CHS AP Psychology

Unit 7 Part I : Memory (Cognition)

Essential Task 7.2:Outline principles that help improve memory functioning at each stage: encoding - attention, chunking, serial positioning effect, deep versus shallow processing, and rote rehearsal storage - decay theory, elaborative rehearsal, spacing effect, method of loci, and link method retrieval - retroactive interference, proactive interference

Storage: Retaining Information

Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown

below:

Sensory MemoriesThe shortest retention of all memory stores IF

not rehearsed. The duration of sensory memory varies for the

different senses.

Iconic0.5 sec. long

Echoic3-4 sec. long

Hepatic< 1 sec. long

Decay Theory

• The decay theory argues that the passage of time causes forgetting.

• The longer information is not accessed, increases the chances of forgetting it.

Working Memory

Working memory is the new name for short-term memory •has a limited capacity (7±2) •short duration (20 seconds)

When working on its own without help from the Long Term Memory (LTM)

Capacity

The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing

Information (1956).

George Miller

You should be able torecall 7±2 letters.

M U T G I K T L R S Y P

Duration

Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by

manipulating rehearsal.

CHJMKTHIJ547

547544541…

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The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.

Working Memory Duration

Long-Term Memory

Essentially unlimited capacity store.

The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches ofburied pine seeds during winter and spring.

Synaptic Changes

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to synaptic

enhancement after learning (Lynch,

2002). An increase in neurotransmitter

release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of

synapses.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

• LTP is the physical basis for learning:– Drugs that block LTP interfere with

learning– Mice engineered to lack an enzyme

needed for LTP can’t learn their way out of a maze

Stress Hormones & Memory

Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Flashbulb memories are clear memories

of emotionally significant moments or events

Types of Long Term Memory

• Explicit memory– Memory for information we can readily express

and are aware of having– This information can be intentionally recalled

– Episodic Memories - Memories for personal events in a specific time and place

– Semantic Memories - Memory for general facts and concepts not linked to a specific time

Types of Long Term Memory

• Implicit memory – Memory for information that we cannot readily

express and may not be aware of having– Cannot be intentionally retrieved

– Procedural memories: Motor skills and habits

– Emotional memories: Learned emotional responses to various stimuli

@#$!&@#$!&

HippocampusHippocampus – a neural center in the limbicsystem that processes explicit memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the operation but cannot make new memories. We call

this anterograde amnesia.

AnterogradeAmnesia

(HM)No New Memories

Surgery

Memory Intact

CerebellumCerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain

that processes implicit memories.

Maintaining Long-Term Memory

• Rote rehearsal– Repetition can result in long-term

memory– Only effective if there is intent to learn

material– Example: What does a penny look like?

Maintaining Long-Term Memory

• Elaborative rehearsal– Process of relating new information to

information already stored in memory– Meaning is assigned to new information

and then linked to as much existing knowledge as possible

Link Method

• First imagine a silly, memorable image that represents the type of list you want to remember. Also include in this image the first item on the list (see below for example). This image is your header for the list.

• Think of another silly, memorable image that links the first item on the list to the second item and so on.

Activity

• Close your eyes• Count the number of windows you

have in your house

Method of Loci (Places)

• Most of you used the method of Loci to “walk through” your house in your mind and count the windows

Retrieval

Retrieval: Getting Information Out

• Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store.

Measures of Memory

• Recognition: Identifying the item among other choices

• Recall: retrieve information with effort

• Relearning: the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time

Retrieval Cues

Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like

anchors that help retrieve memory.

Fire Truck

truck

red

fire

heatsmoke

smellwater

hose

Priming

To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first

activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming.

Where and when matters:Context Effects• Situational factors

– Recall of information is better if environment is the same as when information was learned

• State-dependent memory– Recall of information is better if person is in the

same physiological state as when information was learned

Déjà Vu

• Déjà Vu means “I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.

Parallel Processing

• Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon is when you can almost recall something, but can’t quite get it.

• If you leave it your brain will continue to work on this problem eventually surfacing with the answer.

• Thus you later yell out the name of the actor and everyone looks at you like you are odd.

Interference

• Retroactive interference– Occurs when new information interferes

with information already in memory– Retro means old– In this term the old information is being

tested– Thus the new information is doing the

interference.

Try remembering the following number

• 8132163• Ok that was easy because nothing

interfered with you.

Now let’s try some interference• 4982631• First, consistent with cognitive dissonance theories,

we are able to induce optimism or pessimism with the initial (random) wage assignment. With respect to the first-stage task, this implies that we can successfully manipulate one’s ability-beliefs in the lab. Secondly, subjects who received this low piece-rate in stage one were willing to accept significantly lower offers in a second-stage ultimatum game. This finding is striking, demonstrating the presence of both belief manipulation and spillovers of those beliefs into behavioral outcomes in an unrelated and distinct experimental environment.

Try remembering the following number

• 5614982• 92589386

Retroactive Interference

• The last two were examples of retro-active interference

• In each one, it was the OLD (retro) information that was being tested.

• The last trial was the hardest because it overloaded your modality.

• So, what type of music should you listen to when you write an essay?– Yep, music with NO LYRICS!

Retroactive Interference

Sleep helps prevent retroactive interference. Therefore, it leads to

better recall.

Interference

• Proactive interference– This is when new information is being tested.– The old information already in your LTM interferes. – It is tough to teach an experienced show dog new

tricks.– Psychologists have found that recall of later items can

be improved by making them distinctive from early items.

• For example, people being fed groups of numbers to remember did much better when they were suddenly fed a group of words instead. This is called release from proactive interference

I need a volunteer that knows their colors.

• Don’t read the words, just say the colors they’re printed in and as fast as you can

• This is called the stroop effect

RedYellowGreen

BlueRedBlue

YellowGreenBlueRed

Interference• When you look at the words you see

both its color and meaning.• When they are in conflict you must

make a choice• Experience has taught you that word

meaning is more important than color so you retrieve that information.

• You are not always in complete control of what you pay attention to.

Schemata

• A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about something based on past experience

• Incoming information is fit with existing schemata • Schemata can also influence the amount of

attention paid to a given event• Reconstruction

– Memories can be altered with each retrieval– We do this to keep the schemata of our self and our

environment