger for'. I rbso-iutell'agrce. But thcir succcssors, unablc to handle Carncades, declirrecl th:rt: good reputation is advantagcous and sorthl of adoption in its onn right.Onc tho is fi'ec-born and * ell educated s ould rr ant to bc rvell thought of b1|irents, rclirtires, and good people in general, and this f


20/25

Ou Moral Endsadoptcd, and others rejectcd. So whatcrcr one does or says in this fashion rsincluded under appropriate action. This shols, sincc everyonc b"\ natureloves thcmselves, that the foolish no less than thc \aisc will adopt $hat is inaccordancc tith nature and reject rvhat is contraly. This is holv a certain kindof appropriatc action is common to both wisc and foolish, and it is hcrc thatits involvcment in $'hat \re call intermcdiates arises. (6o) From the latter allapprop ate actions procccd; and so it is rrith good reason that all our delib-el ations arc said to be dirccted at thcm, including thc clucstion of our dcpart-ing from life ol remaining alive.'It is the appropriate action to live when most of rvhat one has is in accor-dance n ith naturc. \\rhcn the opposite is the case, or is envisaged to be so, thenthc appropriate action is to depart from life. This shou,s that it is sometimesthe approp ate action firr thc wise person to depart from life though happltand the fool to remain in it though miserablc. (6r) Stoic good and cvil, rvhichI have now often mentioned, is a subsequent development. But the primarlobjccts of nature, n hether thel are in accordance t ith it or against, fall undcrthe judgemcnt of thc rvise person, and arc as it rvcrc thc subjcct and matelialof llisdom.'Thus the rhole rationale for either remaining in or departing from lif-cis to bc mcasured bl rcfclence to those intermediates that I mentionedabolc. One who is endorved q'ith virtue need not be detained in life, nornccdthose \rithout virtue seek death. Often the appropliate action for a $iscperson s'ill bc to depart from life u.hcn utterl5' happ1,, if this qn be donc ina timely wal'. Thc Stoics hold that living happill that is, living in harmonrl'ith nature - is a mattcr of timcliness.'And so thc lr'isc pcrson is instructedbl wisdom to rclinquish lisdom herscll ifit is opportune. No vice, then, ispotent enough to give a good reason for killing oncsell So cvidcntll', erenthe foolish, despitc bcing unhappl',lill act approprirtely by remaining alire.so long as they havc a prepondcrancc of l.hat we call things in accordance$ ith nature. 'l'he fool is equall-r' unhappy dead or alivc - prolongation docsnot make his life more undesirable. So thele is good reason for the riew thalone who can enjoy a b:rlance of natural advantages should stay alive.36(62)'Nolv the Stoics consider it important to realize that parents' lorc fortheir children arises naturalll'.37 From this starting-point we fface thc dcl cl'r' Although lirtue is the onll good .rnd vice the onll elil, it c.rn bc rcasonablc fbr thc riruou.pcrson to conrflit suicidc in sufiicientl_! unf ourablc circumstalces, \hich preclude a lilr,'.lirtuous rctitit\r'l'he topic is p,uticulrrl) .rppropri.rtc for Cato, lho committcd suicid.himsclf (sce Introduction, p. \ri). Scc IL Griffin, 'Philosophl Cato and Roman Suicidt.

Cn.t.'rd nnr, JJ (rrq6) 6--77. L): :o:.r; Abricfaccountof'social,r'tcirr'.$t.]lcborn{irhan.riur: instinct to lore our childrcr:.$ho are other hum.ms \t ho rrc'ouls'. As $e mrtule rs rr tion.rl bcin gs, rc cxtcnd this conccrrmorc \\ idclr', ;n $aJ-s Nhich trrnsform it in the process into an rttitudc of rrtionil corcern tl :rll r'.rtion.rl bcings." "l inrelincss' hcrc transhtes the same Latin $old (a t rott n itus) ^s 'tiperess' did in paragr .r ;''

84


21/25

]]oole IIIopmcnt of all human socict]'. It should be immediatell ob\ ious fi om the shiPernd thc parts of the hun]an bodt that procrcation is pirrt ofnaturc's plirn. .{Ddir lrruld h:rrdll be consistent for mturc to \\'ish us to plocreate I et bc indillcrent trs to $ hethcr' $c lor c our oft.spling. Er cn lrmon!i non-humrn irnimirls thelo\\el of nature is cvidcnt. \\ihcn sc obser\c the cffort thcl' dcvotc to brced-ing and rerrring, it is is if \\'c hear nature's lerr oln loice. 'fhus oul impulsero lovc lhat rc havc generated is gilcn b1 naturc hcrsclfas rnanif'estll as our'irr ersion to pain.(63)'This is llso the sourcc of thc muturl ancl n:ltural s\mpirthJ bct\\eenhumans, so that thc lelv lact of being human rcquires that oo humiln bc con-sidcrcd a strangier to irnv other. Somc of orrr botlill pilrts - fbt esirmple ourcr cs ancl ears - aLc as it Ncre creited iust fbr themselr es. Othcrs - lbr cramplelcgs rrnd hands - llso enhancc the utilitl of thc othel plrts. In the srmc rirl;celtain animrls of grclt size trc crc:ltcd mcreh frrr thcmsellcs. l3ut tlke theso-callccl "scir-pine", tidr its broail shcll, iuld the creaturc knosn lsthc 'trinc-glurd", bccruse it \\:rtches orer the sea-pinc, s$ imning out of thclatter's shcll rrnd bcing shut up insidc it \hcn it rctrcats, i'rs if apprrentllhar ing l irrnc


22/25

On .\Ioral Enlsgudrdians for thcir children shen dring. And thc fact that no one {'ouldchoose to live in splendid isolation, however *ell sr,rpplied rvith pleasurcs,shots thrt \\'c are born to join togethcl rnd associatc \rith one another andform natur;rl communitics. Intlecd \\e rre naturall] drilen to r.tant to hclp asmlnl people as possiblc, especialll b1-. tcaching and handing on thc pdnciplcsof practical rcason. (66) It is hald to frnd anlone l'ho docs not pass on u-hatthel know to somcone else. 'fhus ue hl\ c a propensitl for teaching as muchas for learning. Naturc has gircn bulls the instinct to defcnd thcil calresagainst lions sith immensc passion and folcc. In the samc \\'aJ; those sithgreat talcnt and the capacitl for achicremcnt, as is said of Hclcules andI-iber,le have a natural inclinirtion to hclp the hum:rn rircc.'Norr se also gir-eJupitcr thc names of "Greatcst" and "Highest"; le callhim our Saviour, our Sheltcr, our Defcntlcr lll this lc mean that oul secur-it1-as humirns rcsts r.ln his plotcction. But it is harclll consistent to ask for thccirre and lovc of the immortal gods thilc despising and neglecting cach other!\Vc usc thc parts of our bodt bcfore *c har-e lcrrrnccl thc actual rcasons n'h1vc lraYe thcm. In the same $ir1-it is b! nirture that re harc gathcred togethetand formcd ourscllcs into ciril societics. If things uclc not thrt \ral', therclould bc no phcc firr justicc or bcnerrrlence.(67) 'Bur though thcv hold that thcrc is ,r codc of las n hich binds humanstogcther, the Stoics do not consicler thrt an_r such cocle cxists bctr,ecnhumans and othcr animals.+rr (ihrl sippus made thc fimous lemark that allother things \rerc created for the sakc of humans and gods, but that humrnsand gods lere crcated for the sake of thcir os n communitl itnd socictl; anclso humans can use animals for their o*n bcncfit nith impunity Hc addcdthat human nature is such that r kind of cilil code mediltes the indilidurllnd thc human race: uhoever abidcs b1' this codc *ill bc just, thoevcrbreaches it unjust.'Nor although a theatrc is communal, it can still rig;htlr be said that the scatlhich one occupics is oners own. So, too, in citl or univcrsc, though these iuccommunalj thcre is no brcach of lan in an individurl olning plopettl:ar (68)Aiso, since \\'c obscrrc that humans rre born to protect and dcfcnd onc another,it is consistcnt sith human natulc lol the tise person to 1\-ant to take part ini" \lorrlizcd \ersions of Grcel and Roman nrrthrnogr. l'or Ilcrculcs sec bool x norc ?9. Ljbers.rs an ancicnt Roman lcrt;lit! god, regarded is r beneticto' for bringiDg ercps and Ninc n)1" Ihc Stoic mor:rl communitl, basctl on sharcd rc.rson, c\clLrdcs non-humin inimrls.Chqsipp s d re$ rhc s)nclusion rha t humans ha. c no dutics toN rrds n on-h umm nnturls. rndma\ usc thcm for thcir o$n nceds.1r 'Ihe S toics cla im tha t thc mor.rl com munin of rational bcin gs is conr pitible \ ith sone socirlconrcntions, including prir:rte prrpcrtr; although ;t is not clcxr \hcthe' thel hold rhis m bemcrell pcrmissiblc, cr to ha\c posific (sclcctire) \trluc. SccJ. Annis, 'Cicero on Stoic NlorilPhilosoph] ind Pd\xrePrcpcttt', Phih^athk! Tos,/d t J. Brrnes rnd \1. Grillin (eds.) Orford

r 989, r 5 r 7.1 . 'l hc trntr logy of thc dre,rtre seat has r clkcr conr cn tional implicirtions in thcGrcck thc.tre thrn in thc Roman thertrc, $ hich rlas i,h\ sicrllt d ilided br social cliss.86


23/25

Boole II Ithc busincss of gor,crnncnt, and, in liling br nature, to takc il spousc imd tol ish to har e children.+l Not clcn scrurrl plssion, so longJ as it is purc, is con-sidcred to bc incompatiblc *ith bcing s isc.{j Somc Stoics sal that thc C-r nics'philosophl and l ar of lit'e is suitablc for the \ ise pe! son, should circumstanceslrisc conducire to its prircticc. But othels rule this out altolicther.l+

(69) ''lb plcserrc socictr', unitl and aft'ection bctl ecn all human beings, thcStoics dcemed both "bcne6ts" irnd "losscs" (r'hat thcl crlled iphtllnatt andhlanuotu) to be sharcd, the formcr being hclpful, thc lxttcr harmful. Nor\\cre thc\ rlcrelr shlucd, but sithin each cltcg;on-equll to one another.''Conrcnienccs" ancl "inconvcniences" (this is hot l ttrnsl,{e euchistiuutttnd ltxhrtstitrtrrtu) thel dccmccl to bc shrrlcd but not cqual. l\'hat is helpfulor hlrmful is good orbad respectir elr; irnd so nrust bc equal. But conlcnicncesind inconrelricnces f-all under the catcgon of lhirt is adlirntrgcous or to bcrejectcd, ancl thc nenrbers ol each ol'thcsc categories ncccl not be equal.Flouerer, tlrough bcnefits lnd losscs rrc hcld to bc sharcd, r'ight and trongilctions iue not so rcliarded.r:(7o) 'Stoics consider thrt fiicndship should bc cultilatcd, since it fbllsLrrdcr thc citcgorJ of rhlt is hc\rful.+i'Sonrc sirl that in rr friendship theintcrcst ofone's fiiend till be as prccions to the $ise pcrson irs one's o\rn,though othcrs clxim thtlt one's o\\'n $ill bc morc prccious. l3ut elcn thesclittcr dcclue that it is incomprtible rrith justicc, f


24/25

On llotaI Enlsonlv to llonpi, but cvcn to harm,:rnothcr. \ol cirn onc conspirc or colluclcin a rrong sith onc's li'iencls rrr lrencfactors. Inclecd it is maintainecl lithutter selcritl rntl truth that lairness and utilitl ncccssxrilJ go hrrnd in hrnd.\\'hatcr cl is firil ancl just is irlso gxrd, rnd rpilin s hatelcl is piood is also justand fiir.l

(72) ''[ir thosc riltucs tr-e hare discusscd thcl aclcl logic rrnd phr sics.+t'Ihclcrrll thcm each rr r-irtr,lc: thc lirsf bcciruse it providcs ir mcthod 0fretsoning thrttgu:rrcls rg'rinst our irsscnting to tnl thing filsc an


25/25

BarL IIIs holc edificc to comc tumtrling dol n) N(,t that thcrc is anl thing here l hichcould possibll be altcretl.rs

(75) 'Hol dignilicd, hos notrle, ltol constant is rhc chalactcl of rhe l isepe|son drl$ n bl the Stoics! Rclson has sho$ n th:rt mor:rlin is thc onll goocl.'fhis bcing so, the s isc pcrson nust als irr s bc hlppl; rnd the truc posscssor'of all thosc titles l hich thc ig^nolant lor c to delidc: molc rightll "king" tban'l-alquinius, rlho las unable tr) rLLIe either himself or his subjccts; molclightll 'hastcr of the pcople " ( for that is n hrt a dictirtor is) than Sullrt, n hoNrs in fnct mistel of thlce lbul liccs lururlq grced Ltnd crue)t1; lnd richcrthrn Crissus, t-ho ttulcl nerer hr\e crossccl the llLphratcs sithout irnlprctc\t for \\'ir h:ld hc trull lacked nothing.+'l"fhe onc lho irlrne knots hot properll to use all things is the orrncr o1'Lrll things. Such a person uill lightlr be callcd beautiful too, sincc thc soul's

f-eatures iue morc bqrutifirl thirn those of the bodl; and uniquell fiec, thcserllnt of no n:rster, the sllr e of no appctite, tl ulJ unconquelablc. Thc s iscmal halc thcir bodl put in chrinst but rou lill nelcr chirin thcil soul. (76)The n-isc do not harc to s,ait rrnr-timc at all bcforc it can bc determincdshcthcr ther :rrc happl; ancl ther ccrtiliil\ hr\e no necrl to uait until dcathclo\{ns the llst clal of theil lifc, ls Solon, one ol the Scren \\'ise }Icn,unuisell adliscd (lrocsr.Ls. If Crocsus hld erer bcen happr, he soulcl harecalricd his hlppr lifc right thlough to the funcr;rl p1r'c thlt (i r us built.il)Soif it is thc case thlt no onc is hrppl c\ccpt thc !{ood, irnd that ill thc g-ood xrchrrppr, then philosophl is to bc cultiratcd irbole irll clsc, ancl r ittuc is thc mostcliline of all lrcsscssions.'lr Stoic phikxophr is hollstic in srr ucrurc; cach posirion crn ulrim.rtch bc undersrood (rrlt ir

rhc light of thc r holc sr sren. (l tenee thc Stoics .rc un:rli:rid to pur li,nurd chinrs r hich inisohiiur soLrnd odd; rhc\ rre eoniitlcnt rlrur rlithin rhc rlrcor\ ;rs r \rholc rhc\ $ill be secn rob( rruc trnd supportcd.)lr 'lhc Si(,ic positio| rhrt onlr the $isc, \inuous pcrson c.rn righth htr\c rscribc(l to him rhctttrcls rc nolnullt usc ofnon \irtu s Pcoplc; he is rhc onlr pcrsor rho is tich. rt king, rthouseh,)lder ind $)on. lhis i(ler ((lc\eloped rt lcngth in othcr sourccs) isroshoclusinto,$:r'!Dcss ol ho$ nnrch \e hil ro lrc r\,rrc of the distrncc ber\rccn thc icturl rnd the idr.rl:se crll $rcone r ling. ti,r e\irmplc, c\ en rhough he tirlls lhr sb(n t ol the rjrtues of .l good kirg.Hcrc ()to claims thrt rhc S()ic \irtuous pcrron is bencl cntitterl to bc callc(l r k;ng rh,rDL!cius larquiniusSupclbus(5.1+ iro),rlrcLrstlinsoll{r,nrc,\horrccordingtutrrdiri(,n\\,rsrhircnoutnrrhispridelDdcruelt\. lhc \irtuous Stoic is morc cnr;rlcd to bctlllcd'nrisler ofthc pcoplc'thin the acnr l dicr.rtor Lucius (inrclius Sulli Ir.lir (r-18 79). riho rulcil Ronterltcr r pe xl ofciril turnroil. inposing :rutoct:rric politic,rl ,rnLl rdminist|rtirc ct,Dscs (sccpf. \\\r-\r\\ i). Sull,r \.rs notofn,us iir the r iccs (:iro ntrnrcs hcre. rnd his reti)rnN serc notloDg hsting.'l hc \irruous Sll,ic;s nrorc cnritlcd ro bc ctrllrd rich rhttn drc poliriciJD IhrcusI-iciniLLs Cr.usus.l ho r ls notorious lbr his rc.rlth. iDd lbr lis rmbiti('n \ hich lccl to his rlcrtthin bdttle in ii (Scc bool, r' i7 ind norc {2 rbo\c.)i'r \ r'cfclcncc to tlic nrain points ofrhe stolr of(lroesus in Hcrotloms' 1lr/,, rr,r bool r. Sok)n.orc ol thc l:rblcd Sc\ cn \\ isc \lcn, \ri'rned Ci ocsus, Ihg of L1dia. not ro r:r,nsidcr himsclfhLrppluDtilhislilihadrcnchcditsrnd.Hcrc(litorcgrr-dsthis.rtlricrrshclpingtrrbringrboutOocsui rccklcss ch.rllcnge to the I'ersi.rns untlcr (l\r s, $ho dclelrcd hirn xncl rrs rbout roburn hin rlire s hen Or)esus' tclling ol his o$ D sior\ nrndc him rhinl belter of it.

cicero_on moral ends_bk iii copy

Documents